Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Earth Science
Sem/AY First Semester/2021-2022
Module No. 2
Lesson Title The Rocks
Week
6-9
Duration
Date November 8 – December 3, 2021
This lesson will discuss the characteristics of rocks and the properties exhibited
Description by the rock, and master interaction and interdependence in the ecosystem. This lesson
of the will also provide activities and exercises that will assess the students understanding
Lesson about the topic.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Identify common rocks and the process by which they form.
Outcomes  Demonstrate knowledge of the process of weathering and soil formation.
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  Classify rocks as igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic.
 Identify the different types of rocks.
 Discuss the process in the rock cycle.
 Describe how rocks undergo weathering;
 Identify the agents of erosion;
 Explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and
deposited elsewhere

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a Four-Hour class discussion on the
nature and types of educational technologies. To have access to the
Asynchronous) Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.

The online discussion will happen on November 10 from 10:00 – 11:00

AM.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)

B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What is rock and how is it formed?
2. What the different types of rocks and how are they identified/
3. What are the process in rock cycle?
4. What is weathering?
5. What are the agents of erosion
Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.

Lecture Guide
Rocks
A rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals. The
aggregate minerals forming the rocks are held together by chemical bonds. Grains can
be different in color, texture, and sizes. Geologists then group rocks into three categories
based on how the rocks form: igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Petrology is
the scientific study of rocks. Petrologists classify rocks based on how they were formed.

the material that makes up the solid parts.

a naturally –occurring, coherent aggregate of minerals or solid materials such
as natural glass or organic matter.
Found in the lithosphere, which derived from Greek word “ lithos” meaning
“stone”. The lithosphere is the rigid, rocky, outermost part of Earth, composed
of the crust and uppermost part of the upper mantle.
Offline Activities
Geologists study the forces and processes that form and change the rocks of
(e-Learning/Self- Earth’s crust.
Paced) The term was coined by Joseph Barrell who studied the motion of lithosphere
over a molten layer

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

The Rock Cycle

A model that describes all the processes by which rocks are formed and
reformed.
The processes occur both on the Earth’s surface and underneath.

Processes and Products of the Rock Cycle

Processes Product
Melting Magma
Crystallization Igneous Rocks
Uplift and Exposure
Weathering and Erosion Sediments
Transportation
Deposition
Lithification Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphism Metamorphic Rocks

When magma is exposed to lower temperature, minerals and amorphous solids

crystallize, solidify and form igneous rocks. These rocks may then be brought to
the surface through uplift, where they are exposed to weathering and erosion.
The processes of weathering and erosion break the rocks down into smaller
pieces called sediments. These particles may then undergo transportation via
agents such as wind, water, glaciers, rivers and oceans until they settle in an area
where they will undertake deposition. As more materials settle on top of each
other, temperature and pressure increase and the sediments at the bottom may
undergo lithification. Lithifications transform sediments into sedimentary
rocks. As temperature and pressure increase due to continuous burial and
tectonic activity, the sedimentary rocks undergo the process of metamorphism,
transforming them into metamorphic rocks. If temperature continues to
increase and exceeds the melting point of the rocks, the rocks will eventually
undergo melting, turning into magma.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Formation of Igneous Rock

Igneous Rock are formed from cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
1. Below the surface, from slowly cooling magma. The results in the formation of crystals
that are visible to the naked eye without the aid of magnifying lens. These types of
igneous rock as are called intrusive or plutonic, since they cool underneath the
surface as plutons. Example: Granite, Diorite and Syenite.

2. On the surface, from rapidly cooling lava. The results in the formation of very small
crystals that may not be visible without the use of magnifying lens. These type of
igneous rocks are called extrusive or volcanic, since they are usually extruded
during volcanic eruptions. Example Basalt, andesite and Rhyolite.

3. On the surface, from the consolidation of particles erupted by explosive volcanic

activity. When volcanoes erupt violently, the lava existing the volcanoes are ripped
apart into smaller pieces by rapidly expanding gases in the lava. Depending on how
much gas is present, the particles may solidify as small as ash or large as basketballs.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
When these particles come together on the surface via lithification, they form
pyroclastic igneous rock example like ignimbrite, tuff and volcanic breccia.

