UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVITALISATION

PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

TECHNICAL DRAWING
COURSE CODE: MEC 101
YEAR I- SE MESTER I

THEORY/PRACTICAL

Version 1: December 2008

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS

WEEK 1

1.0: INTRODUCTION
1.1: INTRODUCTION TO DRAWING EQUIPMENTS
1.1.1: T-SQUARE
1.1.2: SET SQUARE
1.1.3: COMPASS
1.1.4: DRAWING TABLE
1.1.5: IRREGULAR CURVES (FRENCH CURVES)
1.1.6: PROTRACTOR
1.1.7: DRAWING PENCIL:
1.1.8: ERASER:
1.2: LINES
1.2.1: LINES AND LINE STYLES
1.2.2: LINE THICKNESS
1.2.3: LINE STYLES
1.2.4: BREAK LINES
1.2.5: LEADERS
1.2.6: DATUM LINES
1.2.7: PHANTOM LINES
1.2.8: STITCH LINES
1.2.9: CENTER LINES
1.2.10: EXTENSION LINES
1.2.11: OUTLINES OR VISIBLE LINES
1.2.12: CUTTING-PLANE/VIEWING-PLANE LINES
1.2.13: HIDDEN LINES
1.2.14: SECTIONING LINES
1.2.15: DIMENSION LINES
1.3: DIMENSIONING - AN OVERVIEW
1.3.1: PARALLEL DIMENSIONING
 1.3.2: SUPERIMPOSED RUNNING DIMENSIONS
1.3.3: CHAIN DIMENSIONING
1.3.4: COMBINED DIMENSIONS
1.3.5: DIMENSIONING BY CO-ORDINATES
1.3.6: SIMPLIFIED DIMENSIONING BY CO-ORDINATES
1.3.7: DIMENSIONING SMALL FEATURES
1.3.8: DIMENSIONING CIRCLES
1.3.9: DIMENSIONING HOLES
1.3.10: DIMENSIONING RADII
1.3.11: SPHERICAL DIMENSIONS
1.3.12: TOLERANCE
1.4: LINE STYLES
1.5: TASK SHEET 1

WEEK 2

2.1: PLANNING YOUR ENGINEERING DRAWING

2.2: LAYOUT OF DRAWING PAPER
2.3: COMMON INFORMATION RECORDED ON THE TITLE
BLOCK
2.4. TITLE BLOCK SAMPLE
2.5: DRAWING SHEETS/PAPERS
2.6 : DRAWING SCALES
2.7: LETTERING METHOD
2.8: TASK SHEET 2

WEEK 3

3.1: GEOMETRICAL DRAWINGS

3.2: STRAIGHT LINES AND ANGLES
3.3: TRIANGLE
3.4: TASK SHEET 3
WEEK 4

3.5: QUADRILATERALS
3.5.1. SQUARE
3.5.2. RECTANGLE
3.5.3. PARALLELOGRAM
3.5.4. RHOMBUS
3.5.5 TRAPEZIUM
3.5.6. TRAPEZOID
3.6: CONSTRUCTION OF QUADRILATERALS
3.7: CIRCLES
3.7.1: TYPES OF CIRCLES
3.7.2: PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE
3.7.3: CONSTRUCTION INVOLVING CIRCLES
3.8: TASK SHEET 4

WEEK 5

3.7.3: CONSTRUCTIONS INVOLVING CIRCLES

4.0: TANGENCY
4.1: CONSTRUCTION OF TANGENT
5.0: POLYGONS
5.1: CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGONS
5.2: TASK SHEET 5

WEEK 6

6.0 ELLIPSE:
6.1 PROPERTIES OF AN ELLIPSE
6.2 CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE USING CONCENTRIC
CIRCLES METHOD
 6.3 CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE USING RECTANGULAR
METHOD
6.4 CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE USING TRAMMEL METHOD
6.5 CONSTRUCTION OF NORMAL AND THE TANGENT TO AN
ELLIPSE, AND TO FIND THE FOCI.
6.7 TASK SHEET 6

WEEK 7

7.0 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION:

7.1 HOW TO DRAW IN ISOMETRIC PROJECTION:
7.2 TASK SHEET 7

WEEK 8

8.0 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

8.1 THREE VIEW OF AN OBJECT IN FIRST AND THIRD ANGLE
PROJECTIONS
8.2 THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE SIX VIEW OF AN OBJECT
8.3 ONE POINT PERSPECTIVE
8.4 TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE
8.5 THREE POINT PERSPECTIVE
8.6 TASK SHEET 8.1

WEEK 9

8.7 MULTI-VIEWS DRAWING USING 1ST & 3RD ANGLE OF

PROJECTION
8.7.1 MULTI VIEWS PROJECTION
8.8 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 1ST & 3RD ANGLE OF
PROJECTION
8.8.1 FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION
 8.8.2 THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION
8.9 TASK SHEET 8.2

WEEK 10

9.0 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS USED ON MECHANICAL

AND ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 TECHNICAL DRAWING SYMBOLS
9.3 MECHANICAL CONVENTIONS
9.4 ELECTRICAL CONVENTIONS
9.5 LINES AND BLOCK DIAGRAMS
9.5.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM METHOD
9.5.2 LINE DIAGRAM METHOD
9.6 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
9.7 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
9.8 PNEUMATIC SYMBOLS
9.9 TASK 10

WEEK 11

10.0 MISSING VIEW IN ORTHOGRAPHIC

10.1 FIRST ANGLE OF PROJECTION:
10.2 THIRD ANGLE OF PROJECTION
10.3 TASK SHEET 11

WEEK 12

11.0 FREE HAND SKETCH

11.1 INTRODUCTION:
11.2 GENERAL NOTES BEFORE SKETCHING:
11.3 TASK SHEET 12

WEEK 13
 12.0 SKETCHING THE VIEWS FROM AN ACTUAL OBJECT
12.1 OBLIQUE SKETCHING
12.2 TASK SHEET 13

WEEK 14

13.0 INTERSECTION AND DEVELOPMENT

13.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SOLID WITH INTERPENETRATION
13.2 TWO DISSIMILAR SQUARE PRISMS MEETING AT RIGHT
ANGLES.
13.3 TWO DISSIMILAR SQUARE PRISMS MEETING AT AN
ANGLE.
13.4 TWO DISSIMILAR HEXAGONAL PRISMS MEETING AT AN
ANGLE.
13.5 TWO DISSIMILAR CYLINDERS MEETING AT RIGHT
ANGLES.
13.6 TWO DISSIMILAR CYLINDERS MEETING AT AN ANGLE.
13.7 TASK SHEET 14

WEEK 15

14.0 DEVELOPMENT
14.1 TASK SHEET 15
WEEK1:

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Technical drawing is concerned mainly with using lines, circles, arcs etc., to illustrate general
configuration of an object, however, it is very important that the drawing produced to be
accurate and clear.

The ability to read and understand drawings is a skill that is very crucial for technical
education students; this text aims at helping students to gain this skill in a simple and realistic
way, and gradually progressed through drawing and interpreting different level of
engineering drawings.

