A cell is the fundamental, structural and

functional unit of all living organisms.

The invention of Compound and Electron

Microscopes revealed the structural details
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek: of the cell.
First observed and described a live cell.

Schleiden & Schwann

formulated the Cell
Theory.
Malthias Schleiden (1838) observed that plants are composed of cells.
Theodore Schwann (1839) reported that cells had a thin outer layer (plasma membrane).
He also found that plant cells have cell wall.
He proposed a hypothesis that animals and plants are composed of cells and products of
cells.
Rudolf Virchow (1855) explained that cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-
existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). He modified the cell theory.

➢All living organisms are composed of cells

and products of cells.
➢All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Rudolf Virchow

All cells contain

Cytoplasm: A semi-fluid matrix where cellular activities and chemical reactions occur. This
keeps the cell in ‘living state’.
Ribosomes: Non-membrane bound organelles found in cytoplasm, chloroplasts, mitochondria
and on rough ER.
Based on the functions, shape of cells may
be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid,
Smallest cells: Mycoplasmas (0.3 µm in thread like, or irregular.

length)
Largest isolated single cell: Egg of ostrich.
Longest cells: E.g. Nerve cell.
Size of bacteria: 3 to 5 µm.
Human RBCs: 7.0 µm in diameter.
 Cells are 2 types:
Prokaryotic cells & Eukaryotic cells

They have no membrane bound nucleus and

organelles.
Bacteria have 4 basic shapes:
They include bacteria, blue-green algae,
mycoplasma & PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Bacillus (rod like)
Like Organisms). Coccus (spherical)
They are generally smaller and multiply Vibrio (comma shaped)
more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells. Spirillum (spiral)
They vary in shape & size.

1. Cell envelope
2. Mesosome & Chromatophores
3. Nucleoid
4. Flagella
5. Pili and Fimbriae
6. Ribosomes
7. Inclusion Bodies
It is a chemically complex protective covering.
It is made of 3 tightly bound layers:
Glycocalyx
Cell wall
Plasma membrane

Glycocalyx:
Outer layer.
Its composition and thickness vary in
Plasma membrane:
different bacteria.
It may be a slime layer (loose sheath) or Inner layer.
capsule (thick & tough).
It is semi-permeable in nature and interacts
with the outside.

Cell wall: This is structurally similar to that of the

Middle layer. eukaryotes.
Seen in all prokaryotes.
It gives shape to the cell and provides a structural support to prevent the bacterium from
bursting or collapsing.

Based on the types of the cell envelopes and response to Gram staining, bacteria are 2 types:

Gram positive: They take up and retain the gram stain.

Gram negative: They do not retain the gram stain.

 Mesosome

It is formed by the infolding of plasma

membrane.
It includes vesicles, tubules & lamellae.

Functions of Mesosome

For cell wall formation.

For DNA (chromosome) replication.
For distribution of chromosomes to daughter
cells.
For respiration and secretion processes.
To increase the surface area of plasma
membrane and enzymatic content.

Chromatophores
These are membranous infoldings in some prokaryotes. E.g. cyanobacteria.

They contain pigments.

It is formed of non-membranous (naked)

circular genomic DNA (single chromosome/
Genetic material) & protein.
Many bacteria have small circular DNA
(plasmid) outside the genomic DNA. It gives
some unique phenotypic characters (e.g.
resistance to antibiotics) to bacteria.
These are thin filamentous extensions from
the cell wall of motile bacteria. Their number
and arrangement are varied in different
bacteria.
Bacterial flagellum has 3 parts: filament, hook
& basal body.
The filament is the longest portion and
extends from the cell surface to the outside.

These are surface structures that have no role in motility.

Pili (sing. Pilus) are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein (pilin).
Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell. In some bacteria, they help to
attach the bacteria to rocks in streams and to the host tissues.

They are associated with plasma membrane of prokaryotes.

They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size.
They are made of two subunits - 50S and 30S units. They together form 70S prokaryotic
ribosomes.
(S= sedimentation coefficient; a measure of density & size).

Function of Ribosomes

Ribosomes are the site of

translation (protein synthesis).

Several ribosomes may attach to

a single mRNA to form a chain
called polyribosomes (polysome).
Ribosomes of a polysome
translate the mRNA into proteins.
 These are non-membranous, stored reserve material seen freely in the cytoplasm of
prokaryotic cells.
E.g. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules, gas vacuoles etc.
Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.

They have well organized membrane bound

nucleus and organelles
Presence of membranes gives clear
compartmentalization of cytoplasm.
They have complex locomotory & cytoskeletal
structures.
Their genetic material is organized into
chromosomes.

1.Cell membrane
2.Cell wall
3.Endomembrane system (Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles)
4.Mitochondria
5.Plastids
6.Ribosomes
7.Cytoskeleton
8.Cilia and Flagella
9.Centrosome and Centrioles
10.Nucleus
11.Microbodies
Chemical studies on human RBCs show that the cell membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer,
protein & carbohydrate.
Lipids (mainly phosphoglycerides) have outer polar head and inner hydrophobic tails. So the non-
polar tail of saturated hydrocarbons is protected from aqueous environment.