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are the products of the lithification of particles produced by the
weathering of other preexisting rocks. It can have parent material derived from older
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. They may also comprised of mineral
fragments and organic material. These component are called sediments. The term is
derived from Latin “sedentarius” which means “sitting’ as these sediments be deposited
and settle until they are transformed into sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary lithification
occurs at a lower temperature than that of igneous rocks.

1. From the cementation of sediments that have been deposited , buried and compacted
over a long period of time. This process produces sedimentary rocks that are
considered as clastic, which are differentiated based on the size of the sediments or
clasts in the rocks. Example Shale, Sandstone and conglomerate.

2. From the precipitation of minerals from ions in solution. Rocks that are exposed to
water and oxygen can undergo chemical changes such as oxidation( rusting) and
hydrolysis through time. These process break down rocks into their chemical
components, particularly into ions that can be carried by running water in solution.
Once the solution is saturated, the precipitation of the minerals like calcite and
halite can occur, leading to the formation of chemical sedimentary rocks. Example
Limestone, Dolostone and Rock Salt.

3. From the compaction and cementation of plant or animal remains. These types od
sedimentary rocks are called bioclast. Example Coquina and Organic Limestone.

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks form when preexisting or parent rock are altered by heat, pressure
and the chemical activity of fluids. These processes are collectively called
metamorphism meaning “change in form” . It usually occurs underneath the surface.
The two major types of metamorphism depend on which factor causes the alteration
of the parent rock:

1. When the dominant altering factor is pressure, usually due to tectonic activity, the
flat or elongated mineral components of the preexisting rocks react by aligning
perpendicular to the axis of the pressure. This results in a layered appearance in the
rocks called foliation. And type of rock are called foliated metamorphic rocks. The
term comes from Latin “folium” which means “leaf” where the flat leaves are on the
top of each other. This type of metamorphism is called regional metamorphism .

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Example slate, Schist and Gneiss.

2. When the dominant altering factor is heat, usually from direct contact between an
older rock material and an intruding body of magma, the parent rocks may undergo
a fundamental change in texture due to recrystallization. This process is called
contact metamorphism. Example Marble and Quartzite.

Properties of Rocks
All rock has physical and chemical properties that are determined by how and
where the rock formed. The physical characteristics of rock reflect the chemical
composition of the rock as a whole and of the individual minerals that make up
the rock. The rate at which rock weathers and the way that rock breaks apart
are determined by the chemical stability of the minerals in the rock.

1. Chemical Stability of Minerals

 A measure of the tendency of a chemical compound to maintain its original
chemical composition rather than break down to form a different chemical. In
general, the minerals that are most stable are minerals that formed at the lowest
temperatures, under conditions similar to those on Earth’s surface. Minerals that
formed at the highest temperatures, under conditions very different than those
on Earth’s surface, are least stable.
2. Physical Stability of Rocks
 Rocks have natural zones of weakness that are determined by how and where
the rocks form. For example, sedimentary rocks may form as a series of layers of
sediment. These rocks tend to break between layers.

3. Bowen’s Reaction Series

 In the early 1900s, a Canadian geologist named N. L. Bowen began studying how
minerals crystallize from magma. It shows the order and assembly of minerals
as they crystallize when the temperature of magma decreases. It is composed of
felsic mineral (quartz, muscovite, potassium feldspar and plagioclase) and mafic
minerals (biotite, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine).
4. Color
 Can be used as an indicator of the composition of rock or mineral. the color
index can be used to identify the composition of most igneous rocks
a. Light colors (white, light gray, tan and pink) indicate a felsic composition.
Felsic compositions. Felsic composition are rich in silica (SiO2).
b. Dark colors (black and brown) indicate mafic composition or ultramafic
composition.
b.1 Mafic composition are poor in silica but rich in iron and magnesium.
b.2 Intermediate composition have an intermediate color-gray or
consisting of equal parts of dark and light mineral.