Some basic equipments are necessary in order to learn drawing, here are the main ones.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DRAWING EQUIPMENTS

1.1.1:T-SQUARE
A T-square is a technical drawing instrument primarily
guides for drawing horizontal lines on a drafting table,
it also used to guide the triangle that is used to draw
vertical lines. The name “T-square” comes from the
general shape of the instrument where the horizontal (Fig.1.1)
member of the T slides on the side of the drafting table.
(Fig.1.1)

1.1.2: SET SQUARE

A set square or triangle is a tool used to draw straight
vertical lines at a particular planar angle to a baseline. The
most common form of Set Square is a triangular piece of
transparent plastic with the centre removed. The outer
edges are typically beveled. These set squares come in two
forms, both right triangles: one with 90-45-45 degree
angles, and the other with 90-60-30 degree angles.
(Fig.1.2)

(Fig.1.2)

1.1.3: COMPASS
Compasses are usually made of metal, and consist of two parts connected by a hinge which
can be adjusted. Typically one part has a spike at its end, and the other part a pencil. Circles
can be made by pressing one leg of the compasses into the paper with the spike, putting the
pencil on the paper, and moving the pencil around while keeping the hinge on the same angle.
The radius of the circle can be adjusted by changing the angle of the hinge. (Fig.1.3)

(Fig.1.3)

1.1.4: DRAWING TABLE

It is a multi-angle desk which can be used in different angle

according to the user requisite. The size suites most paper
sizes, and are used for making and modifying
drawings on paper with ink or pencil. Different
drawing instruments such as set of squares, protractor, etc.
are used on it to draw parallel, perpendicular or oblique lines.
(Fig.1.4)

(Fig.1.4)

1.1.5: IRREGULAR CURVES (FRENCH

CURVES)
French curves are used to draw oblique curves other
than circles or circular arc; they are irregular set of
templates. Many different forms and sizes of curve are
available. (Fig.1.5)

(Fig.1.5)

1.1.6: PROTRACTOR
Protractor is a circular or semi-circular tool for
measuring angles. The units of measurement used are
degrees. Some protractors are simple half-discs. More
advanced protractors usually have one or two swinging arms, which can be used to help
measuring angles. (Fig.1.6)

(Fig.1.6)

1.1.7: DRAWING PENCIL

Is a hand-held instrument containing an interior strip of
solid material that produces marks used to write and
draw, usually on paper. The marking material is most
commonly graphite, typically contained inside a
wooden sheath. Mechanical pencils are nowadays more
commonly used, especially 0.5mm thick (Fig.1.7a/
Fig.1.7b)

(Fig.1.7a)

Fig 7.1b

1.1.8: ERASER
Erasers are article of stationery that is used for removing
pencil writings. Erasers have made of rubbery material, and
they are often white. Typical erasers are made of rubber, but
more expensive or specialized erasers can also contain vinyl,
plastic, or gum-like materials. (Fig.1.8)

(Fig.1.8)
1.2: LINES

1.2.1: LINES AND LINE STYLES

1.2.2: LINE THICKNESS

For most engineering drawings you will require two thicknesses, a thick and thin line.
The general recommendations are that thick lines are twice as thick as thin lines.

A thick continuous line is used for visible edges and outlines.

A thin line is used for hatching, leader lines, short centre lines,
dimensions and projections.

1.2.3: LINE STYLES

Other line styles used to clarify important features on drawings are:

1.2.4: BREAK LINES

Short breaks shall be indicated by solid freehand lines. For long breaks, full ruled lines with
freehand zigzags shall be used. Shafts, rods, tubes, etc.,

1.2.5: LEADERS
Leaders shall be used to indicate a part or portion to which a number, note, or other reference
applies and shall be an unbroken line terminating in an arrowhead, dot, or wavy line.
Arrowheads should always terminate at a line; dots should be within the outline of an object.

1.2.6: DATUM LINES

Datum lines shall be used to indicate the position of a datum plane and shall consist of one
long dash and two short dashes, evenly spaced.

1.2.7: PHANTOM LINES

Phantom lines shall be used to indicate the alternate position of parts of the item delineated,
repeated detail, or the relative position of an absent part and shall be composed of alternating
one long and two short dashes, evenly spaced, with a long dash at each end.

1.2.8: STITCH LINES

Stitch lines shall be used to indicate the stitching or sewing lines on an article and shall
consist of a series of very short dashes, approximately half the length of dash or hidden lines,
evenly spaced. Long lines of stitching may be indicated by a series of stitch lines connected
by phantom lines.
1.2.9: CENTER LINES
Center lines shall be composed of long and short dashes, alternately and evenly spaced, with
a long dash at each end. Center lines shall cross without voids. See Figure below, Very short
center lines may be unbroken if there is no confusion with other lines. Center lines shall also
be used to indicate the travel of a center.

1.2.10: EXTENSION LINES

Extension lines are used to indicate the extension of a surface or to point to a location outside
the part outline. They start with a short, visible gap from the outline of the part and are
usually perpendicular to their associated dimension lines.

1.2.11: OUTLINES OR VISIBLE LINES

The outline or visible line shall be used for all lines on the drawing representing visible lines
on the object;

1.2.12:CUTTING-PLANE/VIEWING-PLANE LINES
The cutting-plane lines shall be used to indicate a plane or planes in which a section is taken.
The viewing-plane lines shall be used to indicate the plane or planes from which a surface or
surfaces are viewed. On simple views, the cutting planes shall be indicated as shown below

1.2.13: HIDDEN LINES

Hidden lines shall consist of short dashes, evenly spaced. These lines are used to show the
hidden features of a part. They shall always begin with a dash in contact with the line from
which they begin, except when such a dash would form a continuation of a full line. Dashes
shall touch at corners, and arcs shall begin with dashes on the tangent points.

1.2.14: SECTIONING LINES

Sectioning lines shall be used to indicate the exposed surfaces of an object in a sectional
view. They are generally thin full lines, but may vary with the kind of material shown in
section.
1.2.15: DIMENSION LINES

Dimension lines shall terminate in arrowheads at each end. They shall be unbroken except
where space is required for the dimension. The proper method of showing dimensions and
tolerances is explained in Section 1.7 of ANSI Y14.5M-1982.

1.3: DIMENSIONING - AN OVERVIEW

A dimensioned drawing should provide all the information necessary for a finished product
or part to be manufactured. An example dimension is shown below.

Dimensions are always drawn using continuous thin lines. Two projection lines indicate
where the dimension starts and finishes. Projection lines do not touch the object and are
drawn perpendicular to the element you are dimensioning.

In general units can be omitted from dimensions if a statement of the units is included on
your drawing. The general convention is to dimension in mm's.

All dimensions less than 1 should have a leading zero. i.e. .35 should be written as 0.35

1.3.1: PARALLEL DIMENSIONING

Parallel dimensioning consists of several dimensions originating from one projection
line.
1.3.2: SUPERIMPOSED RUNNING DIMENSIONS
Superimposed running dimensioning simplifies parallel dimensions in order to reduce
the space used on a drawing. The common origin for the dimension lines is indicated
by a small circle at the intersection of the first dimension and the projection line. In
general all other dimension lines are broken. The dimension note can appear above
the dimension line or in-line with the projection line.

1.3.3: CHAIN DIMENSIONING

Chains of dimension should only be used if the function of the object won't be
affected by the accumulation of the tolerances. (A tolerance is an indication of the
accuracy the product has to be made to. Tolerance will be covered later in this
chapter).
 1.3.4: COMBINED DIMENSIONS
A combined dimension uses both chain and parallel dimensioning.

