Human Anatomy and Physiology Midterm Reviewer

Nursing (Bukidnon State University)

Human Anatomy and Physiology Reviewer
LESSON 1: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. Supports surrounding tissues
2. Protects vital organs and soft tissues
Functions of the
3. Provides levers for muscles to pull on
Skeletal System
4. Manufactures blood cells
5. Stores mineral salts
- connective tissue
- environment in which bone develops in fetus
Cartilage
- found at ends of bones and joints
- contains collagens and proteoglycans
- attach bones to bones
Ligaments
- has large amount of collagen in matrix that make ligaments tough
- attach muscles to bones
Tendons
- has large amount of collagen in matrix that make ligaments tough
Histology of the - osteocytes are same but the arrangement of blood supply is different
Bone - cancellous has bone marrow
1. Compact
- (2) Types of Bone
2. Cancellous
- dense bone with few internal spaces organized into osteons
Compact Bone - forms the diaphysis and covers the spongy bone of the epiphyses
- has more matrix and is denser with fewer pores than spongy bone
- bone having many small spaces
Cancellous or
- found mainly in the epiphysis
Spongy Bone
- arranged into trabeculae
1. Haversian Canals
2. Lamella
3. Lacunae
- (4) Components of Haversian System
4. Volkmann’s Canal
- also called osteon
Haversian Canals
- run parallel to surface
Lamella - concentric rings of bone
Lacunae - cavity containing osteocyte
Canaliculi - lacunae is connected by
Volkmann’s canal or - running horizontally to the haversian (central) canals
Perforating canal - contains blood vessels to carry oxygen and nutrients
- cancellous bone contains
- meshwork of bone
Trabeculae - spongy appearance created by
- bone marrow fills spaces between
- are interconnecting rods and veins
1. Red Marrow
2. Yellow Marrow - (2) Types of Bone Marrow
- connective tissue in the spaces of the spongy bon or in the medullary cavity
Red Marrow - it is the site of blood cell production
- mostly found in the ribs, sternum, vertebrae, and pelvis
Hematopoiesis - formation of blood cells
- fat stored within the medullary or in the spaces of the spongy bone
- shafts of long bones
Yellow Marrow
- extends into the osteons replacing red bone marrow when it becomes
depleted
- by weight, mature bone matrix is normally 35% organic and 65% inorganic
material
Bone Matrix
- the collagen and mineral components are responsible for the major functional
characteristics of bone
Organic Material - collagen and proteoglycans
Inorganic Material - calcium phosphate crystal called hydroxyapatite
1. Osteoblasts
2. Osteocytes - (3) Bone Cells
3. Osteoclast
Osteoblasts - bone – forming cells
Ossification or
- is the formation of bone by osteoblasts
Osteogenesis
- once an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone matrix
Osteocytes
- maintain the bone matrix
- bone – destroying cells
Osteoclast - perform reabsorption, or breakdown, of bone that mobilizes crucial Ca2+ and
phosphate ions
1. Diaphysis - (6) Structure of a Long Bone
2. Epiphysis
3. Metaphysis
4. Medullary Cavity
5. Periosteum
6. Endosteum
- is composed primarily of compact bone, but it also contain some spongy bone
Diaphysis or Shaft
- primary ossification center
- within joints, the end of a long bone is covered with hyaline cartilage called
Articular Cartilage
- part of a long bone that develops from a center of ossification distinct from
Epiphysis the diaphysis
- where growth in bone length occurs
- area of hyaline cartilage that separates epiphysis from the diaphysis
Epiphyseal Plate or
- cartilage growth followed by endochondral ossification results in growth in
Growth Plate
bone length
- when the bone stops growing in length, the epiphyseal plate becomes ossified
Epiphyseal Line
and is called
- abnormally increased in body size due to excessive growth at the epiphyseal
Gigantism
plates
Dwarfism - abnormally small body size due to improper growth at the epiphyseal plates
- flared portion at each end of the diaphysis consisting mainly of cancellous or
Metaphysis
spongy bone
- large internal space of the bone
Medullary Cavity
- large cavity within the diaphysis
- is a double – layered connective tissue membrane that covers the outer
surface of a bone except where articular cartilage is present
Periosteum - where tendons and ligaments attach to bone
- blood vessels and nerve from the supply the bone
- it Is where bone grows in diameter
- thin connective tissue membrane that lines the internal surfaces of all cavities
Endosteum
within bones
• A three-month fetal skeleton is completely formed (cartilage)
o Ossification and growth begin
Growth and Bone • Longitudinal growth continues until:
Formation o 15 years of age for girls
o 16 years of age for boys
• Bone maturation until 21 years of age
1. Intramembranous
2. Endochondral - (2) Types of Ossification
- dense connective membranes replaced by calcium salts
- cranial bones, part of the mandible (lower jaw), and the diaphysis of the
Intramembranous
clavicles develop by
Ossification
- begins at the 8th week of embryonic development
- completed after 2 years of age
