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© © All Rights Reserved
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Vevey YY,
DC Circuits and
AC Circuits
Introduction to Basic Terminologies in DC Circuit
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Mesh Current Analysis
Nodal Voltage Analysis
Thevenin’s Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Superposition Theorem
Basic terminologies of AC
RMS and Average value of halfwave and Full wave
alternating quantity
Fundamentals of Single-phase AC Circuits
Analysis of R-L, R-C, R-L-C series circuits
Fundamentals of three phase AC system
Three-Phase Winding Connections
Relationship of Line and Phase Voltages, and Currents in
a Delta and Star-connected System 2 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN DC CIRCUITS
1.1.1 Basic Electric Circuit
Basically an electric circuit consists of four main parts—
Source: Supply electric energy to the load (Battery, generator)
Load: Consuming electric energy from source (Lamp, fan, motor)
Connecting lines: Transmitting electrical energy from source to load (Wires, Cables
transmission lines)
Switch: When switch is closed, the power is transferred from source to load. When
is opened, the current cannot flow in the circuit. Load is disconnected
from source.
1.1.2 Current and Potential Difference and Resistance
Sing
Current
The flow of free electron in a metal is called Electric current. The more electrons per secon;
that pass through the circuit, the greater is the current. It is denoted by I .The unit of currey
is the ampere [A].
One ampere is defined as the current in a circuit when one coulomb of charge passes i
given point in one second
I= 4 oor =f
Potential Difference or Voltage
The ability of a charged particle to do work is called potential.
Energy required to move a unit charge through an element is called potential difference.
The potential difference between two points in an electrical circuit is called voltage.
Voltage between two points is one volt if it requires one joule of energy to move one
coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
1.1.3 Ohm's law
e onal to
Ohm’s law states that the the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional wo
potential difference across it provided the temperature remains constant. Thus,
fav
l=—V
R
where R is the constant of proportionality called resistance DC Circuits and AC Circuits 3
V
1 R (or) R
1.1.4 Basic Circuit Components
Resistance (R)
The property of the material that restricts the flow of current is called the resistance of that
is denoted by R. The unit of resistance is the ohm [0]
mat
One ohm is defined as the resistance which will have a current of | ampere flowing
through it when 1 volt is connected across it, i.e.
The resistance of a material is depends upon several factors
(a) Type of material
(b) Length of the conductor
(c) Cross-sectional area and
(d) Temperature
@ The resistance of a conductor depends upon the type of material
© The resistance of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor.
© The resistance of a metallic conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional
area of the conductor.
‘© The factors governing the resistance of a conductor at a given temperature may be
summarized mathematically as follows
Ree
a
where, p = resistivity, in ohm-meters (0-m)
1 = length, in meters (m)
a = cross-sectional area, in square meters (m2)
In the above equation the rho (p) is the constant of proportionality and is called the
resistivity of the material, Resistivity is a physical property of a material and is measured in
ohm-meters (Q-m) in the SI system.
Effect of Temperature on Resistance
Generally the resistance of the material changes with change in temperature. The change in
resistance per ohm per degree temperature variation is called is temperature coefficient of
resistance. It is denoted by the symbol a.
Ry = Ry (1+ a0)
where, R, = resistance at 0°C
R, = resistance at temperature 0°C
4, = temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C 4 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Inductance (L)
Inductance is the property of a material by virtue of which if opposes any charge of
or direetion of electric current passing through the conductor. The unit of inductance jg
pax
y
yt
re Pao watts
There are thus three possible formulae which may be used for calculating Power can be
measured using a device called a wattmeter.
Electrical Energy
Electric energy is energy newly derived from electrical potential energy. When loosely used to
describe energy absorbed or delivered by an electrical circuit (for example, one provided by
an electric power utility)
If the power is measured in watts and the time in seconds then the unit of energy is watt-
seconds or joules. If the power is measured in kilowatts and the time in hours then the unit
of energy is kilowatt-hours, often called the ‘unit of electricity’. The ‘electricity meter’ in the
home records the number of kilowatt-hours used and is thus an energy meter.
Electrical energy = power x time
ni
What is the resistance of a coil which draws a current of (a) 50 mA and (b) 200 yA from a
120 V supply?
Solution:
120
ppp Fe. —;
I 50 x 10"
0 2
= 120 _ 12000 24002 (or) 2.4kQ
0.05 5
120. 120
b) Resistance R =
200 x 10° 0.0002
1200000
= = 600000 2 6 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
eae
‘A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a
in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
950 V supply. Determine (a) the curren 4,
Wing
Solution:
rent [=
Power P = V =I, from which, cu 5
00 102
100 2 S=04A
a) Current 3
_ 2500,
4 25.0
b) Resistance
nacurrent of 4 mA flows through a resistance of 5 kq.
Calculate the power dissipated whe!
Solution:
R= (4x 10-3) (5x 10°)
Power
= 16x10 x 5x10 80 x 10°*
= 0.08 W
= 4x10°3 and R= 5% 10° then from Ohm's lax
Alternatively, since 7
Voltage V = IR=4x103 x 5x10 = 20V
Hence, Power P
will flow when it is connected to!
‘An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 9. What current
240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle.
=Vx«1=20x4x 10> = 80mV
Solution:
V__ 240
es
Current, =
R30
P = VI= 240 x 8= 1920W = 1.92 kW
= power rating of kettle
yurrent
A 12 Vv battery is connected across a load having a resistance of 40 2. Determine the ct
flowing in the load, the power consumed and the energy dissipated in 2 minutes.
Power, DC Cirevits and AC Circuits 7
Solution.
Current 1! VA
R40
Power consumed Pow 16W
Frergy dissipated power v time = (16W) (2 #604) - 427
since 17-1 Wey
Determine the pd. which must be applied to a 2 kO resistor in order that a current of 10 mA
flow through it
Solution:
Resistance R = 2#kN=2«10' = 20000
0 10
Current 1 =10mA= 1010? Aor” or A-001A
* 1000
From Ohm's law, potential difference, V = [R = (0.01) (2000) = 20 V
11.6 DC Circuits
Interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements is called an electric network as shown
in fig 1.1. A network that contains atleast one closed path is called an electric circuit as shown
in fig 1.2
Ry
—wnw-———
Os
a
——
v
Fig. 1.1 Network Fig. 1.2 Electric Circuit
Branch
A part of the network which connects the various points of the network with one another is
called @ branch. A branch may contain one or more elements. In the fig 1.3. AB, BC, BE and
CF are the branches
A iy f Ui .
fy
.
c
i;
NNN
o R F
Fig. 1.3. Electric Network 8 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Node
A point at which two or more elements are joined together #8 called node, In the fig 3 5
iy
re the nodes of the network.
A, B,C, D. E and F
Junction point
A point at which two or more branches meet is called a junction point. Point B and & ate ty
are
Junction points in the network shown in the fig. 3.3.
Mesh
A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops. All meshes are loops. But all loops are ,,,
meshes. In the fig 3.3, ABED and BCFE are the meshes of the network.
1.1.7 Classification of Electrical Network
Electrical network may be classified into four groups
1. Active and passive network
2. Unilateral and bilateral network
3. Linear and nonlinear network
4. Lumped and distributed network
Active and Passive Elements
Active element: The source of energy is called active element. They may be voltage or current
source. Generator and transistor are the example of active elements.
Passive elements: These elements stores or dissipates energy. Resistor, inductor and capacitor
are the example of passive elements.
Unilateral and Bilateral Elements
Unilateral elements: Voltage current relation is not same for both the direction. Diode and
transistor are the example of unilateral elements.
Bilateral elements: Voltage current relation is same for both the direction. Resistor is a0
example for bilateral elements.
Linear and Nonlinear Elements
Linear element: If the element obeys the principle of superposition and homogeneity, thet
is said to be linear element.
For V-I relationship curve, if the relation between V and I are linear, then the element >
said to be linear. Resistor, inductor and capacitor are the example of linear elements.
Nonlinear element: If the network does not obey the principle of superposition a
homogeneity, then it is said to be nonlinear element. Diode and transistors are the example °
nonlinear elements. DC Circuits and AC Circuits 9
Lumped and Distributed Elements
Lumped element: Physically separable elements are called lumped elements. Resistor
inductor, capacitor and voltage source are the examples of lumped element.
Distributed element: A distributed element is one which is not separable for electrical purpose.
Transmission line has distributed resistance, inductance and capacitance are the examples of
distributed element.
1.2 KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
Kirchhoff’s laws is an electric circuit can be classified as
(i) Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(ii) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s current law deals with the element currents meeting at a junction, which is a
meeting point of two are more elements. Kirchhoff’s voltage law deals with element voltages
in a closed loop.
1.2.1 Kirchhoff's Current Law
Kirchhoff’s currents law states that the algebraic sum of element currents meeting at a junction
is zero.
Consider a junction P wherein four elements, carrying currents /,, 1, /, and J,, are meeting
as shown in Fig. 1.4
Fig. 1.4 Currents Meeting at a Junction
Note that currents J, and J, are flowing out the junction while the currents J, and J, are
flowing into the junction. Accor
The above equation can be rearranged as
£+tha=ith
KCL can also be stated as “At any junction, the sum of element currents that flows out of
the node is equal to the sum of element currents that flows into the node.” 10 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
1.2.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of element voltages around a close
EU lop
zero.
Consider a closed loop in a circuit wherein four elements with voltages V,, V,, y_ 4.
>» V, and y
are present as shown in Fig. 1.5
I vn
je 4
Vs
Fig. 1.5 Voltages in a Closed Loop
Assigning positive sign for voltage drop and negative sign for voltage rise, when the loop
is traced in clockwise direction, according to KVL
V,-V,-V,+V,=0
The above equation can be rearranged as
Vi+V,=V,+V,
KVL can also be stated as “In any closed loop, the algebraic sum of elements voltage
drops is equal to the algebraic sum of the element voltage rises in that loop”.