1.3.5: DIMENSIONING BY CO-ORDINATES

Two sets of superimposed running dimensions running at right angles can be used
with any features which need their centre points defined, such as holes.

1.3.6: SIMPLIFIED DIMENSIONING BY CO-ORDINATES

 It is also possible to simplify co-ordinate dimensions by using a table to identify
features and positions.

1.3.7: DIMENSIONING SMALL FEATURES

When dimensioning small features, placing the dimension arrow between projection lines
may create a drawing which is difficult to read. In order to clarify dimensions on small
features any of the above methods can be used.

1.3.8: DIMENSIONING CIRCLES

All dimensions of circles are proceeded by this symbol; . There are several conventions
used for dimensioning circles:

(a) Shows two common methods of dimensioning a circle. One method dimensions the circle
between two lines projected from two diametrically opposite points. The second method
dimensions the circle internally.
(b) Is used when the circle is too small for the dimension to be easily read if it was placed
inside the circle. A leader line is used to display the dimension.

(c) The final method is to dimension the circle from outside the circle using an arrow which
points directly towards the centre of the circle.

The first method using projection lines is the least used method. But the choice is up to you
as to which you use.

1.3.9: DIMENSIONING HOLES

When dimensioning holes the method of manufacture is not specified unless they necessary
for the function of the product. The word hole doesn't have to be added unless it is considered
necessary. The depth of the hole is usually indicated if it isn't indicated on another view. The
depth of the hole refers to the depth of the

1.3.10: DIMENSIONING RADII

cylindrical portion of the hole and not the bit of the hole caused by the tip of the drip.

All radial dimensions are proceeded by the

capital R. All dimension arrows and lines
should be drawn perpendicular to the
radius so that the line passes through the
centre of the arc. All dimensions should
only have one arrowhead which should
point to the line being dimensioned. There
are two methods for dimensioning radii.

(a) Shows a radius dimensioned with the

centre of the radius located on the
drawing.

(b) Shows how to dimension radii which

do not need their centres locating.

1.3.11: SPHERICAL DIMENSIONS

The radius of a spherical surface (i.e. the top of a drawing pin) when dimensioned should
have an SR before the size to indicate the type of surface.

1.3.12: TOLERANCE
It is not possible in practice to manufacture products to the exact figures displayed on an
engineering drawing. The accuracy depends largely on the manufacturing process used and
the care taken to manufacture a product. A tolerance value shows the manufacturing
department the maximum permissible variation from the dimension.

Each dimension on a drawing must include a tolerance value. This can appear either as:

• A general tolerance value applicable to several dimensions. i.e. a note specifying that
the General Tolerance +/- 0.5 mm.
• or a tolerance specific to that dimension

The method of expressing a tolerance on a dimension as recommended by the British

standards is shown below:

Note the larger size limit is placed above the lower limit.

All tolerances should be expressed to the appropriate number to the decimal points for the
degree of accuracy intended from manufacturing, even if the value is limit is a zero for
example.

1.4: LINE STYLES

Line styles are used to clarify important features on drawings, and they are as shown below.
(Fig.1.9)

FIGURE 1.9 – Line styles and types

Line styles are used to graphically represent physical objects, and each has its own meaning,
these include the following:
 • Visible lines - are continuous lines used to draw edges directly visible from a
particular angle.
• Hidden lines- are short-dashed lines that may be used to represent edges that are
not directly visible.
• Centerlines - are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that may be used to
represent the axis of circular features.
• Cutting plane - are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick alternately long- and
double short-dashed that may be used to define sections for section views.
• Section lines - are thin lines in a parallel pattern used to indicate surfaces in section
views resulting from "cutting." Section lines are commonly referred to as "cross-
hatching."

FIGURE 1.10

Here is an example of an engineering drawing (Fig.1.10). The different line types are colored
for clarity. Black = object line and hatching. Red = hidden lines
Blue = center lines Magenta = phantom line or cutting plane

Fig.1.10 – Illustrating types of Lines used in an engineering Drawing.

1.5: TASK (1)
Using the right drawing tools copy the drawings shown in Fig. 1.11 to 1.14:

Fig.1.11 Fig.1.12

Fig. 1.13 Fig. 1.14

WEEK 2:

2.0 PLANNING YOUR ENGINEERING DRAWING

2.1: PLANNING YOUR ENGINEERING DRAWING

Before starting your engineering drawing you should plan how you are going to make best
use of the space. It is important to think about the number of views your drawing will have
and how much space you will use of the paper.

• Try to make maximum use of the available space.

• If a view has lots of detail, try and make that view as large as possible. If necessary,
draw that view on a separate sheet.
• If you intend to add dimensions to the drawing, remember to leave enough space
around the drawing for them to be added later.
• If you are working with inks on film, plan the order in which you are drawing the
lines. For example you don't want to have to place your ruler on wet ink

2.2: LAYOUT OF DRAWING PAPER

It is important that you follow some simple rules when producing an engineering drawing
which although may not be useful now, will be useful when working in industry. All
engineering drawings should feature an information box (title block).

BOADER LINE (MARGINS)

TITLE

2.3: COMMON INFORMATION RECORDED ON THE TITLE BLOCK

2.3.1. TITLE:-
The title of the drawing.

2.3.2. NAME:-
The name of the person who produced the drawing. This is important for quality
control so that problems with the drawing can be traced back to their origin.

2.3.3. CHECKED
In many engineering firms, drawings are checked by a second person before they are
sent to manufacture, so that any potential problems can be identified early.
2.3.4. VERSION
Many drawings will get amended over the period of the parts life. Giving each
drawing a version number helps people identify if they are using the most recent
version of the drawing.

2.3.5. DATE
The date the drawing was created or amended on.

2.3.6. SCALE
The scale of the drawing. Large parts won't fit on paper so the scale provides a quick
guide to the final size of the product.

2.3.7. PROJECTION SYSTEM

The projection system used to create the drawing should be identified to help people
read the drawing. (Projection systems will be covered later).

2.3.8. COMPANY NAME / INSTITUTION NAME

Many CAD drawings may be distributed outside the company so the company name
is usually added to identify the source.

2.3.9. MATRIC NO (Reg. no) / LEVEL / DEPARTMENT

This part is for student’s identification for exams records

2.4. TITLE BLOCK SAMPLE

KADUNA POLYTECHNIC
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
DRAWING
NO 5
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
SCALE 1:150

MATRIC KPT/COE/
NAME SIGN DATE NO 07/0056

DRAWN BY
I. A. HARUNA 02/05/08 LEVEL 100

CHECHED T. I. GARBA / A.A.

BY GIRBO 03/05/08 CLASS ND I A
2.5: DRAWING SHEETS/PAPERS
The standard sizes of drawing papers used for normal purposes should be as follows:
Designation size in millimeters
A0 841 x 1189
A1 594 x 841
A2 420 x 594
A3 297 x 420
A4 210 x 297
A5 148 x 210
A6 105 x 148

A0

A2

A1

A4

A3 A6

A5 A6

2.6: DRAWINGS SCALES

Generally, it is easier to produce and understand a drawing if it represent the true size of the
object drawn. This is of course not always possible due to the size of the object to be drawn,
that is why it is often necessary to draw enlargements of very small objects and reduce the
drawing of very large ones, this is called “SCALE”.