Ratio of protein and lipid

varies in different cells. E.g.
In human RBC, membrane
has 52% protein & 40%
lipids.
Based on the ease of
extraction, membrane
proteins are 2 types:

Integral proteins:
Partially or totally
buried in membrane.
Peripheral proteins:
Lie on the surface of
membrane.

Proposed by Singer & Nicolson (1972).

According to this, the quasi-fluid nature

of lipid enables lateral movement of
proteins within the overall bilayer.

This ability to move within the

membrane is measured as its fluidity.
 Functions:

Transport of the molecules. The membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules

present on either side of it.
Due to the fluid nature, plasma membrane can help in cell growth, formation of intercellular
junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc.
Types of Transport

Passive transport
Active transport

Movement of molecules across the

membrane along the
concentration gradient (i.e., from
higher concentration to the lower)
without the expenditure of energy.

It is 2 types:

Simple diffusion: Movement

of neutral solutes across the
membrane.

Osmosis: Movement of water

by diffusion across the
membrane.

Polar molecules cannot pass through the non-polar lipid bilayer. So they require membrane
carrier protein for their transport (Facilitated diffusion).

Movement of molecules across the membrane against the concentration gradient (i.e. from
lower to the higher concentration) with the expenditure of energy (ATP is utilized).

E.g. Na+/K+ pump.

It is a non-living rigid structure found outer
to the plasma membrane of fungi and
plants.

Cell wall of Algae is made of cellulose,

galactans, mannans & minerals like CaCO3.

In other plants, it consists of cellulose,

hemicellulose, pectins & proteins.

Cell wall of a young plant cell (primary

wall) is capable of growth. It gradually
diminishes as the cell matures and the
secondary wall is formed on the inner side
(towards membrane).

The middle lamella is a layer mainly of

calcium pectate. It glues the different
neighbouring cells together.

The cell wall and middle lamellae may be

traversed by plasmodesmata which
connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring
cells.
Functions
It gives shape to the cell.

It protects the cell from mechanical

damage & infection.

It helps in cell-to-cell interaction.

It acts as barrier to undesirable

macromolecules.
 It is a group of membranous organelles
having coordinated functions.
They include
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Golgi complex
Lysosomes
Vacuoles

These are a network of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.

ER divides the intracellular space into 2 compartments: luminal (inside ER) & extra luminal
(cytoplasm).
ER is 2 types: Rough & Smooth.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): Bear ribosomes on their surface. RER is frequently
observed in the cells actively involved in protein synthesis and secretion. They are extensive
and continuous with the outer membrane of nucleus.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): Ribosomes are absent. It is the major site for synthesis
of lipid. In animal cells, lipid-like steroidal hormones are synthesized in SER.
Densely stained reticular structures near nucleus.
First observed by Camillo Golgi (1898).
They consist of flat, disc-shaped sacs (cisternae) of 0.5- 1.0 mm diameter. These are stacked
parallel to each other.
Cisternae are concentrically arranged with convex cis (forming) face and concave trans
(maturing) face. Cis & trans faces are totally different, but interconnected.

Function of Golgi apparatus

Secretes materials to the intra-cellular targets or outside the cell. Materials to be packaged as
vesicles from the ER fuse with the cis face and move towards the trans face. This is why Golgi
apparatus remains in close association with the ER.
Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the ER are modified in the cisternae of the Golgi
apparatus before they are released from its trans face.
Formation of glycoproteins & glycolipids.

Membrane-bound vesicular structures formed by the process of packaging in the Golgi

apparatus.

Lysosomal vesicles contain almost all types of hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases– lipases,
proteases, carbohydrases). They are active at the acidic pH. They digest carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
These are the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm.
It contains water, sap, excretory product and other materials not useful for the cell.
Vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy up to 90% of the volume of the cell.

In plants, tonoplast facilitates the transport of ions and other

materials against concentration gradients into the vacuole.
Hence their concentration is higher in vacuole than in the
cytoplasm.
In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole helps for excretion.
In many cells (e.g. protists), food vacuoles are formed by
engulfing the food particles.

These are clearly visible only when stained.

Their number, shape and size per cell are variable depending on the physiological activity.
It is sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of 0.2-1.0 mm (average 0.5 mm) and length 1.0-
4.1 mm.

A mitochondrion is a double membrane-

bound structure with outer membrane and
inner membrane. It divides lumen into 2
aqueous compartments, i.e., outer
compartment and inner compartment
(matrix).
Inner membrane forms a number of infoldings
(cristae) towards the matrix. They increase
surface area.
The two membranes have their own specific enzymes associated with the mitochondrial function.
Matrix possesses a circular DNA, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes (70S) and components for protein
synthesis.
The mitochondria divide by fission.
Function: Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. They produce energy in the form of ATP.
So they are called ‘power houses’ of the cell.
These are found in all plant cells and in
euglenoides.
Large sized. Easily observable under the
microscope.
They contain some pigments.