1.2.3 V-I Relationship of Circuit Elements
The voltage and current relationship for resistor, inductor & capacitor elements is shown in
below table.
[_ Circuit elements Voltage(v) Current(A) Power(W) |
| R(Q) V =IxR P=VxI |
|
= |
| aire i a
| L(H) Vv a i P=Li 7 |
| i eo}
: Vv
cH v=ifia | jig p-cv ©
| Cc ince dt
1.2.4 Resistors Connected in Seri
Two resistors are said to be connected in series when there is only one common point bet
them and no other element is connected in that common point. Resistors connected in 5
carry the same current. Consider three resistors R,, R, and R, connected in series as shown o
Fig. 1.6. With the supply voltage of E, voltages across the three resistors are V,, V, 24 2
weed
ries DC Circuits and AC Circuits 11
Ry & Ry
fe Vive yy
4 E »
Fig. 1.6 Resistors in Series
As per Ohm's law
Rl V,=R; V,=R,1
Applying KVL.
E=V,+V,+/,
= (R,+R,+RJI=R I
Thus for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.6,
E=R,1
where E is the circuit voltage, / is the circuit current and R, is the equivalent resistance
Here
R=R, +R, +R, :
This is true when two are more resistors are connected in series. When n numbers of
resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is given by
RR, + Ry Ft osessne +R,
12.5 Voltage Division Rule
Consider two resistors connected in series. Then
Figure 1.7 Two Resistors Connected in Series
VERE V,=R,1
Applying KVL,
E=V,4V,
E=(R,+R)1 andhence /=E/(R,+R,)
Total voltage of E is dropped in two resistors. Voltage across the resistors are given by 12. Electrical and Electronics Engineering
V,
V,=& -
R +R
Voltage across same resistance
Voltage across element = Total Voltage * cal rosslance
1.2.6 Resistors Connected in Parallel
n both are connected across the same pa
ir
said to be connected in parallel wher
ected in parallel will be equal. Conside,
oltages across the resistors conn
Two resistors are
din parallel as shown in Fig. 1.8.
of nodes (A & B). V
s R, and R, connecte
As per Ohm’s law,
Applying KCL at node A
where E is the circuit voltage, I is the circuit current an ssistal
. ie circuit cul i i c
rrent and R. , is the equivalent resist nee
Here 1 RR
From the above Taga:
RR,
Thus Rag = Rak
When n numbers of
127 oe Between Series and Parallel
eens
S. __ Series Circuits
iL The current passing through all t all the |
connected is | is the same.
‘There is only one path for flow of |
current. _
3. | Total voltage applied across series
circuit is equal to sum of the voltage
drop across all the elements connected
in series.
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 13
istors are connected in parallel, generalizing R, can be obtained from
~ Parallel Circuits
Voltage across each element connected in
parallel is the same.
The path for flow of current are more than |
one.
The total current flowing through the
parallel combination is equal to sum of
all the currents flowing through all the
elements connected in parallel.
4. |The equivalent resistance is greater
than the greatest resistance connected
in series circuit.
12.8 Current Division Rule
The equivalent resistance is less than the
least resistance connected in the parallel
circuit.
Referring to Fig. 3.8, it is noticed the total current I gets divided into I, and I,. The branch
currents are obtained as follows.
R,
=~
R,+R;
R
1, t
7 RFR,
Current across element = Total Current x
12.9 Electrical energy sources
I
Current through opposite resistance
Total resistance
Basically the electrical energy sources are divided into 2 types. One is voltage source and
another one is current source. 14 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Electrical Energy Sources
|
{ |
Voltage Current
|
| |
Independent Dependent Independent Dependent
vevs ccVvs vccs cccs
(Voltage Control (Current Control (Voltage Control (Current Control
Voltage Source) Voltage Source) Current Source) Current Source)
1.2.10 Voltage Source
Independent voltage source
A voltage source has a specified voltage across it’s terminals, independent of the curren
flowing through it. Such a voltage source is designated as an independent voltage source,
Is
Practical
= Ideat
AC Source DC Voltage Source Vi Characteristics
Fig. 1.9 Voltage Source and Its Characteristics
Dependent voltage source
Controlled sources are very much useful in electronic circuits. There are two types of voltage
controlled sources. They are
1. Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
2. Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)
Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS): The output voltage across the interested component
depends on some other input voltage source.
Current controlled voltage source (CCVS): The output voltage across the intereste!
component depends on some other input current source. DC Circuits and AC Circuits 15
N+ NC+ i 1 ;
ar °
Vref Vref 6,
aVeel u
‘
Ne NC- |
1.10 Votage Conroied Voltage Source Fig.1.11 Current Controlled Yolage Source
Fig.1-
12.11 Current Source
Independent current source
current through it, independent of the voltage
e has a specified value of
rent source is
A current soures rT |
designated as an independent current source
ring across it. Such @ cu
appes
I
4 ° Vs a
\
t
Fig. 1.12 Current Source and its Characteristics
Dependent current source
There are two types of current controlled source. They are
1, Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
2, Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS): The output current from the source is controlled
by some other input voltage source.
Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS): The output current from the source is controlled
by some other input current source.
te
- rf? t lee a
| + } —-
Electrical 7 Bi, vw .
circuit v i= ™ a
~ e
=. ne
Fig.l. Y
ig.1.13 Voltage Controlled Current Source Fig.1.14 Current Controlled Current Source 1.2.12 Source Transformation
A practical voltage source is having an ideal voltage source in series with it’s internal
as shown in fig 1.15 (a). A practical current source is having an ideal current source
with it’s internal resisi
eSistay,
in pan
ance as shown in fig 1.15(b). Paral
le
oe
Fig 1.15 (a) A Practical Voltage Source (b) A Practical Current Source
Let us consider both sources are delivering same amount of current to the load resistor R
Fig. 1.15 (c) Voltage Source Delivering _(d) Current Source Delivering
Current I, to Load Resistor R, Current I, to Load Resistor R,
Current delivered by V, to load R,,
\%
oo
RAR, a
Current delivered by I, to load R,,
I a
= x
oR oe o
From (1) and (2) DC Circuits and AC Circuits 17
WN —
| "| ay
“Yd e 2
Q Qa ne
\ | )
| |
‘ 4
Fig 1.15 (e) Voltage Source (D) Current Source
i R= R,=R
V,
Vs (or) Is = 7
1.2.13 Open and Short Circuit
Open Circuit
Consider the circuit given in fig. 1.16(a)
Ry Rs
bat
7 1 a op-¥°
Fig. 1.16 (a)
The above circuit is having open output terminals. There won’t be any current flow
between A and B. Hence no voltage drop will occur in R,. The voltage drop across R, will
appear as V, across AB, i.e V, = IR,. Current in R, = 0.
Short Circuit
Consider the circuit given in fig. 1.16(b).
R, Ry
lp lh
Fig. 1.16 (b) 18 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
als. Short circuit is having ng
ted load termin 7
terminals I is a "Bit
tput also, egg
The above circuit is having short cir ee
resistance. Hence voltage drop across sho circuited er uel = f
Current through short circuited terminals I is sa
i en in fi 6(c)
Let us consider the circuit given in fig Lt
Ry
R : a
Fig. 1.16 (c)
In the above circuit, the current is delivered by the voltage source V,- When curr
reaches the node ‘a’, it will follow the short circuited line since short circuited line js havin
negligible resistance. No current will flow through R,. So the circuit Present after the sh,
circuit will be omitted for analysis.
Problem
By voltage division rule, find the voltage across each resistance connected in series for i},
network given in figure 1.17.
Solution:
Voltage across 502, V4,
Seer oo e152 62 V
20+ 25+ 50
Voltage across 252, Vos
bas —> x 100= 26.316 V
20+ 25+ 50
Voltage across 202, Veg
son
_ V a
20+ 25+ 50
Ldce eo
By current division rule, find the ii
Ae Current through each resistor in the circuit shown ©
200 v
250 V se
x100= 21V
Fig. 1.17
100A solution: /
‘The current through 22 resistor (yy)
simplifying the circuit, we get
ar fue
+)
1004 (4) 20
EE
The current through 30 resistor (Lg)
simplifying the circuit, we get
>| 1,0
af) 30
The current through 42 resistor (Iq)
Simplifying the circuit, we get
1004 )
40
The current through 5Q resistor (Iq)
Simplifying the circuit, we get
al 1,0
100A (A)
50
Rear
Rega
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 19
In the above circuit,
1
! 1.282
a os
7
TT, 1 0.7823
3.45
Current through 2,
1.28
lig= x100= 39 A
20 241.28
In the above circuit,
Current through 32,
I = 03
30 3+ 1.053
x 100= 26 A
In theabove circuit,
1 1
Rk =— == 0.96772
93
Ali 1.033
Dae
Current through 42,
0.9677
=— = 19.49
404+ 0.9677 A
Where
1 ott
= + + 2= 1.033
Ry 23 5 50
Reyy = 0.9677 Q
Current through 50,
0.9677
Ing = «100 =
sa = Fg. 9g77 *100= 16.21 20 — Electrical and Electronics Engineering
are 19 each. Fi
All the resistances in figure 1.19
10
10 ANN
AN { oe
ANN
> 10, ]
10 _ANN—
AN { 10
=
nd the value of current I
[
Fig. 1.19
Solution:
‘The total circuit is simplified into single resistance 1n series with 10V source
19 05a
y ——wn ——
: own 19 0sa 10, |
, an :
7 159 —
L__»~~n—_
rovl +
10 0750
i
wv + |
1.75 ohms
10
Current | = —>=
Tag TAA
Convert the following current source (figure 1.20) into equivalent voltage source
10A
5a ee
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 21
solution:
WA. R= 50 Equivalent voltage source
: 1x5 =50V
ya LxR= 1x5 sa
| WA, *
Qov
pon
Conver the following voltage source (figure 1.21) into equivalent current source.
