Communication

Systems

Chapter 5
Continuous Wave Modulation
Exponential CW Modulation
Dr. Le Dang Quang
Department of Telecommunications (113B3)
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Email: ldquang@hcmut.edu.vn

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 Chapter Outline

5.1 Exponential CW Modulation

5.2 FM & PM modulators
5.3 FM & PM detection

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 Linear versus Exponential Modulations

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5.1 Exponential CW
Modulation

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 Exponential Modulation
Consider modulated carrier having a constant amplitude and a time
varying phase. General representation is:

Here Θc(t) is the total instantaneous angle.

Information resides in 𝜃𝑐 (𝑡), hence can be termed either angle modulation

or exponential modulation.

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 Phase modulation (PM)

Here Δ is the phase deviation.

Instantaneous angle depends on the modulated signal. The maximum
phase shift is Δ ≤ 180 (| x(t) | ≤ 1).

Instantaneous frequency:

where

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 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Instantaneous frequency in frequency modulation is

Here fΔ is the frequency deviation.

The phase is:

It is usually assumed d that (t0) = 0, and thus, the waveform of the FM

modulated signal is given by

It has to be assumed that the message has no DC component such that the
integral converges when t→∞. The DC component of x(t) causes a
frequency shift for the carrier and the amount of the shift is fΔ x(t).

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 Phase and Frequency Modulation
It is difficult to distinguish FM and PM signals from their waveforms. In
both case, the amplitude is constant. The information message resides in
the zerocrossings.

The power of the FM and PM modulated signals is always:

Despite of the similarities, FM modulation works better in noisy conditions.

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 Phase and Frequency Modulation
It can be seen from the equation of the instantaneous frequency of the FM
modulation that the output signal of the demodulator in the receiver is
proportional to the deviation. It can be increased without changing the
transmission power. Consequently, in FM system the S/N ratio can be
increased independent on the transmission power. However, this
increases the transmission bandwidth.

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 Phase and Frequency Modulation

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 Narrowband PM and FM
The frequency-domain analysis of the exponential modulation methods
can not be done analytically in general case. Therefore, we consider
first the narrowband case (i.e., narrow signal bandwidth), and then the
tone modulation in narrowband and wideband cases.

Consider a signal that is exponential modulated, by using the phase and

quadrature components:

where

If we assume that (t) << 1 rad, then:

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 Narrowband PM and FM
In this case, the relationship between the spectra of the modulating and
modulated signals is easy to find:

where

It can be seen that the bandwidth of the narrowband FM and PM

modulated signals is 2W (W is the bandwidth of the message signal). The
abbreviations NBFM and NBPM are used for these kind of modulations.

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 Narrowband PM and FM
Example of Narrowband FM and PM Modulations

The spectra of modulated signals: PM (left), FM (right) when 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐2𝑊𝑡

The spectra correspond to the spectra of AM signals. Especially, the amplitude

spectrum of the NBPM-signals is the same than the amplitude spectrum of the
AM signal with the same message signal (and with a proper modulation index).

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 Narrowband Tone Modulation
Consider FM and PM modulations when the modulating signal is sinusoidal:

Then

β is the modulation index (it represents the maximum phase deviation and
it is proportional to the tone amplitude). The exponential modulated signal is:

In narrowband tone modulation β << 1 and thus (from Taylor expansion):

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 Narrowband Tone Modulation

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 Wideband Tone Modulation

It can be shown that:

where Jn(β) are Bessel functions of the first kind:

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 Wideband Tone Modulation
The modulated signal can be rewritten in the form:

By using the fact J-n(β) = (−1)nJn (β), we end up with

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 FM Wideband Tone Modulation
Line spectrum of FM with wideband tone modulation:

In principle, the spectrum continues to +/- infinity. It consists of a carrier-

frequency line plus an infinite number of sideband lines at frequencies
ωc± nωm. All lines are equally spaced by the modulating frequency, and
the odd-order lower sidebands are in reverse phase (inverted) relative to
the unmodulated carrier.

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 FM Wideband Tone Modulation
Phasor Diagram:

The odd-order pairs have a

resultant in quadrature with the
carrier  this provides the desired
frequency modulation + some
unwanted amplitude modulation.

The even-order pairs have a

resultant collinear with the carrier
 this corrects the amplitude
variations.

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 Multitone Modulation
Consider:

where

The procedure can be extended to more than 2 tones.