Based on the type of pigments, plastids are 3

types:
Chloroplasts
Chromoplasts
Leucoplasts

Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments. They trap light energy for
photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts: Contain fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls etc. This
gives a yellow, orange or red colour.
Leucoplasts: These are colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes with stored nutrients.
They include:

Amyloplasts: Store starch. E.g. potato.

Elaioplasts: Store oils and fats.
Aleuroplasts: Store proteins.

These are double membrane bound organelles mainly found

in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
These are lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or ribbon-like
organelles.
Length: 5-10 mm. Width: 2-4 mm.
Their number varies from 1 (e.g. Chlamydomonas, a green
alga) to 20-40 per cell in the mesophyll.
Inner membrane of chloroplast is less permeable.
The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma. It contains a number
of organized flattened membranous sacs called thylakoids.
Membrane of thylakoids encloses a space called lumen.
Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids.

Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana or the

intergranal thylakoids.
There are flat membranous tubules called the stroma
lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the different grana.
The stroma contains small, double-stranded circular DNA
molecules, ribosomes and enzymes for the synthesis of
carbohydrates and proteins.
The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S) than the
cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).

These are the non-membranous granular structures

composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.

George Palade First observed ribosome in 1953.

Eukaryotic ribosome has 2 subunits- 60S (large subunit) and 40S (small subunit).
They together form 80S.

It is a network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the cytoplasm.

It provides mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell etc.

They are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.

Cilia: Small structures which work like oars. Causes the movement of cell or surrounding
fluid.

Flagella: Longer. Responsible for cell movement. Flagella of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
are structurally different.

Cilium and flagellum are covered with plasma

membrane.

Their core (axoneme) has many microtubules

running parallel to the long axis.

Axoneme has 9 pairs of doublets of radially

arranged peripheral microtubules, and a pair of
central microtubules. This is called 9+2 array.
The central tubules are connected by bridges
and are enclosed by a central sheath. It is
connected to one of the tubules of each
peripheral doublet by a radial spoke. Thus,
there are 9 radial spokes.

The peripheral doublets are also

interconnected by linkers.

Cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole-

like structure called the basal bodies.

Centrosome is an organelle containing two non-membrane bound cylindrical structures called

centrioles.
They are surrounded by pericentriolar materials.
The centrioles lie perpendicular to each other. They are made up of 9 evenly spaced peripheral
fibrils of tubulin.
Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet. The adjacent triplets are also linked.

The central part of the centriole

is also proteinaceous and called
the hub, which is connected
with tubules of the peripheral
triplets by radial spokes made
of protein.

The centrioles form the basal

body of cilia or flagella, and
spindle fibres that give rise to
spindle apparatus during cell
division in animal cells.
Nucleus was first described by Robert Brown
(1831).
The material of the nucleus stained by the basic dyes
was given the name chromatin by Flemming.
Normally, a cell has only one nucleus. Some cells
have more than one. Some mature cells lack nucleus.
E.g. mammalian RBC and sieve tube cells of vascular
plants.

Robert Brown

Walther Flemming

The interphase nucleus contains

Nuclear envelope
Nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm)
Chromatin
Nucleolus

Double layered membrane with a space between (10 -

50 nm) called the perinuclear space.
It is a barrier between the materials in the nucleus and
cytoplasm.
Outer membrane usually continuous with the ER and
also bears ribosomes on it.
Nuclear envelope has minute pores formed by the fusion
of its two membranes. These are the passages for the
movement of RNA and protein between nucleus and
cytoplasm.
A network of nucleoprotein
fibres.

It contains DNA and basic

proteins (histones), non-histone
proteins and RNA. Perinuclear
space

During cell division, chromatins

condense to form chromosomes.

One or more non-membranous spherical bodies.

It is continuous with the nucleoplasm.

It is a site for ribosomal RNA synthesis.

A human cell has about 2 m long DNA distributed among its 46

(23 pairs) chromosomes.

Every chromosome has a primary constriction (centromere) on

the sides of which disc shaped structures called kinetochores are
present.
Based on the position of centromere, chromosomes are 4 types:
Metacentric chromosome: Middle centromere forming two equal arms of the
chromosome.
Sub-metacentric chromosome: Centromere is nearer to one end forming one shorter
arm and one longer arm.
Acrocentric chromosome: Centromere is close to its end forming one very short and one
very long arm.
Telocentric chromosome: Terminal centromere.

Some chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location. It is

called satellite.

These are membrane bound

minute vesicles that contain
various enzymes.

Present in both plant and

animal cells.
 Plant cell Animal cell
Cell wall present Absent
Plastids are present Absent

A large central vacuole Many small vacuoles

Centrioles are absent Present

 Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
Generally smaller Larger
Genetic material is in the
In the form of nucleus
form of nucleoid
Nuclear membrane is
Present
absent
Membrane bound
Present
organelles absent
Circular DNA Linear DNA
80 S type (70 S in plastids
Ribosomes are 70 S type
& mitochondria)