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Classification of Rocks
 Rocks can be classified based on the differences in their texture and
composition. Texture refers to the size, shape and arrangement of minerals
grains and other constituents in a rock. A rock texture could provide
information about the environment where the rock was formed.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
The word “igneous “ is derived from Latin Igneus , which means “fiery” or “on
fire”.
It form at higher temperatures than other types of rocks.
Can be identified as crystalline, or made of crystals when they form from
cooled magma or lava or pyroclastic , when they are made of consolidated
eruption products like volcanic ash.
1. Crystalline textures differ depending on the rate of cooling and where it took
place.

a. Intrusive Igneous Rocks or plutonic rocks that form from slowly-cooled

magma have time to form large mineral crystals that are visible without
the aid of magnifying lens.
The resulting texture is called phaneritic , which derived from the Greek
phaneros meaning “visible”. When minerals crystallize very slowly at
depth, the resulting texture is pematitic, one that is composed of very
large crystals (larger than 2 to 3 cm).

b. Extrusive or volcanic rocks that form rapidly-cooled magma usually

exhibit aphanitic textures. Aphanitic is derived from the Greek aphaneros
which means “invisible”. The mineral crystals of aphanitic rocks cannot
be distinguished without the use of magnifying tools. A special volcanic
texture is displayed by rocks that cool rapidly occur when lava is
expelled underwater. This results in rocks that appear glassy.
Vesicular Texture , which result of gases escaping while the volcanic rock
is being formed.

c. Porphyritic Texture, the volcanic activity extrudes the partially crystallized

magma onto the surface, thereby speeding up the rate of cooling. Such
rocks may show at least two distinct crystal sizes.

2. Pyroclastic is derived from the Greek pyro which means “fire” and klastos
which means “shattered”. This texture is the result of the lithification of
erupted volcanic material.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Texture of Igneous Definition

Rock
Intrusive igneous rocks commonly have large mineral crystals.
The slow loss of heat allows the minerals in the cooling magma to
form large, well-developed crystals. Igneous rocks that are composed
of large mineral grains are described as having a coarse grained
texture. An example of a coarse-grained igneous rock is granite.
The upper part of the continental crust is made mostly of granite.

Extrusive igneous rocks are composed of small mineral grains that

cannot be seen by the unaided eye. Because these rocks form
when magma cools rapidly, large crystals are unable to form. Igneous
rocks that are composed of small crystals are described as having a
fine-grained texture. Examples of common fine-grained igneous rocks
are basalt and rhyolite

When magma cools slowly at first but then cools more rapidly as
it nears Earth’s surface. This type of cooling produces large crystals
embedded within a mass of smaller ones. Igneous rock that has a
mixture of large and small crystals has a porphyritic texture.

When a highly viscous, or thick, magma cools quickly, few crystals are able to gro
Quickly cooling magma may form a rock that has a glassy texture,
example as obsidian.

When magma contains a large amount of dissolved gases and cools

rapidly, the gases become trapped as bubbles in the rock that forms.
The rapid cooling process produces a rock full of holes called vesicles
example as those in pumice.

Sedimentary Rocks
A clastic when they form from the lithification of rock and mineral fragments
such as quartz, feldspar and clay.
Crystalline when they precipitate out of solution, such as dolomite, calcite,
halite, or gypsum.
Can be bioclastic when they are formed from the accumulation of organic
material or biologic activity.
It may even contain remnants of plants, corals, shell or fossil fragments.
Sedimentary clastic texture may be further refines the shapes of the
individual grains are angular or rounded.

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Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks

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Metamorphic Rocks
May be foliated when the dominant agent metamorphism is pressure or
crystalline when the dominant agent is heat.
1. Platy or elongated minerals align themselves parallel to the axis of pressure,
resulting in a layered appearance or foliation. Minerals differ in foliation based
on their composition.

o Slaty- if the minerals are microscopic , the rock may not appear foliated to
the naked eye. The foliation will manifest itself physically in the rocks’s
tendency to separate along parallel planes.
o Phyllitic- if the minerals are barely visible to the naked eye, their alignment
results but not clearly-defined foliation.
o Schistose- if the mineral are visible to the naked eye, their layering is more
distinct. It is composed of platy minerals like chlorite, graphite, biolite and
muscovite.