Spectral lines of 𝑥𝑐 (𝑡):

❑ Carrier line of amplitude 𝐴𝑐 𝐽0 𝛽1 𝐽0 𝛽2
❑ Sideband lines at 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑛𝑓1 due to 𝑓1 alone
❑ Sideband lines at 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑚𝑓2 due to 𝑓2 alone
❑ Sideband lines at 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑛𝑓1 + 𝑚𝑓2

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 Multitone Modulation
The case f1 << f2, β1 >> β2  the double-tone line spectrum is plotted
below:

Note: under the above conditions, each sideband line at ωc ± mω2 looks
like another FM carrier with tone modulation of frequency ω1.

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Periodic Modulation: Pulse-Train FM Modulation
In the figure:

(See Example 5.1-3, p. 198, [1])

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 Bessel Functions
Recall that the wideband tone modulated
signal can be written as:

The carrier J0(β) term varies with modulation

index, and it also carries the message
information. For some value of β it is equal
to zero.

The number of essential sideband lines

depends on β.

The bandwidth is wide for large values of

β.

The spectrum decreases monotonically

when n/β > 1, especially when β >> 1. Back

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 Bessel Functions

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FM Signal Bandwidth–Wideband Tone Modulation
In principle, FM signal has an infinite wide spectrum. In practice, the
bandwidth has to be limited. This causes nonlinear distortion in detected
signal. The amount of distortion is proportional to the used bandwidth.

In the following, some criteria are given for the needed bandwidth, in such
a way that the distortion would not be significant.

Because the analysis can not be done for general case, a sinusoidal is used
as a modulating signal.

The modulating signal is thus:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡
The essential question is therefore: What are the significant spectral lines
around the carrier? These lines are at frequencies:

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FM Signal Bandwidth–Wideband Tone Modulation
It was noted that the values of Jn(β) decrease fast when |n| > β, especially
when β >> 1. Thus the significant spectral lines are determined from the
condition:

Consequently, the needed frequency range is fc ± βfm = fc ± AmfΔ. Usually,

only few components are needed outside this range.

For all the cases (i.e., even if β ≤ 1), the closest spectral spikes to the
carrier should be taken into consideration, that is the case where n = ± 1.

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FM Signal Bandwidth–Wideband Tone Modulation
Let’s define that the spectral lines for which |Jn(β)| > ε are significant (i.e.,
the number of significant sidebands).

In practical applications 0.01 < ε < 0.1.

Let’s define the function M(β) > 1 in such a way that JM(β) ≥ ε and
JM+1(β) < ε .

The bandwidth is thus:

Based on practical experiments:

ε = 0.1 is often with noticeable distortion
ε = 0.01 is sufficient for all the cases, but is usually loose.
When β ≥ 2, the chose M(β) = β+2 is within these limits and has turned
out to be a good criterion.

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FM Signal Bandwidth–Wideband Tone Modulation

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FM Signal Bandwidth–Wideband Tone Modulation
Maximum Bandwidth in Tone Modulation:
For tone modulation, the worst-case situation with respect to the
bandwidth is the case where the frequency and amplitude have the
maximum values (maximum-amplitude maximum-frequency tone):
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑚 = 1

In this case, the bandwidth is (assuming that β ≥ 2):

Note: This case does not correspond to the maximum modulation index β.
Any other tone having fm < W and/or Am < 1 will require less bandwidth
even though β may be larger.

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 FM Signal Bandwidth
Maximum Bandwidth of FM Signal:
In the general case, the bandwidth of arbitrary modulating signals (amplitude
≤ 1, bandwidth W) is usually not greater than the above mentioned
maximum bandwidth of the tone modulation. Therefore, this can be
considered as a criterion for determining the bandwidth of an FM signal.

Then, we deal with deviation ratio D instead of modulation index β:

And the bandwidth can be written as a function of the deviation:

𝐵𝑇 = 2𝑀 𝐷 𝑊

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 FM Signal Bandwidth
Different approximations are used for function M(D) (which is the same
as M(β) above):

▪ Often D is in the range 2 < D < 10 and the approximation above

M(D) = D + 2 gives the best result. Then

▪ Carson's rule is also often mentioned:

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 PM Signal Bandwidth
The above rules also apply to PM modulation if we replace the deviation
D with the maximum phase deviation Δ. Necessary bandwidth for PM
modulation is then:

This is different than for FM modulation in the sense that Δ is

independent of the bandwidth W.

Note: when the signal has discontinuities (e.g., a rectangular pulse

train), the above estimates of the necessary bandwidth become invalid.