100
vw
) 100V
Fig. 1.21
Solution:
Given V, = 100V, R = 10 Equivalent current source:
Vv, _ 100
=t=—=10A
= R 10
10A
Calculate the effective resistances of the following contribution of resistance and the
voltage drop across each resistance when a PD of 60V is applied between points A and B
(Fig. 1.22).
30
x c 18a D 8a 8 22 Electrical and Electronics Engineering ha
Solution:
Resistance between A and C = 6|3= 2.0
Resistance of branch ACD = 18 + 2— 20Q
Now, there are two parallel paths between points A_ and D of resistances 20 © and s¢
Hence, resistance between A and D = 20|) 5= 42
-. Resistance between A and B = 4 + 8 = 122
Total circuit current = 60/12 = 5A
Current through 50 resistanc
Current in branch ACD
PD across 30 and 60 resistors
PD across 180 resistors
PD across 5Q@ resistors
PD across 80 resistors
face
Calculate the values of different current for the circuit shown in figure 1.23. What is the tow
value of conductance and resistance?
ors
a 0435 5 025 c
if 035,
1A a YI
Fig. 1.23
Solution:
As seen / = I, + I, + J,. The current division takes place at point B.
G
h =I
1 + Gy + G;
0.1
=12x 2A
0.6
T, = 12x 0.2/0.6 =4A
G,. = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 =0.68 DC Circuits and AC Circuits 23
1 I ! tot 2s
+ : 5!
Gye Gay Gp
V8 ohm
ns
oo
A resistance of 100 is connected in series with two resistances each of 150 arranged in parallel
What resistance must be shunted across this parallel combination so that the total current taken
shall be 15A with 20V applied?
Solution:
‘The circuit connections are shown in figure 3.30.
Voltage drop across 1022 resistor
=15x10=15V
Voltage drop across parallel combination
Vig = 20-15=5V
Hence, voltage across each
parallel resistance is SV.
h 150
A 100 A 8 B
ls 150
Aisa R
20v
7
Fig. 1.24
Find the effective resistance of the network shown in figure 1.25.
8a 6a
A B c 80, D
a 120
80
v
Fig. 1.25 24 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Solution:
Resistance across AB, Ray > 40
(8x12) 96
Resistance across BC Rac = 43" = 3g
48Q
6x8x8
Resistance across CD Rep = eceecercne
1.350
Resistance across AD = Rap =4 + 4.8 + 1.35
= 10.15Q
Calculate the currents I, and I, and the voltages V, and V, for the series, parallel circuit show:
in figure 1.26.
R, R
40 50 T
I; t t
iE RS 38,
R, Sea le y
Fig. 1.26
Solution:
Resistor 50 and 32 are connected in series.
R,=5+3=80
80 resistor is parallel with 60 resistor and the equivalent resistance
8x6
Rp= "8.3.40
Pe 846
Total resistance
R=4 + 3.42 = 7.420
. Nee 20)
Source current is |] = = 40.
R 7.42
= 2.690A
Branch currents are
8
1 = 2.69 Jen.
1 a6 S44,
h= 2.69 DC Circuits and AC Circuits 25
Voltage drops are
V,=1, x6 = 1.54 x 6 = 9.24
Veh x3=115 x3 = 3.45V
problem 17
fo the circuit in the piven figure 1.27, calculate the load current f, across R,
or
load voltage V
ross, . and power consumed by the load (R, )
acTOss:
20
20v
Fig. 1.27
Solution:
Steps:
(a) Assume current direction in each loop. Usually the current direction is taken from
positive terminal of the battery.
20 30
Q
(6) Form loop equations.
Loop (1)
By Kirchoff’s voltage law,
= 21, +241)
20=41,+ 4, (D
Loop (2)
25 = 31,4 2(,+1,)
2% =21,+ J, 2)
SIE lt] 26 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Solving (1) and (2) by matrix method,
1,
1-4 and 1,
1 1
|
die | 20-416
}2 5
po 2
4, las 5] 100 -S0 = 50
4
2 | > 00-40 = 60.
45
1-4-2 3154
16
375A
16
By Kirchoff’s Current law
I, = It, = 3.125 + 3.75 = 6.875 A
Load voltage, V, = I, xR, = 6.875 X 2 = 13.75V
Load power, P, = I} xR, = (6.875)? x 2 = 94.53 Watts
1.3 MESH AND NODAL ANALYSIS
1.3.1 Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis is a useful technique to find the current in each branch and loop of the electric
circuit. When the network has large number of voltage sources, mesh analysis is applied.
Consider the circuit given in fig 1.28 (a). Let us find the current in each loop using mest
method.
Ry Ra Rs
Ry
Fig. 1.28 (a)
Steps:
ve at)
(i) The given circuit consist of three individual loops, since .it does not have #”
crossovers —_—
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 27
Current direction is marked in each loop
iii)
AANA al
|
F a E
Fig. 1.28 (b)
Let us assume that current flow in each loop is one direction. Generally current
direction is assumed from positive terminal of the battery. In the middle loop, we can
assume any direction for current. Regarding polarity, the current entering point in the
resistor is marked as +ve and current leaving point is marked as -ve.
(iii) Forming loop equations
By Kirchhoff's voltage law, in any loop
Sum of the voltage rise = sum of the voltage drops.
First loop: [A B G H]
E,-1,R, + Rl) =0
E,=hR+ Rh -h)
E, = (R,+ Rah -Ryl
Note: While writing loop equation for the first loop, go along the direction of /,. If
any current comes opposite to /,, take it as negative. Hence the current in R, is (/,- 1,
with respect to first loop.
Second loop: [BC F G]
There is no voltage source in the second loop. Therefore the potential rise in the
second loop is zero.
= [yRy + Rolly fy) + Ry)
= - WRy+ (Ry + Ryt Rp - Rs
Note: While writing loop equation for second loop, go along the direction of
any current comes opposite to /, take it as negative. If any current flows in the same
direction of I, then takes it as positive. Hence current through R, is (/,—/,) and current
through R, is SU, -1) -
Third loop: [CD EF]
~ Ey = IR, +R - bs)
~ Ey =~ Roly + (Ry + Rss QB) 2B Electrical and Electronics Engineering
p equation for third loop. £0 along the dir
Note: While writing 100 jor thi to .
Note: Womes opposite 107, take it as negative If current flows in qo” 1
7, take it as positive: The current through R, is 7, + /,) with ie San ‘,
i © thy ee,
diving the loop equations that
(iv) Matrix method for s
4s (1), (2) and (3) can be written in matrix from ag
Three loop equation
B | [RAR R, 0 ny
0 RR + Rt Re Rs ||
-E, 0 Ry Rt Roh
R+R, R, 0
i ne tee CU
0 - Rs Ry + Rs
E, -R, 0
=| 0 R+RtRs —Rs
-E, - Rs R,+ Rs
E 0
0 -Rs
- Ey Ry+Rs
-* 5,
R,+Ry+Rs 0
-R .
1.3.2 Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis is a useful technique to find the voltag
node is the meeting point of two or more branches.
current sources, nodal analysis is applied.
(a) Consider the circuit given in fig 1.29 (a). Let us find the node voltages
es at each node of the electric circu
When the network has large number
using
Ry Ry 5
Ry . +.
Fig. 1.29 (a) DC Circuits and AC Circuits 29
Steps k the nodes. Take one of the nodes as reference
(i) Marl nodes as VV, Vet. Also mark the currey
other nodes 3
and name the currents as 7, 7, ... ete
node. Assume the voltages of
‘mt directions in all the branches
Fig. 1.29 (b)
(ui) Ateach node, write Kirchoff’s current law e
including the reference node (i.e. N = 3)
N-1
quations. The circuit contains three nodes
3-1 = 2 equations have to be written
At node 1, by Kirchoff’s current law
Leh+l,
(dd)
At node
L+h=1,
(2) 30 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
> equations,
(iii) Matrix method for solving node equation
as
Equations (1) and (2) can be written in matrix form
el
The node voltages are given by,
A
(>) Consider the circuit given in fig. 1,30
y=4y,-4
Fig. 1.30
Let V, and V, be the voltage at node | and 2,
At node 1, by Kirchhott’s current law ar node 2. by Kirchhof?'s current law
node 2.
EV,
RR
Ebb
ROR RRR,
EM lia 4
ROR IR RR,
sions (1) and (2) in matrix form,
fio4
TORR,
Fquat
Now,
OS __
OC Circuits and AC Cirewits 31
Q) 32. Electrical and Electronics Engineerind ‘a
work for figure 1.31(@), using mesh ,
I
ch currents in the ne :
Determine the branch current aly,
Fig. 1.31 (a)
Solution:
Let the current directions be as shown in figure 1.31 (b), Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage lay toy
closed circuit ABDA, we get
B
19 nin
yy
or x-y+z= @ ine yy
Similarly, circuit BCDB gives . ya
~(x -2)-5+ (y+ 2)-2=0orx- Gi) ne Sa Nc
Lastly, from circuit ADCEA, we get RY ay
-y-(y+ + 10-(xt+ y= 0 I ie Ga
x+3y+z=10 (iii) «+y) 10 Wyen ye
from equation (i) and (ii) we get z = 0 | at
substituting z = 0 either in equation (i) or (ii) (saa a ——
and in equation (iii) we get —
Fig. 1.31 (b)
x-y=5 (iv)
x+3y=10 (v)
subtracting equation (v) from (iv) we get
-4y=-Sory=S/4=1.24A
equation (iv) gives x = 25/4A= 6.25A
Current in branch AB = current in branch BC = 6.25 A
Current in branch BD =0; current in branch AD =current in branch DC = 1.25 A
Current in branch CEA = 6.25 + 1.25=7.5A OC Circuits and AC Circuits 33
analysis. find mesh current in each loop given in fig 1.32
Using mesh 100 20 180
pm [ WA — W—
L |S | Saf
cov as e =150v
L |
Fig. 1.32
Solution:
i) Write loop equations.