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o Gneissic – if the minerals are visible and elongated, the rock exhibits a
coarsely-branded appearance due to the alignment of minerals like
amphibole, feldspar, and quartz.
2.Crystalline textures – result when the parent rock is exposed with enough heat
that it induces recrystallization of the existing minerals

Uses of Rocks
1. Rocks were used by prehistoric men as tools and in hunting animals for food and
against their enemy.
2. Rock contain minerals which can be used for various purposes such as jewelry and
decorations.
3. Rocks may contain fossils which used as specimens in the laboratory to determine
the existence of life millions of years ago.
4. Rocks may also serve as territorial boundaries in certain regions.
5. Rocks can be made into decorations and source of income.
6. Rocks asre used for building bridges and infrastructure.

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Lesson 2

Weathering and Soil Formation

Most rocks deep within Earth’s crust formed under conditions of high
temperature and pressure. When these rocks are uplifted to the surface, they are
exposed to much lower temperature and pressure. Uplifted rock is also exposed to the
gases and water in Earth’s atmosphere. Because of these environmental factors, surface
rocks undergo changes in their appearance and composition.

What is Weathering ?

The physical breakdown or chemical decomposition of rock materials exposed

at Earth’s surface .
the natural process by which atmospheric and environmental agents, such as
wind, rain, and temperature changes, disintegrate and decompose rocks

Types of Weathering
 Mechanical Weathering
 Chemical Weathering

Mechanical Weathering
 The process by which rock is broken down into smaller pieces by physical
means.
 Strictly a physical process and does not change the composition of the rock.
 Common agents of mechanical weathering are ice, plants and animals, gravity,
running water, and wind. ( Agent is a substance or living organism that has an
impact on an ecological process).

Causes of Mechanical Weathering

1. Biological Activity

 Plants grow in soil. In order to grow, they need to push their roots deep below
the soil surface. While doing so, these roots come across rocks lying underneath.
The roots, in their quest to acquire purchase for the growing tree, bore into the
cracks and pores of the rocks and lead to fragmentation of the rocks.
 .

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Plants (tree inside the rock) Animal (rock as shelter) Humans (mining operation)

2. Abrasion

 Abrasion is the process where rocks grind or abrade together. This happens
when rocks are broken down into smaller fragments and are carried away with
wind and water. These rocks rub and collide with other rocks. Smaller rocks in
a stream of water are pushed against each other as well as those present at the
bottom and along the banks causing chipping and scrapping.

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3. Frost Shattering (Ice Wedging)

 Regions that are very cold and where the temperatures can reach below freezing
point, frost shattering leads to mechanical weathering of the rocks. During
winter or at night, the water from surrounding areas begins to fill up the cracks
or joints in the rocks. This water repeatedly thaws and freezes causing the
cracks and joints to undergo expansion and leading to more stress. Eventually,
the cracks or joints break off in angular pieces.

Chemical Weathering ( Decomposition)

 The process by which rock is broken down because of chemical interactions
with the environment.
 Water, acids, and air are all agents of chemical weathering. They react with the
chemicals in the rock. The reactions can break the bonds in the minerals that
make up the rock. When the bonds in the minerals are broken, the rock can be
worn away.

a. WATER (Hydrolysis)
 water can dissolve some of the chemicals that make up rocks. Even very
hard rocks, such as granite, can be broken down by water. However, this
process may take thousands of years or more.

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 Minerals that are affected by hydrolysis often dissolve in water. Water can
then carry the dissolved minerals to lower layers of rock in a process called
leaching.

b. ACID PRECIPITATION
 Rain, sleet, or snow that contains more acid than normal is called acid
precipitation.
 Acid precipitation forms when small amounts of certain gases mix with
water in the atmosphere. When fossil fuels, especially coal, are burned,
nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxides are released into the air. These
compounds combine with water in the atmosphere to produce nitric acid,
nitrous acid, or sulfuric acid. The acids in the atmosphere fall back to the
ground in rain and snow.

This stone lion sits outside Lee

Town Hall in England. It was dam
by acid precipitation.