However, it is important when enlarging or reducing a drawing that all parts of the object are
enlarged or reduced in the same ratio, so the general configuration of the object is saved.
Thus, scales are multiplying or dividing of dimensions of the object.

The scale is the ratio between the size represented on the drawing and the true size of the
object.
Scale= Dimension to carry on the drawing ÷ True Dimension of the object.

Examples:

1. Dimension carried on the drawing = 4mm.

True dimension= 40mm
Scale = 4 ÷ 40 = 1:10

2. Calculating drawing dimension of a line having a true dimension of 543 mm to a scale

of 1/10.

• If a true dimension of 10mm is represented as 1mm, a true dimension of

543mm is represented as X
• Then 10 mm ----------------
1 mm
543 mm----------------
X mm
• We have 1/10= x ÷ 543 or X= 54.3mm.

Therefore, a true dimension of 543mm is represented to a scale of 1/10 by a length of

54.3mm.

2.6.1: AN EXAMPLE OF SCALING A DRAWING

2.7: LETTERING METHODS

Lettering is more as freehand drawing and rather of being writing. Therefore the six
fundamental strokes and their direction for freehand drawing are basic procedures for
lettering.
There are a number of necessary steps in learning lettering, and they include the following:

• Knowledge of proposition and form of letters and the orders of the stroke.
• Knowledge of the composition the spacing of letters and words.
• Persistent practices.

Capital letters are preferred to lower case letters since they are easier to read on reduced size
drawing prints although lower case letters are used where they from of a symbol or an
abbreviation.

Attention is drawn the standard to the letters and characters. Table (2.1) below give the
recommendation for minimum size on particular drawing sheets:

Application Drawing Sheets Size Minimum character height

Drawing numbers, etc. A0, A1, A2 and A3 5 mm

A4 3 mm
Dimension and notes A0 3.5 mm
A1, A2, A3 and A4 2.5 mm

Table (2.1) Recommendations for minimum size of lettering on drawing sheets

The spaces between lines of lettering should be consistent and preferably not less than half of
the character height.

There are two fundamental methods of writing the graphic languages freehand and with
instruments. The direction of pencil movements are shown in Fig. 2.1 and Fig.2.2.

Fig. (2.1)Vertical Capital Letters & Numerals

 Fig.(2.2) – Vertical lower case letter.

2.8 TASK (2):

On a drawing sheet copy the following text in Fig (2.3) using the correct lettering methods:

Fig (2.3)
WEEK 3-

3.1: GEOMETRICAL DRAWINGS

3.1.1. Point: It is a non-dimensional geometrical element. It is occurred by Interception of
various lines.
3.1.2. Line: It is a 1D geometrical element occurred by moving of a point in various
direction.
The picture below illustrates lines, drawn in various directions, and other geometrical
elements occurred by these lines.
3.1.3. Plane: A plane is occurred by at least three points or connection of one point and one
line. A
plane is always 2D. When the number of element forming a plane increases, shape
and
name of the plane will change.

3.2: STRAIGHT LINES AND ANGLES

3.1

Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.5

Fig. 3.2

Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.6

 Fig 3.7
Fig 3.8

Fig 3.9
Fig 3.10

Fig 3.11

Fig 3.12 Fig 3.13

3.3: TRIANGLE
The triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight sides, the connection of three points at
certain conditions form triangle.
A

Triangle
3 Point
B C
There different type of triangles such as:
1. Scalene triangle: is a triangle with three unequal sides
2. Isosceles triangle: is a triangle with two sides and hence two angles equal.
3. Equilateral triangle: is a triangle with all the sides and hence all the three angles
equal.
4. Right-angled triangle: is a triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite
the right-angle is called the hypotenuse.

Scalene triangle Isosceles triangle

Right-angled
Equilateral triangle
triangle

3.3.1: CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES

Fig. 3.14

Fig. 3.15
 Fig. 3.16
Fig. 3.16

3.4 TASK (3)

1. Construct the following using a pairs of compasses:- 900, 600, 300, 450, 67.50, and 150
2. Line AB is 120mm long divide this line into Ratio 5:3:7.
3. Construct a perpendicular line to line AB 60mm long from a point P 30mm above the
line and 35mm from B.
4. Construct an equilateral triangle with sides 60 mm long.
5 Construct an isosceles triangle that has a perimeter of 135 mm and an altitude of 55
mm.
6 Construct a triangle with base angles 60° and 45° and an altitude of 76 mm.
7. Construct a triangle with a base of 55 mm, an altitude of 62 mm and a vertical angle of
371/2°.
8. Construct a triangle with a perimeter measuring 160 mm and sides in the ratio
3:5:6.
9. Construct a triangle with a perimeter of 170 mm-and sides in the ratio 7:3:5.
10. Construct a triangle given that the perimeter is 115 mm, the altitude is 40 mm and
the vertical angle is 45°.
WEEK 4 -

3.5: QUADRILATERALS
QUADRILATERALS: A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides, the
connection of four points at certain conditions form quadrilaterals.

A D

Square
4 Point
Fig 4.1
B C

Below are some examples of quadrilaterals:

3.5.1. square is a quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length and all its angles are right
angles.
3.5.2. rectangle is a quadrilateral with its opposite sides of equal length and all its angles a
right angle.
3.5.3. parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and therefore parallel.
3.5.4. rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.
3.5.5trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
3.5.6. trapezoid is a quadrilateral with all four sides and angles unequal.

SQUARE RECTANGLE PARALELLOGRA

a b c

. Fig 4.2
RHOMBUS
TRAPEZIUM
TRAPEZOID

d e f

3.6: Construction of
quadrilaterals
3.6.1 Construction of a Parallelogram
given two sides and an angle.
1. Draw AD equal to the length of one of
the sides.
2. From A construct the known angle.
3. Mark off AB equal in length to the other Fig 4.3
known side
4. With compass point at B draw an arc
equal in radius to AD.
5. With compass point at D draw an arc equal
in radius to AB. ABCD is the required parallelogram
 Fig. 4.4

Fig. 4.5

Fig. 4.6
3.7: CIRCLES
A circle is a locus of a point which moves so that its always a fixed distance from another
stationary point. The connection of infinite points at certain conditions form circle.

Circle
Infinite point
A

Concentric circles Eccentric circles

3.7.1: PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE Types of circles

NOMAL

To draw a tangent to a circle from any point on the

3.7.2: Construction involving circles circumference.
1. Draw the radius of the circle.
2. at any point on the circumference of the circle, the
tangent and then radius are perpendicular to each
other. Thus the tangent is found by constructing
an angle of 900 from the point where the radius
crosses the circumference.
TASK 4

1. Construct a square of side 50 mm. Find the mid-point of each side by construction and
join up the points with straight lines to produce a second square.
2. Construct a square whose diagonal is 68 mm. 12. Construct a square whose
diagonal is 85 mm.
3. Construct a parallelogram given two sides 42 mm and 90 mm long, and the
angle between them 67°. 14. Construct a rectangle which has a diagonal 55 mm
long and one side 35 mm long.
4 Construct a rhombus if the diagonal is 75 mm long and one side is 44 mm long.
5 Construct a trapezium given that the parallel sides are 50 mm and 80 mm long and are
45 mm apart.
WEEK 5
3.7.3: CONSTRUCTIONS INVOLVING CIRCLES
5.1.1. To construct the
circumference of a circle,
given the diameter.
1. Draw a semi circle of the
given diameter AB, center O.
2. From B mark off three times FIG. 5.1
the diameter, BC.
3. From O draw a line at 300 to
OA to meet the semi circle in
D.
4. From D draw a line
perpendicular to OA to meet
OA in E.
5. Join EC, EC is the required circumference.