For loop (1),
100 = 101, + 20, - 1)
100 = 101, + 201, - 201,
100 = 301, - 201, i)
For loop (2),
0 = 201, +300, +1) + 204,-1) -
0 = 201, + 301, + 301, + 201, - 201,
0 = - 201, + 701, + 301, Q)
For loop (3)
150= 151, +30(,+1,)
150 = 301, + 451, )
(ii) Arranging equations in matrix form,
rl 30-20 off,
0 |=|-20 70 30/14,
ls0} | 0 30 4si4,
30-20 0
(iy 4=|-20 710 30
0 30 45
= 30(70 x 45 - 30 x 30) + 20(-20 x 45)
= 30 (2250) +20 (-900) = 49500 34 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
|100 20 0
eg 707730
[150 30 45
= 100 (70x45 ~ 30 30) + 20-150 x30)
= 100 (2250) +20 (- 4500) = 13500
eee
30 100 0
*”~\_30 0 30
0 150 45
30 (0 x 45 - 150 x 30) - 100 (-20 x 45)
= 30 (-4500) - 100(-900) = -45000
eee
30-20 100
4=)_50 70 0
0 30 150
= 30(70 x 150 - 30 x 0) +20 (-20 x 150)+100 (-20 x30)
= 30 (10500) - 20 (-3000) +100 (-600) = 195000
(iv) The current values are
135000
aoe =2.2BA
"449500
4, _ -45000
I= = T= 0.90!
2° "A 49500 an
4, _ 195000
Lj=—= =3.94A
3°" 49500
(v) Verification of Answers:
Substitute the values of /,, I, and J, in equation (2)
O= -201,+ 701, + 301,
= -20 x 2.73 + 70 x (0.909) + 30 x 3.94 = —,
OC Circuits ond AC Circuits 35
iven in fig 1.33, obtain the load current /,, and power consumed by R,
Inthe circuit & 30. 50 ‘
0
VW | WN WA
C40
Wt
2 load R
Ow fF
Fig. 1.33 (a)
Solution:
Load current I, can be found by using mesh method.
(j) Assume current direction
cd 3a sa
+ a 5 - - -
i +
200v |+ ‘ o
Load Rt
\ 4 oO» \ ee
: —_ I L |.
- —
Fig. 1.33 (b)
(i) Current L=h= 4
(iii) Loop equations in matrix form
200-100] [2 0 0 WRA
100 |=|0 344-4 |
2 0-4. 5+10+4]11,
100) [2 0 off
1oo|=/0 7-4/7,
Lo} lo -4 1914,
{2 0 0
(iv) elo 7s
lo -4 19
=2(7 x19 (4 x 4) = 234 36 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
+ '
> 0 100
a |: 7 100
[o -4 0 |
4 100) + 100 (0) = 800
2(7 «04
I 21-4 800 3.418 A
Lats 4 234
(v)__ Load current
Powerconsumed by Abe /." R,
= 3.418 x 10
= 116.9 watts
In the following circuit, find the val
20
ues of E and / for the circuit shown in fig 1.34(a),
20
— |+
© z : :
Fig. 1.34(a)
Solution:
This problem is solved by applying nodal analysis. The circuit consists of two nodes and ct
reference node. Assume node voltages as V, and V, and also assume the currents direction
yY
Vv,
—_—* 1 20 7
'
*X eres 2n
Pie)
be 40
Fig. 1.34. (b)
From circuit, V,=4x2=8V
By KCL, DC Circuits and AC Circuits 37
‘AtNode I,
(ly
0=- 0.54 + 1.25 V, A
)
Substituting V, = 8V in equation (2),
0=-05V, +125 x8
0.5V, = 10
V, = 20V
From equation (1)
0.SE = 20 x 1.167-0.5 x 8
E = 38.68 V
E-V, _ 38.68-20
Current J = t= "934.4
Using nodal analysis, find all node voltages in the given fig 1.35.
100 200 io
tov 150v
Fig. 1.35
Solution:
(No. of nodes in the given circuit is 3 including reference node. Nodes are marked as
Vand 2. Node Voltages are assumed as V, and V,. The directions of branch currents are
also assumed, ' : 38 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
y,
(ii) Node equations
At node 1
10 = 0.2V, - 0.05 V,
At node 2
150_-Y ov Vy
> 2 eo
10 = 0.05V, - 0.15 V,
(iii) Equations in matrix form
10]_f 0.2 -0.05)/¥, |
to} |-0.05 0.15 Vs,
| ~095) _ 92 «0.15 -0.05 x 0.05 = 0.0275
Co) 5005 O15) ee :
ie -0.05]
4h ous | = 10x 0.15+ 10 x 0.05 = 2
0.2 10)
a(t, to] 702 *10+10 «0.05 = 2.5
(¥) The voltages are given as DC Circuits and AC Circuits 39
ral analysis, find all node voltages in the given fig 1.36
using
100 200 150
VWWV [ WN- | MAA
L S S :
200 2 300
}0A a ) | jf ——150v
Fig. 1.36
Solution:
(i) Mark the node voltages and currents,
150v
(ii) Directly write node equations in matrix form
[Hint: Element which is series with the current source should be ignored]
11 -1
4,4 a
10)_/ 20° 20 20 y
10 -1 0041 1,
a oe
20 20 30 «15.
[Se [.ess eee)
0.1 -0.05
a a= = 0.1 x 0.15 - 0.05 x 0.05 = 0.0125
(iii) -0.05 0.15
10 -0.05
[i 0 fe 10015 10 x 0.05 = 2
01 10
= =0. 05 = 1.5
4, [tas il 0.1 « 10+ 10 x 0.05
() Voltages
vie = 160V,¥, = A= IS = ond Electronics Engineering
@ Electrical
1.4 NETWORK THEOREMS
1) Thevenin’s theorem
2) Maximum Power transfer theorem
3) Superposition theorem
1.4.1 Thevenin's Theorem
elements with output terminals can be ,, m
ee,
‘ ar
complex network consisting of Tinea
mpl vale voltage source with a series resistance
simple circuit consisting of its sin
with series resistance. (Practical voltage sous,
Complex circuit => Voltage source
Fig. 1.37(a) Practical Voltage Source
Step to work out Thevenin's Theorem:
Step 1 Disconnect the load resistance and make its terminals open.
2 To find Thevenin voltage (output voltage) denoted as V.,,.
Step 2
Step 3 Find Thevenin resistance R,, by short circuiting voltage source and open eireuit
the current source.
Step 4 Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit and place the disconnected load resists
the output terminals.
Ri,
1.37(b) Thevenin Equivalent Circuit OC Circuits and AC Circuits 41
Vi
Fig. 1.37(¢) Thevenin Theorem
step S| Find current flow through R,.
ep
V,
+R
h-z
mtR
me
flow through load resistance R, using Thevenin theorem
Find current
Fig. 1.38
Disconnect the load resistance 40 and make its terminals open.
5Q 40
oc | Vn
Step 2: To find V,,
Circuit Resistance = 5 + 2 = 70
Since the 40 is OC + no current flows through 4
y
It can be rejected
2
Current = 22
7
= 2.857A nics Engineering ee
ig the output voltage across the OPEN Citcuited tery,
ina)
42 Electrical and Electro"
The voltage drop across 20
V,, = 2.857 x2
=5.714V z
Vv, =5.714V
Step 3 To find R,,,
sc 20 oc
always assume from open circuit
Ry =(5||2)+4
a4
7
R, = 80-5420
7
Step 4 : Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
5.4280.
5.714
Step 5 : To find current flow through R,. Place the disconnected resistance is the of
terminal.
5.428Q
5.714 ae
_ 514
5.428 +4
=0.6A DC Circuits and AC Circuits 43
current through R, using Thevenin Theorem for the given figure 1 4g
4Q,
I
20
i hn
Fig. 1.39
siep 1 Disconnect the load resistance (R, ) and redraw the circuit
2Q 40
+)25V 10A. oc Vi,
step 2: To find Vp,
Using reperposition theorem, find V..,.
’) First consider 25 V sources voltage.
25V oc oc
Since we have voltage source and current source
4
Superposition theorem
There is no current in the 20 and 40, there is no current flow. So 25V directly appears at
the open circuited terminal
V,, = 25V
‘\}) Now consider the current source (10A) only
20 40,
€
oC 10A
SC oc a
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
thry
My
44
h 4, The 10A current flows complete
Since no current flows throug
Resistance.
20 resistance = 2 x 10 = 20V
The voltage drop across the
Vag = 20V
It directly appears in the output terminal
The net voltage (Vq) = Vy + Yao
= 20 + 25
v, =45V
Step 3 : To find R,,
22 4Q.
SC oc
Rote
=62
Step 4 : Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit
6Q
45V
Step 5 : Reconnect the load resistance in the output terminal.
Rn
62
45V 40
R. —
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 45
ihe current Lin the network by using Thevenin’s theorem
nine the ¢
10V “|
Step 1: The Thevenin’s me circuit is
4} : | ™
Vw
“Rn +R: |
eter™
10Q
Fig. 1.40
Step 2: To find V,,, : From the given circuit disconnect R, = a a
*
Vin
are Ge 4
12-10
y = 12210
eo) ee
ay =Vy
61-12
6402-12
= 10.8 volts
(Bis -ve polarity and A is +ve polarity] 6 Electrical and Electronics Engineering }
From the above circuit, kill the sources, The Tsulta
Step 3: To calculate R,,, oA Mg,
+—R,,
4Q 6Q
oB
R= Ra = 4116
486 340
446 7
Step 4:
I Vin
TRA TR,
108 _os7iA
24410
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent for the network of the figure 1.41 between a and b.
3Q 1Q
Solution
Step 1: Converting or transformin;
g the voltage source of 10V in series with resistance 30°
equivalent source, the following circuit is obtained. a
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 47
2 current sources in parallel by its equivalent current source, we get the
1Q
<3: Replacing the
SteP flowing circuit
Transforming the 2 current sources in series by their equivalent voltage sources we
siep 3 get the following network.