1. ACIDS IN GROUNDWATER
 Water flows through rock underground is called groundwater, may
contain weak acids. When the groundwater touches some kinds of
rock, a chemical reaction happens. The chemical reaction dissolves
the rock. Over a long period of time, huge caves can form where rock
has been dissolved.

c. Air
 The oxygen in the air can react with many metals. These reactions are
a kind of chemical weathering called oxidation. Rocks can rust if they
have a lot of iron in them.

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Rates of Weathering
 The processes of mechanical and chemical weathering generally work very
slowly.
 The rate at which rock weathers depends on a number of factors, including
a. rock composition
b. climate
c. topography

Differential Weathering
 The composition of rock greatly affects the rate at which rock weathers. The
process by which softer, less weather-resistant rock wears away and leaves
harder, more resistant rock behind.

Factors to Rate Rock Weathers

1. Rock Composition
 The rates at which these rocks weather depend mostly on the material that
holds the sediment grains together.
 For example:
a. shales and sandstones that are not firmly cemented gradually break up
to become clay and sand particles.
b. conglomerates and sandstones that are strongly cemented by silicates
resist weathering longer than some igneous rocks do.

Different rates of weathering formed these

limestone pinnacles at Nambung National
Park in Australia over millions of years.

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Amount of Exposure
 The more exposure to weathering agents that a rock receives, the
faster the rock will weather. The amount of time that the rock is
exposed and the amount of the rock’s surface area that is available for
weathering .

1. Surface Area- The part of a rock that is exposed to air, water, and
other agents of weathering is called the rock’s surface area. As a rock
breaks into smaller pieces, the surface area that is exposed increases.

2. Fractures and Joints - These fractures and joints are natural zones
of weakness within the rock. They increase the surface area of a rock
and allow weathering to take place more rapidly. They also form
natural channels through which water flows. Water may penetrate the
rock through these channels and break the rock by ice wedging. As
water moves through these channels, it chemically weathers the rock
that is exposed in the fracture or joint. The chemical weathering
removes rock material and makes the jointed or fractured area weaker.
2. Climate

 In general, climates that have alternating periods of hot and cold

weather allow the fastest rates of weathering.
a. Freezing and thawing can cause the mechanical breakdown of rock
by ice wedging.
b. Chemical weathering can then act quickly on the fractured rock.

 In warm, humid climates, chemical weathering is also fairly rapid. The

constant moisture is highly destructive to exposed surfaces.
 The slowest rates of weathering occur in hot, dry climates. The lack of water
limits many weathering processes, such as carbonation and ice wedging.

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 Weathering is also slow in very cold climates

The photo on the left shows Cleopatra’s Needle before it

was moved to New York City. The photograph on the right
shows the 3,000-yearold carvings after only one century in
New York City.

3. Topography and Elevation

 Topography, or the elevation and slope of the land surface, also influences the
rate of weathering. Because temperatures are generally cold at high elevations,
ice wedging is more common at high elevations than at low elevations.
 On steep slopes, such as mountainsides, weathered rock fragments are pulled
downhill by gravity and washed out by heavy rains. As the rock fragments slide
down the mountain or are carried away by mountain streams, they smash
against each other and break apart. As a result of the removal of these surface
rocks, new surfaces of the mountain are continually exposed to weathering.

a. Human Activities
 Rock can be chemically and mechanically broken down by the action of
humans.
 1. Mining and construction often expose rock surfaces to agents of
weathering. Mining also exposes rock to strong acids and other chemical
compounds that are used in mining processes.
 2. Construction often removes soil and exposes previously unexposed
rock surfaces.
 3. Recreational activities, such as hiking and riding all-terrain vehicles.
b. Plant and Animal Activities

 The roots of plants and trees often break apart rock.

a. Burrowing animals dig holes, exposing new rock surfaces. Some
biological wastes of animals can cause chemical weathering.
b. Caves that have large populations of bats also have large amounts of
bat guano on the cave floors. Bat guano attracts insects, such as

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millipedes and beetles. The presence of these insects speeds up
mechanical weathering, and the presence of the guano increases the
rate of certain chemical weathering processes

What is Soil ?
 a complex mixture of minerals, water, gases, and the remains of dead
organisms.
 a loose mixture of rock fragments and organic material that can support the
growth of vegetation
Soil Characteristics
1. Soil’s Parent Rock - The characteristics of soil depend largely on the rock from
which the soil was weathered.