FIG. 5.2

FIG. 5.3

4.0: TANGENCY

4.1: CONSTRUCTION OF TANGENT

To construct a tangent
from a point P to a circle,
center O

1. Joint OP.
2. Erect a semi-circle on
to cut the circle in A.
PA produced is the
required tangent.
FIG. 5.4
5.0: POLYGONS

A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight sides. There are two classes of
polygons, regular and irregular polygons.

A regular polygon is one that has all its sides equal and therefore all its exterior angles equal and its
interior angles equal.

An irregular polygon is the one that has unequal sides and also unequal angles (both interior and
exterior).

Polygons are frequently referred to have particular names. Some of these are listed below.

A pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides.

A hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides.
A heptagon is a plane figure bounded by seven sides.
An octagon is plane figure bounded by eight sides.
A nonagon is a plane figure bounded by nine sides.
A decagon is a plane figure bounded by ten sides.
Etc.

pentagon octagon
hexagon

CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGONS:

Fig. 5.8
Fig. 5.7
 Fig 5.9
Fig. 5.10

Method 3:
1. Draw a line GA equal in length to one of the side
2. Bisect GA.
3. From A construct an angle of 450 to intersect the bisector at point 4.
4. From G construct an angle of 600 to intersect the bisector at point 6.
5. Bisect between points 4 and 6 to give point 5. Point 4 is the centre of a circle
containing a square: point 5 is a the centre of a circle containing a pentagon.
Point 6 is the centre of a circle containing a hexagon. By marking off points
at similar distances the centers of circles containing any regular polygon can
be obtained.
6. Mark off point 7 so that 6 to 7 = 5 to 6 etc.
7. With centre at point 7 draw a circle, radius 7 to A (=7 to G).
8. Step off the sides of the figure from A to B, B to C, etc. ABCDEFG is the
required heptagon.

Fig. 5.11
 Fig. 5.12

5.2: TASK SHEET 5

1. Construct a regular hexagon, 45 mm side.
2. Construct a regular hexagon if the diameter is 75 mm. 19. Construct a regular hexagon
within an 80 mm diameter circle. The corners of the hexagon must all lie on the
circumference of the circle.
3. Construct a square, side 100 mm. Within the square, construct a regular octagon. Four
alternate sides of the octagon must lie on the sides of the square. 21. Construct the
following regular polygons:
a pentagon, side 65 mm,
a heptagon, side 55 mm,
a nonagon, side 45 mm,
a decagon, side 35 mm.
4 Construct a regular pentagon, diameter 82 mm.
5 Construct a regular heptagon within a circle, radius 60 mm. The corners of the
heptagon must lie on the circumference of the circle.
WEEK 6

6.0: ELLIPSE:
An ellipse is the locus of a point which moves so
that its distance from a fixed point (called the
focus) bears a constant ratio, always less than 1, to
its perpendicular distance from a straight line
(called directrix).

6.1 PROPERTIES OF AN ELLIPSE:

An ellipse has two foci, major axis, minor axis and
two directrices.
Fig. 6.1

6.2 CONSTRUCTIONS OF ELLIPSE:

A. To construct an ellipse using

concentric circles method.
1. Draw two concentric circles, radii = half (1/2)
major and half (1/2) minor axes.
2. divide the circle into a number of sectors.
(12 0r 8).
3. where the sector lines cross the smaller
circle, draw the horizontal lines cross the
larger circle, draw the vertical line to meet Fig. 6.2
the horizontal lines.
4. draw a neat curve through the intersections.

B. To construct an ellipse using

rectangular method.
1. Draw a rectangle, length and breadth equal to
the major and minor axes
2. Divide the two shorter sides of the rectangle
in the same even numbers of equal parts. Fig. 6.3
Divide the major axis into the same number
of equal parts.
3. from the points where the minor axis crosses the edge of the rectangle, draw the
intersecting lines as shown in figure 6.3
4. Draw a neat curve through the intersections.
C. To construct an ellipse using trammel method.
A trammel is a piece of stiff paper or card with a straight edge.

1. Mark the trammel with a pencil so that half the major and minor axes are marked
from the
point P

Fig. 6.4

2. keep B on the minor axis ,A on the major axis and slide the trammel.
3. mark at frequent intervals the position of P. Figure 6.4 shows the trammel in position
for plotting the top half of the ellipse; to plot the bottom half , A stays on the major axis
and B goes above the major axis, still on the minor axis.

Fig. 6.5

D. To construct the normal and the tangent of an ellipse, and to find

the
foci.
1. Normal: Normal at any point P. Draw two lines from P, one to each focus and bisect
the angle thus formed. This bisector is a normal to the ellipse.
2. Tangent: Tangent at any point P. since the tangent and normal are perpendicular to
each other by definition, construct the normal and erect a perpendicular to it from P.
this perpendicular is the tangent.
3. Foci: Foci with compasses set at a radius of half (1/2) major axis, center at the point
where the minor axis crosses the top (or the bottom) of the ellipse, strike an arc to cut
the major axis twice, these are the foci.

TANGENT
TANGE

Fig. 6.6

FOCI
TASK SHEET 6

1. Fig. T6.1 shows an elliptical fish-pond for a small garden. The ellipse is 1440 mm
long and 720 mm wide. Using a scale of 1/12 draw a true elliptical shape of the
pond. (Do not draw the surrounding stones.) All construction must be shown.

FIG. T6.1

2 Fig. T6.2 shows a section, based on an ellipse, for a handrail which requires
cutting to form a bend so that the horizontal overall distance is increased from 112
mm to 125 mm. Construct the given figures and show the tangent construction at
P and P1.
Show the true shape of the cut when the horizontal distance is increased from 112
mm to 125 mm.

FIG T6.2
 WEEK 7:
7.0: ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Isometric is a mathematical method of

constructing a three dimensional (3D)
object without using perspective.
Isometric was an attempt to make
drawings more and more realistic.

The mathematics involved mean that all

lengths when drawn at 30 degrees can be
drawn using their true length.

An isometric drawing shows two sides of

the object and the top or bottom of the
object (FIG. 7.1). All vertical lines are
drawn vertically, but all horizontal lines
are drawn at 30 degrees to the horizontal.
Isometric is an easy method of
constructing a reasonable 3D images.

(Fig. 7.1)
7.1 HOW TO DRAW IN ISOMETRIC
PROJECTION:

To draw in isometric you will need a 30/60

degree set square (FIG. 7.2). Follow the steps
below to draw a box in isometric.

(Fig. 7.2)

1. Draw the Front vertical edge of the cube 2. The sides of the box are drawn at 30 degrees to the
horizontal to the required length.
 3. Draw in the back verticals 4. Drawn in top view with all lines drawn 30 degrees to
the horizontal

Note: All lengths are drawn as actual lengths in standard isometric.

Figures 7.3 to 7.6 illustrate four (4) isometric pictorial drawing of components, study the
drawing and by using scale 1:1 re-draw them.