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5.2 Modulators

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 Generation and Detection of FM
Next we will consider:
▪ the effect of linear filtering for FM signal
▪ the effect of nonlinear elements for FM signal
▪ FM modulation methods
▪ FM detection
Here we mainly consider FM modulation, but most of the results can be
also used for PM modulation.
The constant amplitude property of PM and FM modulation is a great
advantage compared to the linear modulation methods.
We will see that nonlinear elements do not cause problems for
exponential modulations. Therefore, nonlinear amplifiers can be used in
the transmitter, which have much better efficiency than linear amplifiers.
In addition, the peak power of FM transmitters is equal to the average
power.

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Distortion of FM Signals Caused by Linear Filtering

This is very difficult to analyse in closed form and in general case. We

consider the case where the amplitude and phase response depend
linearly on the frequency  linear distortion. Then, one can show that:

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Distortion of FM Signals Caused by Linear Filtering
It can be seen that in the envelope of FM signal, there is an additional
message-dependent AM component with modulation index μ = K1 fΔ /K0fc.
Here t0 is the carrier delay and t1 is the envelope delay.

As it will be seen, AM component can be attenuated before the detection.

However, it is assumed that the attenuation is not so high in the frequency
band of the FM signal, so that it won't decrease the S/N ratio.

The delay terms t0 and t1 do not cause any problems. Nonlinear phase
response, however, would be a problem and it would cause distortion to
the detected signal.

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Distortion of FM Signals Caused by Linear Filtering
Hard Limiter:
Due to filtering  AM components. Therefore, we need to remove these
AM components  The limiter (or clipper) is used to remove AM
components before detection:

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Distortion of FM Signals Caused by Linear Filtering
Effect of Nonlinearities, Limiter and Frequency Multiplier:
The limiter and other memoryless nonlinear elements cause harmonics in
the frequencies ± nfc. In the general case, the output signal of exponential
modulation is:

Extra harmonics can be attenuated by filtering.

Amplitude limiter preserves the fundamental frequency:

The frequency multiplier preserves some of the harmonics:

Then the frequency and phase deviation increases n times higher. This is
utilized in some FM modulators.

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 FM Modulators
Such kind of circuits are needed where the phase or the frequency of the
modulated signal depends linearly on the modulating signal.

1. Direct FM Modulator
Conceptually, a direct FM requires only a Voltage Controlled Oscillator
(VCO) whose oscillation frequency has a linear dependence on the
applied (input) voltage.

The implementation can be based on

▪ tube ( fc ≥ 1 GHz)
▪ semiconductors (varactors)

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 FM Modulators
VCO Circuit with Varactor Diode:

Advantages:
▪ a large deviation can be implemented directly
▪ simple implementation
Disadvantages:
▪ it is difficult to stabilize the carrier frequency (carrier frequency
tends to drift)

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 FM Modulators

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 FM Modulators
2. Indirect FM Modulator

In practice, the frequency multiplier is implemented in cascade where

each stage has a factor of 2 or 3.

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 Phase Modulators
Although we seldom transmit a PM wave, we are still interested in phase
modulators because:
▪ the implementation is relatively easy
▪ the carrier can be supplied by a stable frequency source, such as a
crystal-controlled oscillator
▪ PM modulators can be used to generate FM modulators:
integrating the input signal to a phase modulator produces a
frequency modulated output.

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 Phase Modulators
❑ Narrowband Phase Modulation
NBPM is easy to implement. It is needed as a part of FM modulator.
(a) Implementation based on the narrowband approximation

Assumption:

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 Phase Modulators
(b) Switching-circuit NBPM modulator: (for large phase shifts)

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5.3 Detectors

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 FM Detection
The task of a frequency detector (i.e. discriminator) is to produce an
output voltage that is linearly dependent on the instantaneous frequency.
Frequency detector categories are:
▪ FM-AM-conversion
▪ Phase-shift discriminator (quadrature detector)
▪ Zero-crossing detection
▪ Phase locked loop (PLL)

Note: Analog PM detection is not discussed here because it is seldom

needed in practice and, if needed, can be accomplished by integrating the
output of a FM detector.

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 FM Detection
❑ FM - AM conversion
FM-AM conversion is produced by a transfer function having
magnitude (amplitude) distortion, as, for example, the time
derivative

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 FM Detection

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 FM Detection
The limiter is needed to remove any spurious
amplitude variation from the received signal.