2. Residual Soil - Soil that forms and stays directly over its parent rock.

3. Transported Soil - the weathered mineral grains within soil may be carried
away from the location of the parent rock by water, wind,
or glaciers. Soil that results from the deposition of this
material.

Soil Composition

 refers to the materials of which it is made.

 The color of soil is related to the composition of the soil.
a. Black soils are commonly rich in organic material
b. Red soils may form from iron-rich parent rock.
 Parent rock that is rich in feldspar or other minerals that contain
aluminum weathers to form soils that contain large amounts of clay.
 Parent rock that contains large amounts of quartz, such as granite,
weathers to form sandy soils.
Soil Texture

 Rock material in soil can be grouped into three main sizes:

a. Clay particles have a diameter of less than 0.002 mm.
b. Silt particles have diameters from 0.002 to 0.05 mm. These are too
small to be seen easily, but they make soil feel gritty.
c. Sand particles have diameters from 0.05 to 2 mm.

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Soil Profile
 A soil profile soil profile is a cross section of the soil and its bedrock.
 The different layers of soil are called horizons.

Three Main Horizons

1. The A horizon, or topsoil
is a mixture of organic materials and small rock particles. Almost all
organisms that live in soil inhabit the A horizon.
As organisms die, their remains decay and produce humus, a dark,
organic material.
The A horizon is also the layer from which surface water leaches
minerals.

2. The B horizon, or subsoil

contains the minerals leached from the topsoil, clay, and sometimes
humus.
In dry climates, the B horizon also may contain minerals that accumulate
as water in the soil evaporates.

3. The C horizon
consists of partially weathered bedrock.
The first stages of mechanical and chemical change happen in this bottom
layer

Soil Horizons of Residual Soils

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Soil and Climate

Climate
Climate is one of the most important factors that influence soil formation.
It determines the weathering processes that occur in a region.

These weathering processes, help to determine the composition of soil.

Types of Soils

1. Tropical Soils
In humid tropical climates, where much rain falls and where temperatures are
high, chemical weathering causes thick soils to develop rapidly. These thick,
tropical soils, called laterites (LAT uhr iets), contain iron and aluminum
minerals that do not dissolve easily in water.
Leached minerals from the A horizon sometimes collect in the B horizon.
Heavy rains, which are common in tropical climates, cause a lot of leaching of
the topsoil, and thus keep the A horizon thin. But because of the dense
vegetation in humid, warm climates, organic material is continuously added to
the soil. As a result, a thin layer of humus usually covers the B horizon.

2. Temperate Soils
In temperate climates, where temperatures range between cool and warm, and
where rainfall is not excessive, both mechanical and chemical weathering
occur.
Temperate soils have the thickest A horizon

Types of Temperate Soils

a. Pedalfer
 In areas that receive more than 65 cm of rain per year.
 Soil contains clay, quartz, and iron compounds.
b. Pedocal
 In areas that receive less than 65 cm of rain per year
 Soil contains large amounts of calcium carbonate, which makes it very
fertile and less acidic.

3. Desert and Arctic Soils

Rainfall is minimal and chemical weathering occurs slowly.
The soil is thin and consists mostly of regolith—evidence that the soil in these
areas forms mainly by mechanical weathering.
It often too warm or too cold to sustain life, so their soils have little humus.

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Tropical climates produce

thick, infertile soils.

Temperate climates
produce thick, fertile soils.

Desert and arctic

climates produce thin
soils.

Soil and Topography

The shape of the land, or topography, also affects soil formation.
Because rainwater runs down a slope, much of the topsoil of the slope
washes away.

Soil is thick at the top and

bottom of a slope.

Soil is thin along the slope.

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Lesson 3
Erosion

When rock weathers, the resulting rock particles do not always stay near the parent
rock. Various forces may move weathered fragments of rock away from where the
weathering occurred.

What is EROSION?
a process in which the materials of Earth’s surface are loosened, dissolved, or
worn away and transported from one place to another by a natural agent, such
as wind, water, ice, or gravity.