5V 10
a
1.2Q 20a
10V 10V
(ico lie
a
2.20 2Q
13sV 10v
LY CT “gg
Step 4: Transforming the voltage sources which are parallel in the above circuit, into their
equivalent current sources we get the following network.
10
AWK. —Oa Ca
6.824 20
220 (4) 5A = (41.824 $1,050
. Ob Ob
te .
*P 5: Converting the current source into equivalent voltage source, we get the Thevenin
quivalent circuit as shown below: eran:
Engineering
a
b
id Vin and Ry, without going through Step 4
lectrical and Electronics
48 Ek
LOLIV
Note: From Step 3, we can proceed (0 fin
the current through the branch FC.
Calculate using Thevenin’s theorem
‘The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is,
Step 1:
4.5Q Cc >
OC Circuits and AC Circuits 49
5 Tocalculate Vy,
sen eonnect R, = $0 between F and ferminals
5
B 4.50 (
V = 24 volts
. 1, -31, +4.51,
91, +451,
9x2+45x2
=-9 volts
[is ve and F is +ve]
Siep 3: To calculate R,, : Re-draw the above circuit, after killing the voltage source.
gp 452g
7.52.
30 4.5Q
A > A
3Q 32 32
F 62 E
RR, - 15445 3x9
1544.5 349
2.8125 + 2.25 = 5.06250 50 Electrical and Electronics En
Step 4 Ry 5.0625 A F
| R, = 5¢
V,, = 9 volts I, :
Cc
I= Nn
RAR
9
50625 +5
= 0.894 A
1.4.2 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Max Power transfer theorem states that maximum power transferred from source tp
coccures when the load resistance equal to the resistance of the network, looking back i,
load terminals.
Steps to work out Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Steps
Step 1: Remove the load resistance from the circuit and make its terminal open.
Step 2: Find the V,,, across the open terminal. (Procedure same as Thevenin’s theoren
Step 3: Find the R,,, across the open terminal. (Procedure same as Thevenin’s theoren)
Step 4: Reconnect the load resistan-e (R, = Rj,) and draw the Thevenin’s eq
circuit
Step 5: Find the load current and maximum power
1, = Yn__ Ym
Ry, 2K,
Pee ee
4R i DC Circuits and AC Circuits 51
2Q,
A
R
B
Fig. 1.43
‘Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is drawn as below :
Zy oy
° > | ‘
B
To find V,, : Disconnect R from the original circuit.
20 A
= V,, = - 10 x 3 = - 30 volts
= 30 volts
To find R,,: From the above circuit, open circuit the current source.
20 A
O
0c
5Q 3Q) SR,
O
B Electrical and Electronics Enginee'"S
ywer transfer theorem, the
he Value
DK
» statement of maint P
stoned ry @ and the maximum power tra
f aNsferreg Ry
att
ed to it = Ry
52
According t thi
maximum power transfert ’
x0
42.1)
watts — 107 watls
Vie Vin
aR, ARy
figure 1.44, find
For the circuit of the
Calculate also the maximum load power
ne value R, for maximum power
! Aeliverey
a 102
Step 1 : To find V,, : Disconnect R, between A and B terminals.
120, 1.0.
12.5V 1.7V
be :
.6Q.
1.4Q B 14Q
0.4+1.2+14+1414+0.6
=18A
OV = Vig =-1.7-3(1.8)
= -7.1 volts
[B is negative polarity an 0: arit
‘gative polarity and A positive pol;
'y]
Step 2: To fi
ci ind RTh: Ki
circuit. Kill the sources from the ci
circuit in the ste :
p 1 to get the follow OC Circuits and AC Circuits 53
0.60
Il
3Q SR,,
1.40. 1.4Q.
=3%3 =1.5
Ry = Rav = 355 71 SQ
Step 3: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is drawn as below:
Rn=15Q 4
This we can say that the values of R, for maximum power to it
=R,=R,=152
Vin
PandP. = 4p.
ae 8.4 watts
4(1.5)
1.4.3. Superposition Theorem
States that in a linear circuit containing more than 1 source, a current or voltage in any element
is equal to the algebraic sum of current or voltage that would have been produced by individual
sources acting seperately.
Steps for working Superposition Theorem
Step 1: Consider only one source of voltage or current. Replace other voltage sources by a
short circuit and current source by an open circuit
Step 2: Find the current or voltage in load resistance by considering only one source
(,’ or V,")
istance by considering only other source
Step 3: Find the current or voltage in load re
(1,” or V,")
Step 4: Find the algebraic sum of current or voltages in R, 5A Electrical and Elect
[ne
Find the current I,
theorem
4Q
Consider only the 20V voltage source.
Step 1: Replacing 30V source by short circuiting
40.
20V
RM =)
By inspection :
(7 -3\(1,)_(20
5 ie)
A=35-9=26
Current flow through 39 ~
tronics Engineering
v="
Voltage V, and Power
aL tl
(or)
+,’
20
Fig. 1.45
20.
;
= 3.846 - 2.307
te
ing circ
p, in the following circuit using Super be
the terminals and redraw the circuit, DC Circuits and AC Circuits 55
ov voltage sources only
consider 20 N with short circuit & redraw
step 1: Replacing 40 20
By inspection method
mm = V1
Current through 30 = + 8.076 + 3.46
+4.616A
Step 3 : The resustant current flowing through 30 Resistance ®)
= 1.539 + 4.616 A
T= 6.155 A
LR,
= 6.155 x3
V, = 18.465 V
Power (Pi) = vi,
= 18.465 x 6.155
= 113.652 watt 56 Electrical and Electronics Engineer'nd
Problem
Find current through resi
ce super position theorem
istance R, using SUP* pi
20 ee
=10V 4Q. 203R, SA
Fig. 1.46
Step 1; Consider 10V voltage source only
an open circuit & redrawing
Replacing the 5A current source by
[R) 1) = [Vv]
(6 s)Ci)-C6)
A=84-16=68
6 10
4A, =
My ( 0] 40
40
= 0.5882
Step 2 : Consider the current source 5A only
Replaci
Placing the voltage sources by short Circuit & redraw the circuit
Qy 80 a
sc
= v.=0
(We a
should not Convert) into vol :
ee tage source DC Circuits and AC Circuits
Current through R, =
Current = 4.117 A
Step 3
Total current 1, = 4.1170
+ 0.5882
4.7052
= 4.7052 A
Problem 33
Compute the current in 23 ohm resistor of the figure below by using superposition
theorem,
4Q
472
270 (4) 20A | $230
+
Q-
Fig, 1-47
57 aie
58 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Step | Allow only the voltage source to act. The corresponding circuit is as below
40,
ie le
J 3470
2703
+ oc
C) 200vV I
232
The resistance connected to the source = 47+ 22*27
27427
= 60.5 ohms
200
Total current from the source = 605 = 3.306A
: _ 3.306 x 27
The current through 23 ohms = I, Sa
=1.653A
Step 2: Allow only the current source to act. The circuit becomes as
40 4Q
NN _AW.
a 17.20
270 410 230 230
20A 20A
1," I
220A) 230
9.6A
“21.2423 —
By superposition theorem, 1, L'+1,"
1.653 + 9.6 = 11.2534
[Note : The directions of 1,’ and I,” are same and hence added] >
OC Circuits and AC Circuits 59
‘ent in the 20 resistor between A and B for the network using superposition
curre
rind the
rem 5Q iA 30
the
10V.
Fig, 1.48
1: When only 10V source is acting:
step
Let the current through 2C be I,'. The circuit diagram with 10V source only acting
SQ 4 32 D
10V:
2x4
Between B and C, 20 and 40 are in parallel. Their equivalent = = 1.330
Now, the circuit diagram can be re-drawn as below :
oy el
10V=—
B Cc
B 1.330
For the above Circuit, the total resistance connected to the 10V source
=54 2*4.33
54 24433
24433 = 9372
= 60 Electrical and Electronics Engineering |
10
Current from the source = (45 = 1.57 A
1.57 4.33
Therefore I,’ yea
1.07 A
Step 2: Allow only 20V source to act. The circuit becomes as:
5Q. A 3Q
22
By inspecting the above figure, we can say that across the voltage source 20V, there is
series parallel combination of resistances.
Between A and B, 20 and 50 are in parallel. Between B and C 49 and 20 are in parallel
So, the equivalent resistance between C and D
S22 ANd
+
5+2 4+2
=3+1.43 + 1.33=5.762
=3+
The current from the source = ae 6.47 A
5.76
This current is divided into two parallel paths between A and B
3.475
Theref — =
erefore I,’ = 5" = 2.48 A
By applying superposition theorem, the current through 20 connected between A and B
“TU +1" = 1.07 +248 =3.55A OC Circuits and AC Circuits 61
ition theorem or otherwise, obtain the current in EA in figure below
erpos
g supe
usin
B
20
i 10Q
lV
Fig. 1.49
Step | First allow only IV source to act. Let the current in EA be I’ The relevant circuit
diagram is as below :
+0 10Q
1V :
“0 be found by applying mesh current method or to star and then applying Ohm's ae
v. 20O%€ circuit becomes volts in a below after converting delta connection between A,
and
hen the equivalent star 62. Electrical and Electronics Engineering
0.75Q
E
eee 10Q
1V
2x6
-—**_-0.75a
a 248+6
ea
16
Ro? 230
16
Total resistance connected across the source
=0.75+ 28419-13830
5+8
yr_Yoltage 1
Tesistance 13,83
= 0.0723 A = 72.3 mA
It flows from E to A.
Step 2
becomes as shown in fig. 6.63. Now let the current in EA be I’.