LPF is used to remove waveform discontinuities

after the limiter.

Extended linearity can be achieved by a balanced

discriminator. A balanced discriminator consists
of two tuned circuits, one below and one above the
carrier frequency. This results in a wider linear
range in the amplitude curve.

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 FM Detection
❑ FM Detection Based on Zero-Crossings

. After DC block:

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 Interference
Interference is caused e.g., by signals from other stations or cross-talk
between cables. So there might be two (or more) signals from a human
source. Interference can be categorized as follows
▪ co-channel interference (same carrier frequency)
▪ adjacent channel interference (neighbour carrier frequency)

Lets consider the case, where the desired signal is unmodulated carrier:

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 Interference
❑ Additive Interference in Unmodulated Carrier

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 Interference
If ρ << 1 then

If ρ >> 1 then

Put v(t) in the form:

For ρ << 1, interference can cause tone modulation at frequency fi

with amplitude modulation (modulation index  = ρ) and frequency
modulation or phase modulation (modulation index  = ρ).
For ρ >> 1, interference still cause tone modulation at frequency fi
with amplitude modulation (modulation index  = ρ-1) but the phase
corresponds to a shifted carrier frequency fc + fi plus the constant i.

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 Interference
❑ Additive Interference for the Demodulated Signal
For different modulation methods, the detected signal is (here i = 0 and
fi ≤ W, ρ << 1):

▪ In AM and PM a tone interference produces a tone to reception

whose amplitude is comparable to ρ.
▪ In FM, the interference is more severe the more distant the
interfering tone is from the carrier (adjacent channel interference).
▪ On the other hand, it can be seen that FM is much better that AM or
PM when the disturbing frequency is close to the carrier frequency
(co-channel interference).

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 FM Capture Effect
Capture effect is a phenomenon that takes place in FM systems, when
there are two FM modulated signals in the same channel and the
amplitude of these signals is nearly the same.

The stronger dominates or “captures” the output (annoying results

when listening to a distant FM station). When the strengths of the two FM
signals begin to be nearly the same, the capture effect may cause the
signals to alternate in their domination of the frequency. Small variations
in the relative amplitude levels cause sudden change in the station.

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 De-emphasis and Pre-emphasis
In FM detection, there is usually more interference in the higher
frequency than lower frequency (this applies also to noise). These high
frequencies of the interferer can at times be larger in amplitude than the
high-frequency content of the modulating signal.

This can be compensated by using de-emphasis (e.g., a LPF) after the

detection. De-emphasis has to be compensated by pre-emphasis before
FM modulation.

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 De-emphasis and Pre-emphasis
The goal is that when |f | ≤ W. Usually 1st degree
transfer functions are used:

Pre-emphasizer filter acts as a differentiator at high frequencies (HPF),

the output spectrum being proportional with fX(f) for | f | >> B .
Differentiating a signal before FM is equivalent with PM modulation 
pre-emphasized FM is actually a combination of PM and FM, combining
the advantages of both with respect to interference.

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 De-emphasis and Pre-emphasis

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 De-emphasis and Pre-emphasis

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 Exercises

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 Sol 5.1-1

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 Sol 5.1-2

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 Exercises

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 Exercises

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Telecomm. Dept. CS-2016
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Câu 4 (3đ): Cho tín hiệu đơn tần cần điều chế
x(t) = 0.4cos4πt (t:ms) và sóng mang 10sin40πt (t:ms).

a. Tín hiệu x(t) được điều chế biên độ (AM) với hệ số điều chế μ=2. Vẽ
dạng sóng của tín hiệu sau điều chế.
Tìm điều kiện của hệ số điều chế để có thể sử dụng bộ tách sóng đường
bao trong trường hợp cụ thể với tín hiệu và sóng mang như trên.

b. Tín hiệu x(t) được điều chế hai biên triệt sóng mang (DSB). Tính công
suất của tín hiệu sau điều chế.
c. Tín hiệu x(t) được điều chế biên trên (USSB). Vẽ phổ của tín hiệu sau
điều chế.

d. Tín hiệu x(t) được điều chế tần số (FM) với độ di tần fΔ= 5KHz. Vẽ phổ
biên độ (tần số dương) của tín hiệu sau điều chế.

e. Tín hiệu x(t) được điều chế pha (PM) với độ di pha φΔ= 100o. Ước
lượng băng thông truyền BT theo tiêu chuẩn Carson của tín hiệu sau điều
chế.
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