Soil Erosion
 The erosion of soil occurs worldwide and is normally a slow process.
Ordinarily, new soil forms about as fast as existing soil erodes. However, some
forms of land use and unusual climatic conditions can upset this natural
balance. Once the balance is upset, soil erosion often accelerates.
 Soil erosion is considered by some scientists to be the greatest environmental
problem that faces the world today.

Types of Soil Erosion

Gullying and Sheet Erosion

Gullying
 One farming technique that can accelerate soil erosion is the improper
plowing of furrows, or long, narrow rows. Furrows that are plowed up
and down slopes allow water to run swiftly over soil. As soil is washed
away with each rainfall, the furrows become larger and form small
gullies.

Sheet Erosion
 It may occur where continuous rainfall washes away layers of the
topsoil.
 Wind also can cause sheet erosion during unusually dry periods. The
soil, which is made dry and loose by a lack of moisture, is carried away
by the wind as clouds of dust and drifting sand. These wind-borne
particles may produce large dust storms.

Results of Soil Erosion

Constant erosion reduces the fertility of the soil by removing the A horizon,
which contains the fertile humus.
The B horizon, which does not contain much organic matter, is difficult to farm
because it is much less fertile than the A horizon. Without plants, the B horizon
has nothing to protect it from further erosion.
Within a few years, all the soil layers could be removed by continuous erosion.

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Soil Conservation

Erosion rates are affected not only by natural factors but also by human
activities. Certain farming and grazing techniques and construction projects
can also increase the rate of erosion.
Destructive soil erosion can be prevented by soil conservation methods.
a. People, including city planners and some land developers, have begun to
recognize the environmental impact of land development and are
beginning to implement soil conservation measures.
b. Farmers are also looking for new ways to minimize soil erosion and thus
preserve fertile topsoil.
1. Contour Plowing - soil is plowed in curved bands that follow the
contour, or shape, of the land and prevents water
from flowing directly down slopes, so it prevents
gullying.
2. Strip-Cropping - crops are planted in alternating bands. The cover crop
protects the soil by slowing the runoff of rainwater.
The combination of these two methods can reduce
soil erosion by 75%.
3. Terracing- The construction of steplike ridges that follow the contours
of a sloped field. To prevent or slow the downslope
movement of water and thus prevent rapid erosion.
4. Crop Rotation - farmers plant one type of crop one year and a different
type of crop the next. It helps to slow runoff and hold the
soil in place. The main purpose of other types of crop
rotation is to help maintain soil fertility

Gravity and Erosion

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Gravity causes rock fragments to move down a slope. This movement of fragments
down a slope is called mass movement. mass movement. Some mass movements occur
rapidly, and others occur very slowly.

1. Rockfalls and Landslides

Rockfalls
 is the fastest kind of mass movement. Rocks in rock falls often range in size
from tiny fragments to giant boulders.
Landslides
 When masses of loose rock combined with soil suddenly fall down a slope.
 Heavy rainfall, spring thaws, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes can trigger
landslides.

2. Mudflows and Slumps

Mudflows
 The rapid movement of a large amount of mud creates
 Occur in mountainous regions during sudden, heavy rainfall or as a result of
volcanic eruptions
Slumps
 The block of soil and rock then slides along the curved slope of the surface.
 Occurs along very steep slopes. Saturation by water and loss of friction with
underlying rock causes loose soil and rock to slip downhill over the solid rock.
3. Solifluction
 is the process by which water-saturated soil slips over hard or frozen layers.
 Occurs in arctic and mountainous climates, where the subsoil is permanently
frozen.

4. Creep
 The extremely slow downhill movement of weathered rock material.
 Factors contribute to soil creep
a. Water separates rock particles, which allows them to move freely.
b. Growing plants produce a wedgelike pressure that separates rock particles
and loosens the soil.
c. The burrowing of animals and repeated freezing and thawing loosen rock
particles and allow gravity to slowly pull the particles downhill.

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An earthquake in El Salvador caused Heavy rains in the Philippines

this dramatic landslide caused this destructive mudflow

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Performance Tasks

PT1
Direction : Fill in the Venn Diagram to determine the similarities and differences of the three types
of rocks

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PT2

Direction : Fill in the missing word/term to complete the rock cycle. You may refer to the box below.