Note: All dimensions are in mm

Fig. 7.3 Fig. 7.4

Fig. 7.5 Fig. 7.6

 TASK SHEET (7)
Figures T7.1 to T7.4 shows four (4) isometric pictorial drawing of components, study the
drawing and by using proper drawing tools and scale 1:1 re-draw the isometric pictorial
drawings.

Note: All dimensions are in mm

Fig. T7.1 Fig.T7.2

Fig. T7.3 Fig. T7.4

WEEK 8

8.0: ORHTOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Orthographic projection is a mean of representing a three-dimensional object (Fig.8.1) in

two dimensions (2D). It uses multiple views of the object, from points of view rotated about
the object's center through increments of 90°.

The views are positioned relative to each other

according to either of two schemes: first-Angle or third-
Angle projection. In each, the appearances of views
may be thought of as being projected onto planes that
form a transparent "box" around the object. Figure (8.2)
demonstrate the views of an object using 1St.
Angle and 3rd. Angle projections.

(Fig. 8.1)- Orthographic projection

Fig.
(8.2)-

Illustrating the difference between 1st. and 3rd. Angles projection

8.1 THREE VIEW OF AN OBJECT IN FIRST AND THRID ANGLE OF
PROJECTIONS
Figures (8.3 to 8.6) shows isometric pictorial drawing of a number of components, study the
drawing and using 1st and 3rd angle of projection and a scale of 1:1 draw the following:
• A front view in direction "A".
• Side view in direction "B".
• Top view in direction "C". Note: All dimensions are in mm

Fig. (8.3) Fig. (8.4)

Fig. (8.5) Fig. (8.6)

8.2 THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE SIX VIEW OF AN OBJECT
8.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Any object can be viewed from six mutually perpendicular directions, as shown in Figure
(8.7) below. Thus, six views may be drawn if necessary. These six views are always arranged
as shown below, which the American National Standard arrangement of views. The top,
front, and bottom views line up vertically, while the rear, left-side, front, and right-side views
line up horizontally.

Fig. (8.7)
 Fig. (8.8)

If the front view is imagined to be the object itself, the right-side view is obtained by looking
toward the right side of the front view, as shown by the arrow RS. Likewise, if the right-side
view is imagined to be the object, the front view is obtained by looking toward the left side of
the right-side view, as shown by the arrow F.

The same relation exists between any two adjacent views.

Obviously, the six views may be obtained either by shifting the object with respect to the ob-
server, as we have seen, or by shifting the observer with respect to the object Fig. (8.8).
8.3 ONE POINT PERSPECTIVE:

Using one point perspective (Fig.8.9),

parallel lines converge to one point
somewhere in the distance. This point is
called the vanishing point (VP). This
gives objects an impression of depth.

(Fig.8.9)

The sides of an object diminish

towards the vanishing point. All
vertical and horizontal lines though
are drawn with no perspective. I.e.
face on.

One point perspective though is of

limited use, the main problem being
that the perspective is too pronounced
for small products making them
looking bigger than they actually are.
(Fig 8.10)

(Fig 8.10)

Although it is possible to sketch

products in one point perspective, the
perspective is too aggressive on the
eye making products look bigger than
they actually are.(Fig 8.11).

(Fig 8.11)
8.4 TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE

Two Points Perspective is a much more

useful drawing system than the simpler
One Point Perspective. Objects drawn in
two point perspective have a more
natural look (Fig 8.12).

In two point perspective the sides of the

object vanish to one of two vanishing
points on the horizon. Vertical lines in
the object have no perspective applied to
them.

By altering the proximity of the

vanishing points to the object, you can
make the object look big or small (Fig.
8.13).

(Fig. 8.12 )

(Fig 8.13)
Fig (8.13) – Shows affect of different locations of Vanishing Points
8.5 THREE POINT PERSPECTIVE
Three points perspective is a development of
two points perspective. Like two point it has
two vanishing points somewhere on the
horizon. But three points perspective also has a
vanishing point somewhere above or below the
horizon which the vertical vanish to.

The nearer the vanishing point is to the object,

the bigger the object looks. Look at these
buildings (FIG.8.14), all the vanishing points
are too close. This has caused an excessive
amount of vertical perspective. Learning how
to apply vertical perspective is the key to
making your drawings realistic.

(Fig 8.14)

In general most designers create drawings with a

vanishing point far below the horizon so that the
depth added to the verticals is only slight. In
many cases the vanishing point is not even on
the paper (FIG. 8.15). Learning how to apply
vertical perspective will make your drawings
more and more realistic.

(FIG.8.15)
8.6 TASK SHEET (8.1)
Figures (T13a to T13d) shown are isometric pictorial drawings for a number of components,
study the drawing and using 1st and 3rd angle of projection with scale of 1:1 draw the
following:
• A front view in direction "A".
• Side view in direction "B".
• Top view in direction "C".
Note: All dimensions are in mm

Fig. (T8.1a) Fig. (T8.1b)

Fig. (T8.3c) Fig. (T8.4d)

WEEK (9):

8.7 MULTI-VIEWS DRAWING USING 1ST & 3RD ANGLE OF PROJECTION

8.7.1 Multi views projection:

Multi views projection is a mean of producing the true shape and dimension of all details of
three-dimensional object or two-dimensional plane surface such as tile drawing paper. For
this reason, this method of projection is universally used for the production of working
drawing, which is intended for manufacturing purposes.

Fig. 9.1- Multi-views projection

In multi-views projection, the observer looks directly at each face of the object and draws
what can be seen directly (90 Degree rays). Consecutively, other sides are also seen and
drawn in the same way (Fig. 9.1).

Hence, there are two system of multi-views projection that is acceptable as British standard
(Fig. 9.2), these are known as:

1. First Angle (1st Angle) or European projection.

2. Third Angle (3rd Angle) or American projection.
Fig.9.2- Different Angles of projections
8.8 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 1st & 3rd ANGLE OF PROJECTION

8.8.1 FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION

In first-angle projection, each view of the

object is projected in the direction (sense) of
sight of the object, onto the interior walls of
the box Fig.9.3.

Fig.9.3

A two-dimensional representation of the object is then

created by "unfolding" the box, to view all of the
interior walls Fig.9.4.

Fig.9.4

Fig.9.5
8.8.2 THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION

In third-angle projection, each view of the

object is projected opposite to the direction
(sense) of sight, onto the (transparent)
exterior walls of the box Fig.9.6

Fig.9.6

A two-dimensional representation of the object is

then created by unfolding the box, to view all of the
exterior walls Fig.9.7.

Fig.9.7

Fig.9.8
 8.9 TASK (8.2)
1. Figures T8.2a and T8.2b show two (2) isometric pictorial drawing of components,
study the drawing and by using scale 1:1 draw the following:
Fig. (T8.2a) use 1st angle of projection draw,1- Front view 2 -Side view 3- Top
view.

Fig. T8.2a

• Fig (T8.2b) use 3st angle of projection draw,1- Front view 2-Side view 3 - Top
view

Fig. T8.2b
2. Fig T8.2c and T8.2d show two (2) isometric pictorial drawing of components, study
the drawing and by using scale 1:1 and third angle of projection draw the following:-
Front view- Side view - Top view

Fig T8.2c

Fig T8.2d
WEEK -10

9.0: ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS USED ON MECHANICAL AND

ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS.