B
22. 40,
A D
10Q
When only 2V source is acting and the other source short circuited, the si?
or
hey
Sin DC Circuits and AC Circuits 63
por the calculation of 1”, loop current method is applied
nown in the figure above. 1" = ], ‘4. Let the loop Currents be I, 1, and
Tass - Tani
6 -S}i] fo
16 -8}/1, |=} -2
8174/1, 2
| 21 -6 -5
A=|-6 16
| 5-8 17
21 (272 - 64) + 6 (-102 — 40) ~ 5 (48 + 80)
4368 - 852 - 640 = 2876
0 6 -5
4746 4
2 -8 #17
= 6 (-34 + 16) ~ 5 (16 - 32) = ~ 108 + 80 = - 28
= 8 _ 9 736 ma
A 2876
Step 3: By applying superposition theorem, the current through
EA =1=I' + I" = 72.3 - 9.736 = 62.564 mA
1.5 SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
15.1 Alternating Quantity
The required AC voltage is generated by AC generator also called as Alternator. An alternating
quantity is one which has a varying magnitude and angle with respect to time. Since it is
time varying in nature, at any time it can be represented by three ways: a) effective value,
b) average value and c) peak value.
To illustrate, consider the voltage at the wall outlet in your home. It is called a sine wave
OF sinusoidal ac waveform. This voltage has the shape shown in Figure 1.36. Starting at zero,
the voltage increases to a positive maximum, decreases to zero, changes polarity, increases to a
Pegative maximum, then returns again to zero. One complete variation is referred to as a cycle
Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals as in (b), it is called a periodic waveform. eering
| and Electronics Engin
64 Electrica!
sitive :
Voltage is posi!
Voltage is
negative
7 Vine
le— 1eycle ——>:
Voltage
Voltage
4
| Polarity
change
(b) A continuous stream
(a) Variation of voltage Bae
versus time
Fig. 1.50
1.5.2 Generation of AC Voltage
One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant angular Velocity :
fixed magnetic field, Figure 1.51 (Slip rings and brushes connect the coil to the load), p,
magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cur x;
its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field. Since the r:
of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time. For exam
in (a), since the coil sides are moving parallel to the field, no flux lines are being cut an
induced voltage at this instant (and hence the current) is zero. This is considered as the
Position of the coil. As the coil rotates from the 0° position, coil sides AA’ and BB’ cut ax
flux lines; hence, voltage builds, Teaching a peak when flux is Cut at the maximum rate in
S, Teaching zero at the 180° Position when the coil sides
Tove Parallel to the field as in (c). At this poi i lus
During the second halfevan 'S Point, the coil has gone through a half-revolu
tion, coil sides cut flux in directi A at of in te
half revolution; hence, the Polarity of the induced volta; ction opposite to th:
sition, and, sine DC Circuits and AC Circuits 65
Rotation
(b} 90° Position: Coil end A is positive
with respect to B. Current direction
is out of slip ring A
{a)0° Position: Coil sides move
parelel to flux lines. Since no flux is
being cut, induced voltage is zero.
(a) 270° Position: Voltage polarity
has reversed, therefore, current
direction reverses.
Fig. 1.51 Generating an AC Voltage
(a) 180° Position: Coil again cutting
no flux. Induced voltage is zero,
oil Position
Generator Voltage
Fig. 1.52 Coil Voltage Versus Angular Position
16 BASIC TERMINOLOGY
an mating Current (AC): A current which changes both in magnitude and direction
Fespect to time is called alternating current.
Sinusoi
z seuaidal Waveform: 11 is an alternating waveform in which sine law is followed, and
‘wn in figure 1,53. 66 Electrical ‘and Electronics Engineering
and negative instantaneous value of
tive
emetition of a set of Post insta \ '
Cycle: Each repetition of One complete set of positive and negative halver® ate,
S Co,
ns
quantity is called one cyele
iy,
cycle
second of a waveform is defined as
i
m, its unit is the hertz (Hz) Electrieg freauy
Supp)
+ The number of cycles Per
+ Jn the SI syste!
Frequency’ :
y is denoted by f
cy of SOHZ oF 60H7
tos
Frequenc
a frequen’
<— Period, T —>
jee
Fig. 1.53 Fig. 1.54
Waveform: A wave formis a graph in which the instantaneous values of any quantity are p..
against time. :
Period (T): The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one full cycle is ca
Time period. It is the inverse of frequency. Its unit is Seconds (S).
T=— (s)
I-A
f= (Hz)
T
Instantaneous Values: Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quannie
any instant of time. They are represented by small letters, i, v, etc.
Peak Value: The largest value reached ina half cycle is called the peak value or the ma
Hae or the crest value or the amplitude of the waveform. Such values are represented”
|, Peak-to-peak value is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.
Time
Sine wave
|< Periodic
time, T @
Fig. 1.55 DC Circuits and AC Circuits 67
1 INTRODUCTION TO PHASOR
yy is a rotating line whose projection on a vertical axis can be used to represent
sot ving quantities. The amplitude and phase angles of the inputs may be different
sncy should be same.
Amplitude is the
same as the length
of the phasor
an
———> a=ut
(a) Phasor (b) Resulting sine wave
Fig. 1.56 Phasor representation
Consider the phasor line of length V,, shown in Figure 1.56 (a). (It is the phasor). The
vertical projection of this line (indicated in dotted) is V, sin a. Now, assume that the phasor
rotates at angular velocity of w rad/s in the counterclockwise direction. Then, a = wt, and
its vertical projection is V,, sinot. If we designate this projection (height) as v, we get v = v,
sinot, which is the familiar sinusoidal voltage equation.
A sinusoidal waveform can be created by plotting the vertical projection of a phasor that
rotates in the counterclockwise direction at constant angular velocity w. If the phasor has a
length of V,, the waveform represents voltage; if the phasor has a length of /_, it represents
current. Note carefully: Phasors apply only to sinusoidal waveforms.
17.1 Phase Difference
Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different waveforms of the same
frequency. Consider Figure 1.57 if the angular displacement is 0° as in (a), the waveforms
‘ae said to be in phase; otherwise, they are out of phase. When describing a phase difference,
select one waveform as reference. Other waveforms then lead, lag, or are in phase with this
Ieleretce, For example, in (b), the current waveform is said to lead the voltage waveform by
while in (c) the current waveform is said to lag voltage by 0.
wit
(8m pha
. (0 Current lags
(b) Current leads
Fig. 1.57 Phasor Representation
[=a 68 Flecincal ond Electronics Engineering
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency reach their maximum / minin
nun
at the same instant of time they are said to be in-phase. Otherwise they are out of phase Th
difference in angular displacement by which they reach their maximum / minimum is the pha.
Dna
difference
Lagging quantity is one which starts and progresses behind the quantity under referer,
Leading quantity is one which starts and progresses ahead of quantity under reference
Ircv and ‘i are voltage and current of same frequency having maximum values V_. ;
respectively .
y = Vi sinwot, i = 1, sin (ot -9) i.e Iv is taken as reference / is lagging v by *6'
V. sin (cot + 0) ie If iis taken as reference v is leading i by *9
i= 1, sin cot,
1.8 AVERAGE VALUE
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave) is the
average value measured over a half cycle, since over a complete cycle the average value is zero
It is defined as that value of steady DC current which transfers across a circuit the same
charge as would be transferred by the AC across the same circuit for the same time
It is the arithmetical average of all the alternating quantities over a cycle i.e. if i), i, i,
. ., i, are n instantaneous values of current over a cycle then,
i+intit.
fav
‘A better way of finding the average value is to find the area over the curve for a small
interval of time and integrate over the curve and divide it by ‘T’
it
Ty = —)idt
ri
Area under the curve over one complete cycle
Also,
Base (period)
For symmetrical waves, the integration over a complete cycle and hence average value
over one complete cycle is always zero (the positive half is similar to negative half and the two
areas cancel).
Hence for symmetrical waves, the average value is taken over a half cycle only. Fer
unsymmetrical waves it is taken over a complete cycle.
18.1 Average Value of Sinusoidal Wave
Consider i= 1, sin ot = 1, sin 0
Area of half cycle
“ base OC Circuits and AC Circuits 69
fn
eae
rane period by =
1
1, sin0 d0
finned
‘m [costs
Fig. 1.58 Sine waveform
2
ie average value for a sine quantity is — times (63.6%) of maximum value.
x
19 ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUE OR EFFECTIVE VALUE
RMS value of an alternating current is that value of steady DC current which produces the
same heat as produced by the alternating current when passed through the circuit for the same
time.
Ti, i, i, ..... i, are n instantaneous values, then i?,/2,i;......i, are n instantaneous values
Ot the squared wave.
Take their mean value and square root it to get rms value
Tams =
A 7
better way of finding itis to find the area over the squared curve for a small interval of
me, 7
‘nd integrate over the curve and divide it by “T” and take square root of the whole.
1
Trays = JP (ae
ir] 10 Electrical ond Electronics Engineering
Area under squared curve over one complete cycle
Also aus \ Base (period)
1.9.1 RMS Valve of a Sininusoidal Wave
Consider i = J, sin cot = 1, sin
[Area under squared curve
Taus = ie period
Time period =n
‘Area under squared curve = f Pao
0
= fa, sin0)°d0
°
Tins = 1 f sin? @d0
1- cos 20) at
2
For ste waves the RMS value is. Vx times of 0.707 times the maximum value, Th
RMS value can be found by considerin,
ig only one half cycle for symmetrical waveform.
M10 FORM FACTOR AND PEAK FACTOR
Form Factor: it is the ratio of RMS value to Average value.
For a sir l :
"sine wave RMS value = V5 maximum value & Average value
Form factor = RMS value _
Average value
maximum value
_ Max value x
V2” 2 Max value DC Circuits and AC Circuits 71
+ It is the ratio of maximum or peak y; :
k Factor: Peak value of any AC quantity to its RMS value
for a sine wave
fi Maxim 5
Peak factor = jum value
RMS value
__ Max value
Max value / /2
= V2=1.414
ul ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
R, L. and C circuit elements each have quite different electrical Properties. For example,
resistance opposes current, while inductance opposes changes in current, and capacitance
changes in voltage. First let us study the behavior of AC circuits containing pure
oppo ‘ .
resistance only, pure inductance only and pure capacitance only and then their combinations.