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PT3

Direction : Reflect upon: Rocks are all around us. It is used for building materials, cars, roads, and
appliances. As a college student, how can you promote the sustainable development in
utilizing these resources? Give some suggestions.

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PT4

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PT5

Soil is an essential component of the earth’s crust. It enabled life to exist and provides the
services necessary for human survival.
a. What is the effect of soil erosion?
b. What will you do to protect the community?

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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PT6
Rock Cycle Project

Objective: Create a project that illustrates knowledge of the rock cycle and the three types of rocks.
Required Components of the Project: 5 students in a group

A. Detailed illustration of the rock cycle including all the steps and rocks with labels.
 These words should be used in your project: weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction,
cementation, metamorphism, heat, pressure, melting, cooling, solidification, sediment, rock,
metamorphic rock, magma, and igneous rock.
 Give one example of each type of rock (sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous).
 Tell how each type of rock is formed.
 The project must be neat, colorful, creative, and show full knowledge of the rock cycle and the
three types of rocks.
B. Types of Projects Allowed:
 Poster board
 Tri-fold board
 3D model
 Shadowbox
 PowerPoint presentation

C. Creative Ideas:
 Instead of drawing everything, cut pictures out of magazines.
 Use pictures from the Internet.
 Bring in real rocks to use as examples of each type of rock.
 Make 3D models or have pieces on your board stick out.
 Glue real rocks on your board.
 Show the rock cycle in a way you haven’t seen it before.
 If doing a PowerPoint presentation, add in links to interesting websites or games about rocks.

D. Submission of Project: Before Midterm Dec. 7, 2021

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Understanding Directed Assess

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Rubric PT6
25 20 18 15 Points
Concept The student The student The student The student
Understanding demonstrates a demonstrates an demonstrates demonstrates a
mastery of the adequate some confusion weak
concepts related understanding of about the understanding of
to the major the concepts concepts related the concepts
groups of rocks, related to the to the major related to the
how they form major groups of groups of rocks, major groups of
and how they fit rocks, how they how they form, rocks, how they
into the rock form and how and how they fit form and how
cycle. they fit into the into the rock they fit into the
rock cycle. cycle. rock cycle.
Neatness Project is very Project is Project is Project lacks
/Grammar neat. No moderately neat moderately neat, neatness with
misspellings or and has no more but has three or sloppy
grammatical than two more misspelling handwriting or
errors. misspelling and and/or artwork.
/or grammatical grammatical
errors. errors.
Creativity Project is Project shows Project shows Poorly
excellent . good effort and average effort drawn/created
Obvious , high quality and quality showing obvious
quality effort is signs of rushing
shown. or lack of effort.
Delivery Student used a Student’s voice is Student Student
clear voice and clear . Student incorrectly incorrectly
correct, precise pronounces most pronounces pronounces
pronunciation of words correctly terms or terms, and speaks
terms. audience too quietly for
members have students in the
difficulty hearing back of the class
the presentation. to hear.
TOTAL :

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Learning Resources

1. Hesser, D. T. & Leach, S. S. (2012). Focus on Earth Science. Merill Publishing

2. Jarumayan, G.A. & Sadili, M.V. (2003). The Changing Earth. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388
Quezon Avenue, Quezon City.

3. King, C. (2010). The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences. Retrieved from
https://www.topfreebooks.org/earth-science-books-online/

4. Lianko, A. (2001). Introduction to Earth Science. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 388 Quezon
Avenue, Quezon City.

5. Norton, W.H. (2012). The Elements of Geology. Retrieved from

http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40404/40404-h/40404-h.htm#Page_233

6. Tarbuck, Lutgens & Tasa. (2012). Earth Science. Pearson Education, Inc.

Rock Cycle
https://youtu.be/gY75XbwMM4o
https://youtu.be/2rqCGcOffsQ

Rock and Rock Cycle

https://youtu.be/s3du0C_fuoE

Weathering and Erosion

https://youtu.be/R-Iak3Wvh9c

Layers of Soil
https://youtu.be/bgqea0E2eAY

Types of Rocks
https://youtu.be/17l2LrjZi9o

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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