9.1: INTRODUCTION
There is a number of common engineering terms and expression, which are frequently
replaced by abbreviation or symbols on drawing, to save space and drafting time. This will
include the electrical, electronic, pneumatic and hydraulic symbols (Table – 10.1).

9.2: TECHNICAL DRAWING SYMBOLS

Table (10.1)
9.3: MECHANICAL CONVENTION

There are many common engineering features which are difficult to draw in full. In order to
save drafting time and spaces on drawing, these features are represented in simple
conventional form as show in Table 10.2 below.

Table (10.2)
9.4: ELECTRICAL CONVENTION

Table (10.3)
9.5: LINE AND BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Engineering Diagrams usually indicate the only relative positions of inter-connected

components or systems represented their relevant diagrams.

9.5.1: BLOCK DIAGRAM METHOD

Block diagram indicates simple form as to functional system where a number of blocks
represent the elements of that system- Fig. 10.1.

Fig.

(10.1)
9.5.2: LINE DIAGRAM METHOD

Fig. (10.2)

The diagram indicates the standard symbols representing the functional components and
connection disregarding their physical size or position Fig. (10.2).
9.6: PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
The pneumatic system is a mechanical system that
uses pressurized gas (usually air) to perform
various kinds of control processes.

The pneumatic system consist of pressure

generator set, pressure actuated component like
(cylinder & vales).Fig.10.3.

The use of pneumatic system has been come very

popular especially in the food industry for in
easy maintenance and running cost.
Fig. (10.3)- Air pump

9.7: HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

The hydraulic system is a mechanical system that
uses pressurized liquid (usually oil) to perform
various kinds of control processes Fig. (10.4).

The pressurized liquid in a hydraulic system

circulates I close loop.

Fig.(10.4)- Hydraulic Jack

9.8: PNEUMATIC SYMBOLS - (FIG.10.5)

9.9 TASK (10)
1) The drawing in Figure (10.6) illustrates assembled mechanical parts, study the drawing
then list the items below accordingly.

Fig. (10.6)

2) The drawing in Figure (10.7) illustrates a pneumatic/Hydraulic diagram, study the drawing
then list the items in a tabular form below accordingly.

Figure (10.7)
3) The drawing in Figure (10.8) illustrates an electrical circuit, study the drawing and then list
the items below accordingly.

Figure (87)

Figure (10.8)
WEEK11:

10.0 MISSING VIEW

In orthographic projection, the object has principle dimensions, width, height, and depth
which are fixed terms used for dimensions of the three views.

Note that the front view shows only the height and width of the object, the top view shows
the depth and width only. In fact, any one view of three-dimensional object can show only
two dimensions, the third dimension will be found in an adjacent view Fig. (11.1).

Fig. (11.1).

Note that:

• The top view is the same width as front view.

• The top view is placed directly above or below the front view depending on
the angle of projection (1st or 3rd).
• The same relation exists between front and side view, same height.
• The side view is placed directly right or left to the front view, (right side view
or left side view).
10.1 FIRST ANGLE OF PROJECTION:

The Fig. (11.2) is a pictorial drawing of given object, three-views of which are required using
first angle of projection. Each corner of the object is given a number as shown. At I the top
view and the front view are shown, with each corner properly numbered in both views. Each
number appears twice, once in the top view and again front view.
 Fig. (11.2)

At I point 1 is visible in both views, therefore placed outside the corner in both views.
however point 2 is visible in the top view and number is placed outside, while in the
front view it is invisible and placed inside.
10.2 THIRD ANGLE OF PROJECTION:

Fig. (11.3)

Fig. (11.4)
Fig (11.5)

Fig (11.6)
10.3 TASK SHEET (11)
Complete the drawing shown in Fig (T11) to produce the third missing view

Fig. T11
WEEK (12):

11.0 FREEHAND SKETCHING

11.1 INTRODUCTION:

Free-hand sketching is used extensively during the early design phases as an important tool
for conveying ideas, guiding the thought process, and serving as documentation.
Unfortunately there is little computer support for sketching. The first step in building a sketch
understanding system is generating more meaningful descriptions of free-hand.

One of the advantages of freehand sketching is it require only few simple items such as
1. Pencil (soft pencil i.e. HB).
2. Paper (A3 & A4).
3. Eraser.

When sketches are made on the field, where an

accurate record is required, a sketching pad with
clipboard are frequently used (Fig.12.1). Often
clipboard is employed to hold the paper.

(Fig.
12.1)

11.2 General notes before

sketching:

1. The pencil should be held naturally,

about 40mm from general direction of
the line down.
2. Place the paper rotated position so the
horizontal edge is perpendicular to the
natural position of your forearm.
3. When ruled paper is being used for
sketching try to locate the sketched line
on ruling line
(Fig.12.2).
4. Use your imagination and common
sense when choosing the most suitable
angle of view.

(Fig. 12.2)
1) Demonstration of sketching technique of horizontal and vertical lines (Fig. 12.3)

2) Demonstration the sketching technique of circles (Fig. 12.4)

3) Demonstration the sketching technique of an arc (Fig. 12.5)

4) Demonstration the sketching technique of an ellipse (Fig. 12.6):

5) Demonstration the sketching technique of an arc (Fig. 12.7):

11.3 Task sheet (12)
1) Use A4 sheet with a pencil and try to draw the lines as shown in Fig. T12.1 below.

Fig. T12.1

2) Use A4 sheet with a pencil and try to draw the component shown in Fig. T12.2 below.

Fig. T12.2
WEEK13:

12.0 SKETCHING THE VIEWS FROM AN ACTUAL OBJECT

In industry a complete and clear description of the shape and size of an object is necessary to
be able to make it. In order to provide all dimensions and information clearly and accurately a
number of views are used. To sketch these views from an actual object the following steps
should be followed:

1. Look at the object carefully and choose the right position that shows the best three
main views (Fig. 13.1).

(Fig. 13.1)

2. Estimate the proportions carefully, sketch lightly the rectangles of views and set them
according to the projection method (1st or 3rd angle) chosen.
3. Hold the object, keeping the front view toward you (Fig. 13.2), and then start

sketching the front view.

(Fig. 13.2)

4. To get the top view, revolve the object so as to bring the top toward you, then sketch
the top view (Fig. 13.3)

(Fig. 13.3)
5. To get the right side view, revolve the object so as to bring the side view in position
relative to the front view, and then sketch the side view (Fig. 13.4)

(Fig. 13.4)

6. make sure the relationships between all views are carried out correctly (Fig. 13.5)

(Fig. 13.5)
12.1 OBLIQUE SKETCHING:

Another method for pictorial is sketching the oblique sketching. To made an oblique
sketch from an actual object follow these steps:

(Fig. 13.6)

1. hold the object vertically, making sure

most circular features in front of you (Fig.
13.6)

2. Sketch the front face of the object in

suitable proportional dimensions (Fig. 13.7)

(Fig. 13.7)
3. Sketch the receding lines parallel to
each other or a convenient angle between
(30°-45°) with horizontal, these lines may
in full length to sketch a caviller oblique
or may be one half sizes to sketch cabinet
oblique.

(Fig. 13.8)

4. Complete the required sketch as explained for

isometric sketch previously.