Power Factor: It is defined as the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current. If 6
js the angle between voltage and current, power factor = cos.
The lagging power factor occurs for inductive load and leading power factor occurs for
capacitive load.
Active or Real or True Power: The product of r.m.s value of voltage and current with
the cosine of the angle between them is called the real power P. Mathematically
P = Vams Imms C08 = V I cos >
Its unit is watt (W).
The ac voltages and currents are measured only as rms values and denoted by V & I.
Reactive Power: The product of r.m.s value of voltage and current with the sine of the
angle between them is called the reactive power Q. Mathematically
OQ = Ving Irms Sind = V I sin >
Its unit is reactive volt amperes (var)
Apparent Power: The product of r.m.s value of voltage and current is called apparent
Power (S). Its units is Volt Ampere (VA).
S=VI Vig Tims (Or) VI
|p? + Q? (from power triangle) 72 Electrical ond Electronics Engineer
8
0
%
;
Power Triangle
Power factor also expressed as
pr fact True Power (P) Vicosb
y oF
oad Apparent Power(S) VI
R
Power factor = cosd= 7 (from impedance triangk
Impedance Triangle
1.12, RESISTANCE AND SINUSOIDAL AC
Consider the circuit shown in fig 1.45 (a) in which a resistor of value R ohms is connected
across an alternating voltage source. In a Purely resistive circuit, current 1, and voltage v,
are in phase. Since volta;
'ge and current waveforms coincide, their phasors also coincide as in
Figure 1.45 (b)
(a) Circuit
(b) Phasor diagrams
Fig. 1.59 Pure Resistance Cireuit with AC
Let
Applied sinusoidal voltage v= V, sin we OC Circuits and AC Circuits 73
a current has an instantaneous Value.
esl :
pre © ;
R
V
i
m Sine 7
F CR)" t= 1, sin we (9)
Te jg the peak value of the current
te 2). we find that the voltage and
seam (1) and (2), we olfage and current are in Phase with each oth
‘a Fact ler
Jmpedance i
— in sin wt Ve
I, sin we R
power at any instant P=
= (Fy sin wt) (1, sin we)
= Vin ty sin? 0 (because ws = 0)
Power:
Vere
ve eracycle, P = —*"/sin?9 a0
Average power OV y' z J
Vn,
mn fia-cos 20)
°
2x
Yata|o_sin20T
2 10
voltage and current
Power Factor: It is defined as the cosine of the phase angle between voltag
“$6 = cos 0 = 1 (g = 0, because V& J are in phase)
M3 INDUCTANCE AND SINUSOIDAL AC
uit of fig.1.46 (a).In thi al ing voltage V = V,, Sin 7 Is
-« circuit, an alternating vollage a
a a f a is circuit, an ;
a oe ' ge across L is V, = £ ‘
® i : Voltas
"Pied across g Pure inductor of self inductance. The 74 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current i, lags the applied voltage v, by 90° (73
rads). See Figure 1.60
a) Circuit (b) Phasor diagrams
Fig. 1.60 Pure Inductance Circuit with AC
The applied voltage v = V,, sin wt ef)
The current through the inductor (i)
iat fv
1yy, sin wt. dt
zim
fn (- cos wt)
oL
= Ip Sin (ot—2/2) (2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we can say that the current through an inductor lags the voltage by 90°
Impedance
ae
7
_ V,, Sin wt
In Sin (cot ~ 90")
zZ=5 Vi, Sin wot on sin wr
” sin (wt — 90°) sin (wt — 90°)
»
= wl 290° = jol
Z = ol is called inductive reactance and is denoted by X, . Its unit is ohm
X, = wh = 2n fl where w = 24f.
In a purely inductive circuit, the opposition to the flow of alternating current is called the
inductive reactance, xX, y-
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 75
jf:
Laas Vn oe 1,
v= 20° and f= “™ 7 og
v2 v2
cous power or power at any instant = VI
antanrcous
Inst = Vy, sin O 1p, sin (0 ~2/ 2)
Vy In, sin O cos 0
Valin t
=m J sin cose d0)
average power nm 4
= Vln F (sin 20 d0)
Qn 3
Be Vale (ses2e)"
a2),
Vind
= —*™ (cos2a-cos0) = 0
4n
Thus a pure inductor does not consume any real power.
Power factor = cos 6 = cos 90 = 0
Power factor is zero lagging
114 CAPACITANCE AND SINUSOIDAL AC
Consider the circuit of Fig 1.61(a) in which a capacitor of value C farad is connected across
an alternating voltage source. In a purely capacitive ac circuit, the current i. leads the applied
voltage v, by 90° (i.e. 1/2 rads). See figure 1.61.
(2) Circuit (b) Phasor diagrams
Fig. 1.61 Pure Capacitance Circuit with AC
Voltage applied across C is
v= V,, sin wt
Let the Value of the
mH 76 — Electrical and Electronics Engineering
The voltage across the capacitor is
1
v idt
c!
: _ dy
The current through the capacitor is f= C7
dt
ody
i-C“ WV, sin wt)
dt
= V,, oC cos cat
Vn
I/we
cos wt
= Ip, 608 cat
= Ip, sin (cot + 90)
Vin
Woe Xe
Ina purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of al
capacitive reactance
where J, = ie.X¢ =1/@C + capacitive reactance in ohms
lternating current is called the
Xe
2nfC
So, for given v= V,, Sint in a pure capacitive circuit i= J, sin (wt + 90°), the current 's
leading voltage by 90°.
Power
V,
V= 240’ &I= 290°
v2 v2
Power factor = cos 90 = 0 — zero leading
Instantaneous power =vi=Vp sinot Iq sin (wt + 90°)
Vn tm
Average power oe Join 0 cos 0.0 (ot =0)
a
= -mom fsin20 do
0
es
‘m 4m | 60
‘Thus a pure capacitor does not consume any real power. DC Circuits and AC Circuits 77
Reb SERIES AC CIRCUIT
containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum
Figure 1.62 (a)), and thus the current / lags the applied voltage by an angle
and 90° (depending on the values of Rand L), shown as angle 6
R t v
Vv, —<—\, '
' ‘
b« v im
(a) Circuit (b) Phasor diagram
Velz y= IK, Zz x
¢ A Cy
Va=iR R
(c) Voltage triangle (d) Impedance triangle
=P
cole a=Px,
P=PR
(€) Power triangle
Fig. 1.62 RL Series AC Circuit
In series RL circuit the current flowing through Rand L is common and is tis aan as the
reference phasor. In a resistance the voltage across it V,, and current I are in Phase. ‘ ae as
in inductor the voltage across it V, leads current I by 90° and is shown in fig. 1.62(b). From
figure 1.62(b), the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived and given in fig. 1.62(c).
From the phasor diagram of Figure 5.12 (b), the ‘voltage triangle” is derived.
For the R-L cireuit: ‘l= VVe+ M
and tan g=
Va :
In an .c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to current I is called the impedance 2,
_.
7-™
. 78 Electrical ond Electronics Engineering
‘ h cde of the voltage triangle in Figure $12 (c) is divided by current I . then the impeda;
f each side of the volta ae
triangle’ is derived
For the R-L circuit Impedance 7 = R+ jX,
x x
sino cos
land R i 7
Active or Real Power (P):
There is a real power consumption in any circuit when a current component is in phase with
voltage It is measured in watts
P-VI
P= Vicoso- vr ®
Zz
pv
Zz
xI1xR=PR
Reactive Power (Q):
There is a reactive power consumption in any circuit when a current component is in quadrature
with voltage. It is measured in Volt Ampere Reactive.
Q = V x quadrature component of current
Xx,
= Wisin ¢= we £
Q sino Zz
O-Fx1xX,= PX,
Apparent Power (S):
itis calculated as the product of voltage and current. It is measured in Volt Ampere. It is shown
in $.12 (e).
S=Vx1
= PZ
ve
neat
S=P+jQ
Magnitude
S= P+ @ >
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 79
ERIES AC CIRCUIT
ql re 5 ing capacitance C and resistance R
" circuit containing lan the applied voltage V is the phasor
inal a and V;, (see Figure 1.63), oe thus the current [ leads the applied voltage by an
gum of * petween O° and 90° (depending on the values of R and C), shown as angle 0
angle ME ; ‘
R . >
Z 5
Texan) {I ’
ve, :
——) o ye
(a) Circuit (b) Phasor diagram
Vq (=P) R
° eo 4
Vole Ike) ca,
V(=1Z) Zz
() Voltage triangle (d) Impedance triangle
Fig. 1.63 RC Series AC Circuit
From the phasor diagram of Figure 1.49 (b), the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.
2
For the R-C circuit: v= V,'+ V,
and tang=
nan a.c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to current I is called the impedance Z,
Vv
Z=—
I
4! each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 1.49 (c) is divided by current I, then the
‘mpedance triangle’ is derived.