(Fig.13.9)
12.2 TASK SHEET 13
Fig. T13 shows an isometric pictorial drawing of a component; study the drawing and then
using scale 1:1 draw the following:
• An isometric pictorial drawing (freehand).
• The following views (freehand).
 A front view.
 Side view.
 Top view.
Note: All dimensions are in mm


Fig. T13
WEEK 14

13.0 INTERSECTION AND DEVELOPMENT:

When two solid interpenetrate, a line of intersection is formed. Many object are formed by a
collection of geometrical shapes such as cubes, cones, spheres, cylinders, prisms, pyramids,
etc, and where any two of these shapes meet, some sort of curves of intersections or
interpenetrations are formed. It is necessary to be able to draw these curves to complete
drawings in orthographic projection or to draw patterns and developments.

Construction:
Interpenetration:
13.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SOLID WITH
INTERPENETRATION

13.2 Two dissimilar square prisms

meeting at right angles. Fig. 14.1
The end elevation shows where corners 1 and 3
meet the larger prism and these are projected
across to the front elevation the plan shows
where corners 2 and 4 meet the larger prism and Fig 14.1
this is projected up to the front elevation.

13.3 Two dissimilar square prisms

meeting at an angle. Fig 14.2
The front elevation shows where corners one 1
and 3 meet the larger prism. The plan shows 3RD ANGLE PROJECTION
where corners 2 and 4 meet the larger prism and Fig 14.2
this is projected down to the front elevation.
13.4 Two dissimilar hexagonal prisms
meeting at an angle. Fig. 14.3
The front elevation shows corners 3 and 6 meet the
larger prism. The plan shows corners 1,2,4, and 5
meet the larger prism and these are projected up to
the front elevation.

Fig 14.3

13.5 Two dissimilar cylinders meeting

at right angles. Fig.14.4
The smaller cylinder is divided in to 12 equal Fig 14.4
sector on the front elevation and on plan, the plan
shows where these sectors meet the larger
cylinder and these intersections are projected
down to the front elevation to meet there
corresponding sector at 1’,2’,3’,etc
3.6 Two dissimilar cylinders
meeting at an angle. Fig
14.5
The method is identical with above
principle. The smaller cylinder is
divided in to 12 equal sector on the
front elevation and on plan, the plan
shows where these sectors meet the
larger cylinder and these
intersections are projected down to
the front elevation to meet there
corresponding sector at 1’,2’,3’,etc
Fig 14.5
13.7 TASK SHEET (14)
WEEK 15

14.0 DEVELOPMENT
Many articles such as cans, pipes, elbows, boxes, etc are manufactured from thin sheet
materials. Generally a template is produced from an orthographic drawing when small
quantities are required.
The figures below illustrate some of the more commonly used development in pattern
marking. An example of an elbow joint is shown developed in fig. 15.1. The length of the
circumference has been calculated and divided into twelve equal parts. A part plan, divided
into six parts, has the division lines projected up to the joint, then across to the appropriate
point on the pattern. It is normal practice on a development drawing to leave the joint along the
shortest edge; however, on part B the pattern can be cut more economically if the joint on
this half is turned through 180°.

Fig 15.1

A typical interpenetration curve is given in fig. 15.2. The

development of part of the cylindrical portion is shown viewed
from the inside. The chordal distances on the inverted plan have
been plotted on either side of the centre line of the hole, and the
corresponding heights have been projected from the front
elevation. The method of drawing pattern for the branch is
identical to that shown for the two piece elbow in fig. 15.1
An example of radial-line development is given in fig. 15.3. The
dimensions required to make the development are the
circumference of the base and the slant height of the cone.
The chordal distances from the plan view have been used to
mark the length of arc required for the pattern; alternatively,
for a higher degree of accuracy, the angle can be calculated and
then subdivided. In the front elevation, lines 0 1 and 07 are true
lengths, and distances OG and OA have been plotted directly onto
the pattern. The lines 02 to 06 inclusive are not true lengths, and,
where these lines cross the sloping face on the top of the conical Fig 15.2
frustum, horizontal lines have been projected to the side of the
cone and been marked B, C, D, E, and F. True lengths OF, OE, OD,
OC, and OB are then marked on the pattern. This procedure is repeated for the other half of the
cone. The view

on the sloping face will be an

ellipse, Part of a square pyramid
is illustrated in fig. 15.4. The Fig 15.3
pattern is formed by drawing an
arc of radius OA and stepping
off around the curve the lengths
of the base, joining the points
obtained to the apex O.
Distances OF
The development of part of a
hexagonal pyramid is shown in
fig. 15.5. The method is very
similar to that given in the
previous example, but note that
lines OB, OC, OD, OE, and OF are
true lengths obtained by projection
from the elevation.
Fig. 15.6 shows an oblique cone
which is developed by triangulation, where the surface is assumed to be formed from a series
of triangular shapes. The base of the cone is divided into a convenient number of parts (12
in this case) numbered 0-6 and projected to the front elevation with lines drawn up to the
apex A. Lines OA and 6A are true-length lines, but the other five shown all slope at an
angle to the plane of the paper. The true lengths of lines IA, 2A, 3A, 4A, and 5A are all
equal to the hypotenuse of right-angled triangles where the height is the projection of the
cone height and the base is obtained from the part plan view by projecting distances 131,
B2, B3, B4, and B5 as indicated.
Assuming that the join will be
made along the shortest edge, the
pattern is formed as follows. Start
by drawing line 6A, then from A
draw an arc on either side of the line
equal
in length to the true length 5A.
From point 6 on the pattern, draw
an arc equal to the chordal distance
between successive points on the
plan view. This curve will intersect
the first arc twice at the points
marked 5. Repeat by taking the true
length of line 4A and swinging
another arc from point A to
intersect with chordal arcs from
points 5. This process is continued
as shown on the solution.
Fig. 15.7 shows the development
of part of an oblique cone where the
procedure described above is
followed. The points of intersection
of the top of the cone with lines 1A,
2A, 3A, 4A, and 5A are transferred
to the appropriate true-length
constructions, and true-length
distances from the apex A are
marked on the pattern drawing.
A plan and front elevation is
given in fig. 15.8 of a transition

Fig 15.4
piece which is formed from two halves of oblique cylinders and two connecting triangles.
The plan view of the base is divided

into 12 equal divisions, the sides at the top into 6 parts each. Each division at the bottom
of the front elevation is linked with
a line to the similar division at the
top. These lines, P l, Q2, etc., are all
the same length. Commence the
pattern construction by drawing line
S4 parallel to the component. Project
lines from points 3 and R, and let
these lines intersect with arcs
equal to the chordal distances C,
from the plan view, taken from
points 4 and S. Repeat the process
and note the effect that curvature
has on the distances between the
lines projected from points P, Q, R,
and S. After completing the pattern
to line Pl, the triangle is added by
swinging an are equal to the length
B from point P, which intersects
with the arc shown, radius A. This Fig. 15.5
construction for part of the
pattern is continued as indicated.

Fig 15.7
Fig 15.6
14.1 TASK SHEET (15)

1. Fig T15.1 shows three pipes, each of

50 mm diameter and of negligible
thickness, with their axes in the same
plane and forming a bend through
90°. Draw:
(a) the given view, and (b) the
development of pipe K, using TT as
the joint line.

Fig T15.1

2. Fig. T15.2 shows the plan and

elevation of a tin-plate dish. Draw the
given views and construct a
development of the dish showing
each side joined to a square base. The
plan of the base should be part of
the development. Fig T15.2