For the R-C cireuit: Z=\R+Xe
SSS 80 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Be
1.17. R-L-C SERIES AC CIRCUIT
esistance ance Land capacitance ¢
a eries cireuit containing resistance R, inductance r ~
a vis the phasor sum of V,, V, and V, (see Figure 1.64). V, and V. are ang, PPiag
ie. displaced by 180°, and there are three phasor diagrams possible—each depending ™
relative values of V, and V, :
When, X, > X, . (Figure 1.64(b)), Z= JR? + (Ky, Xe)
(X, Xe)
and tan R
When, X, < X, (Figure 1.64(c)) Z= \R? + (Xe -Xy)
(Xe -X)
tang = ————
and R
v=)
(0) X 7X (© Xex, @) K=x,
(a) circuit
Fig. 1.64 RLC Series AC Circuit
When X,=X_., (Figure 1.64(d)), the applied voltage V and the current are in phase. Tbs
effect is called series resonance. OC Circuits and AC Circuits gy
i SUMMARY FOR AC SERIES Cincyiy
Cireuit | V ;
RI Weve ax Power Factor
| t Lagging
4 Wa + Ni | VR sx? Leading
RLC Wa (Y Vey | VRP (Xx, | Laguing rx >x)
I Leading (if X.>x)
119 POWER TRIANGLE
Figure 1.6S(a) shows a phasor diagram in whi
; ngle ¢ The horizontal component of V is Vee
1; cach of the voltage phasors is multiplied by
the ‘power triangle”
ich the current 7 lags the ay
S the applied voltage V by
‘59 and the vertical component of V is V sind.
1. Figure 1.65(b) is obtained and is known as
Vsing S=V gg Q=Vising
Veoso
P=Vicoso
(2) Phasor diagram (b)Powertianle
Fig. 1.65
120 RECTANGULAR AND POLAR REPRESENTATION
Impedance of a circuit can be expressed in rectangular or polar form.
‘@) Consider a RLC series combination of R = 3 ohms, X, = 9 ohms & X. = 5 ohms.
Z= R+ jx, - jXc is rectangular form
+ j9- js
= 3+ j4
{Z| = (Rx? = /3? + 4? = 5 ohm
7’ in polar form is represented in terms of magnitude and direction
7/€. angular displacement from zero reference.
3
0.6; d= 53.1"
cos b=
5
Z = 5 253.1" is polar form 82 Electrical ond Electronics Engineering
(by Now consider a RLC series combination of R= 6 ohms, X, ohms & X,
ohms
Z=R4 5X, = ix,
647 jl0
6— {3 ohms
IZ) = Jobsy = 67
$ = cos! RIZ. = cos! 616.7 ~ 26.4
Z= 67 226.4
(c) Convert (~ 6 + j8) into polar form:
Z=R+ jx
= 6 + j8 ohms
2) = Vr +x? - Je 10
= cos! 6/10 = cos! 0.6= $3.1”
6, angle with reference to zero reference = (180° - 53.1")
= 126.9°
Z = 10 2126.9
(d) Convert (-6 -j8) into polar form
Z =R+ jx
= ~6~ j8 ohms
[Z| = yR? + x? = Jo? + 8? = 10 ohms
$ = cos! 6/10= cos! 0.6= 53.1
9, angle with reference to zero reference = (180° ~ 53.19)
233.19 or -126.9
= 10 2233.1 or 10 2-126.9
7
1.21 CONVERSION FROM POLAR TO RECTANGULAR FORM
Represent the phasor in magnitude and direction in the diagram. Draw its obsisca and ordinate
‘The obsisca represents resistance value and ordinate represents the reactance value. Now
seeing their directions, mark the sign
(a) Example : 20 2120"
Value of R = 20 cos 60" = 10
Value of X = 20 sin 60. = 17.32
202120" 10 4 j17.32 yo
DC Circuits and AC Circuits 83
spor form is useful in addition & subtraction of vectors,
ctang!
-__,yseful in multiplication and division of vectors
par fo : wore ;
-e convert into polar form or rectangular form as per need, To add two vectors, add real
ene aginary parts of two vectors and similarly to subtract two vectors, subtract real part:
jor 8 ry parts of two vectors. So addition & subtraction will be easier if the es
sein rectangular form °
repre
ean) 10.30 + 8 260
10 230° = 8.66 + j5
8 260° = 4 + j6.93
10230° + 8 260° = 12.66 + j11.93 = 17.4 243,3°
(2) (8+j6) x (3 - j4)
= 10236.9 x 5 2-53.1
= (10 x 5) 2(36.9 + (-53.1))
= 502-16.2
= (48 - j14)
To multiply two vectors, multiply the magnitudes of two vectors and add the angles of two
yectors and similarly to divide two vectors, divide the magnitudes of two vectors and subtract
the angles of two vectors. So multiplication & division will be easier if the vectors are
represented in polar form.
Find the average value, rms value, peak factor and form factor of the following waveforms
Half Wave Rectified Sine Wave
Full Wave Rectified Sine Wave
Unsymmetrical Saw Tooth
a
b
c
qd)
e
f)
Unsymmetrical Rectangular
Symmetrical Rectangular
Symmetrical Trapezoidal Waveform
'@) Half Wave Rectified sine wave
(i) Area under one cycle
= Jip sind 0+ (eae
} z
= In(-cos)y
= Ip (- cos 2 + 0s 0)
=I, 1+)
=p 84 Flacrical ond Flactronics Engineering
Period or base
Average value
(ii) Area under one cycle of squared wave
= le sin? 0. d0+ fo a
0 *
sin? x0)
aoe)
ie
2
Period or base =2n
RMS value -
Form factor ue RMS valve dy!? Bas
Average value [yin 2
ro Peak value In
"RMS value J, DC Circuits and
AC Circuit
ull wave rectified sine wave ircuits 85
bp) Fe
) Area under one cycle
wo!
J 1, sino ao
0
= In ( cos Or
= Uy
Period or base =n
21,
Average value = See ai, in
2
Fig. 1.67
(ii) Area under one cycle of squared wave
= [ja sin? @ «|
°
= 2] 28249
0 a
-2(o sin20"
2 2),
/ sin2n 4 avet)
2
= Int
5 2
Period or base |
Pr
RMS value _ {2 _ 86
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
RMS value fy, / V2
- ota i:
Form factor 7 erage value 2_/% 22
Peak value _
Peak factor
RMS value Tq 12
(c) Saw Tooth Waveform
1
(i) Area under one cycle = bh
=txrxses
2
Time Period or base = 2 secs.
Average value of 1
5
= t= 2.5
I amps
5A
2 4
Fig. 1.68
(ii) Area under one cycle of squared average = A bh? = +
Time Period or base = 2 secs :
RMS value of J =
Form factor _ ae
Average value
Peak factor = Peak value _
rms value
(4) Unsymmetrical Rectangular Waveform
(i) Area under one cycle
= (100 x T/2) + (-50 x T/2)
= 25ST DC Circuits and AC Circuits
Period or base = = T
Average value
25T
= 7 25 volts
(ii) Area under one cycle of
squared curve
0
100? x T/2+(-50) x T/2
12500T
2
Period or base 0
RMS value
125007
= = 79.06 volts
2
__RMS__ 79.06
‘Average 25
_ Peak 100
“RMS ~ 79.06 ~'76
Form factor
= 3.16
Peak factor
pA
-50
ee ee
Fig. 1.69
*) Symmetrical Rectangular wave form
(i) Area under one half cycle
= 100 x T/2
Period or base =T/2
Average value
= 1007/2 | 100 volts
T/2
fi
') Atea under one cycle of squared curve.
100? x T/2
=T2
"
Period or base 88 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
100
RMS value of V
Form factor
Peak factor
(f) Symmetrical Trapezoidal Waveform
(i) Area under half cycle
Fig. 1.71 Dc
Girevits and AC Cirevits 89
Average value of V :
3 Ym Volts
(ii) Area under one cycle of squared cury, re
St
(F222 enray(Lave at
3" 7)
5
= 5y2
gmt
Period or base =n
RMS value of V IS Var
9
Form factor
Peak factor
Fora series RL circuit (Fig. 1.58) determine the source volta; i
! i ge and phase angli
across the resistance is 50V and the voltage across the inductor is 30V. fot
2k ‘SmH
SOOO.
—_,
{OY ov, sone
Fig. 1.72
Solution:
Given : V, = 50V, V, = 30V
Souce voluge V, = V, + JV, = 50 + 30 = 58.3 £30.98 V
Phase angle between source voltage V, and source current J, is
o=an'("f,) = 0° CYha) 9 90 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
In an AC circuit, resistor R and inductor L are connected in series. Voltage and Curren,
equations are given as e(t) = 200 sin 314t and i(t) = 20 sin (3141 - 30°) Calculate
(i) RMS value of the voltage and current
(ii) Frequeney
(iii) The power factor
(iv) Power
(v) Values of R and L
Solution:
Given.
e(t) = 200 sin 3141
i) = 20 sin (314t - 30°)
(i) Peak value of the voltage, V,, = 200 V
Peak value of the current, 1, = 20A
RMS value of the voltage, Va x =141.42V
RMS value of current Fins = eta iaa
(ii) Frequency 2
Given: © = 2nf = 314 rad / sec.
f= 50 Hz
(iii) Phase angle between e(t) and i(t), is
@ = 30°
Power factor, cos = cos30° = 0.866
(iv) Power P = Vi cosO = 141.42 14.142 x 0.866 = 1732 Watts
(v) Power P=FR
1732 = 14.142? x R
- nase
V_ 141.42
Impedance
7 14.142—
10 = 8.667 + X7 bc
ing on both side “Heo ord AC Crean 9
Squarins 7
100 = 8.662, y2
i
Xi = 100-866?
25
Xx, SO
no
5
44g 718-923 mit
poe
ror the circuit shown in (figure 1.59) determine th
f le total impedance Z.
voltage across the capacitor and voltage across t :
| , Current J, phase angle
he resistor. ’
2k. Sue
age ae |
le
i(t)
+100V, SOHz
Fig. 1.73
Solution:
Impedance Z = R-Xc
1 1 1
Whi X.=—= = = 1.591 ko
ee ©" @wC 2nfC~ wx 50x2%10°
Z = (2-j 1.591) kQ
Current a (30.62+ 24.36) mA
Z (2-J1.591)x10°
= 39.12238.492°mA
Phase angle between source voltage and source current i(t) is
0 = 38.492°
Voltge across resistor R,
V,=1x R= 39.12 x 10% x 2x 10' = 78.24V
Voltage across capacitor,
1x X = 39.12 x 10 x 1.591 x 10' = 62.23V
~