- the larger, membrane-covered spaces between the developing skull bones
Fontanels or
that have not been ossified
Fontanelles
- it allows the skull to move through the birth canal
- bone develops inside cartilage environment
Endochondral
- ossification starts at the 8th week of embryonic development
Ossification
- all other bones of the body develop through
1. calcium storage
2. blood calcium
levels - (3) in maintaining the bone, the endocrine controls the:
3. excretion of
excess calcium
Parathormone - regulates calcium release when calcium level is low
Calcitonin - regulates calcium storage when calcium level is high
Appositional - long bones increase in width (diameter) and other bones increase in size or
Growth thickness because of appositional bone growth beneath the periosteum
1. Vitamin D
2. Vitamin C
3. Growth Hormone - (5) Factors affecting bone growth
4. Thyroid Hormone
5. Sex Hormones
Vitamin D - is necessary for the normal absorption of calcium from the intestines
Vitamin C - is necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts
- from the anterior pituitary increases general tissue growth, including overall
Growth Hormone
bone growth
Thyroid Hormone - is also required for normal growth of all tissues including the cartilage
Sex Hormone - also influence bone growth
Estrogen and - initially stimulate bone growth which accounts for the burst of growth at
Testosterone puberty
1. Hematoma
Formation
- Bone is a living tissue that can undergo repair if it is damaged
2. Callus Formation
3. Callus Ossification
- (4) Major steps of Bone Repair and Remodeling Process:
4. Bone Remodeling
 Hematoma
- blood released from damaged blood vessels forms a hematoma
Formation
- the internal callus forms between the ends of the bones, and the external
Callus Formation
callus forms a collar around the break
- woven spongy bone replaces the internal and external calluses
Callus Ossification
- stage of bone repair and remodeling wherein weight-bearing can be supported
- compact bone replaces woven bone, and part of the internal callus is
Bone Remodeling
removed, restoring the medullary cavity
1. Long Bones
2. Short Bones
3. Flat Bones - (5) Classification Based on Shape
4. Irregular Bones
5. Sesamoid Bones
Long Bones - length exceeds width
• Diaphysis
• Metaphysis - (3) Long bones consist of:
• Epiphysis
Diaphysis - shaft
Metaphysis - flared portion
Epiphysis - extremity
• Clavicle
• Humerus
• Radius
• Ulna - (7) Examples of Long Bones
• Femur
• Tibia
• Fibula
- not merely shorter versions of long bones
Short Bones - lack a long axis
- somewhat irregular in shape
• Carpal Bones of
the Wrist
- (2) Examples of Short Bones
• Tarsal Bones of
the Foot
- thin bones found wherever need for extension muscle attachment or
Flat Bones protection
- usually curved
• Sternum
• Ribs
• Scapula
• Parts of the pelvic - (5) Examples of Flat Bones
bones
• Some bones of the
skull
- very irregular in shape
Irregular Bones
- spongy bone enclosed by thin layers of compact bone
• Vertebrae
• Ossicles of the - (2) Examples of Irregular Bones
ears
- small rounded bones
Sesamoid Bones - enclosed in tendon and fascial tissue
- located adjacent to joints
• Kneecap or
- Example of Sesamoid Bone
Patella
- processes: projections
Bone Markings - fossae: depressions
- functions: muscle attachment, articulation, passageways
1. Axial Skeleton
- (2) Divisions of Skeleton
2. Appendicular
Skeleton
- Typically has 206 named bones
- refers to the skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum
Axial Skeleton
- there are 80 axial skeleton bones
Appendicular - refers to the upper extremities or arms and lower extremities or legs
Skeleton - there are 126 appendicular skeleton bones
Axial Skeleton
1. Skull or Cranium
2. Vertebral Column - (3) Major Parts of the Axial Skeleton
3. Thorax
- the skull is a single unit
Skull
- there are 22 skull bones
Cranium - the skull except the mandible
- the top of the skull is called the
Calvaria or Skullcap
- brain case / cranial vault
1. Cranial Bones
2. Facial Bones - (3) The skull consists of the following:
3. Mandible
 The Cranial Bones - they protect and enclose the brain and special sense organs like the eyes and
or Neurocranium ears
1. Frontal bone (1)
2. Parietal bones (2)
3. Occipital bone (1)
- (8) Cranial Bones or Neurocranium:
4. Temporal bone (2)
5. Sphenoid bone (1)
6. Ethmoid bone (1)
Frontal Bone - consists of the forehead, the roof of the nasal cavity, and the orbits
Parietal Bones - are the upper sides and roof of the cranium
Occipital Bone - are the back and base of the cranium
Temporal Bones - are the lower sides and base of the cranium
- it is the anterior portion of the base of the cranium
Sphenoid Bone
- when viewed from below, it looks like a butterfly
- support structure of the nasal cavities and helps from part of the orbits
Ethmoid Bone
- it is the lightest cranial bone
Sutures - are seams between the bones of the skull
1. Frontal or Coronal
2. Sagittal
3. Lambdoid
- (4) Cranial Sutures
4. Squamous
Frontal or Coronal
Suture - frontal bone to parietal bone
Sagittal suture - between 2 parietal bones
Lambdoid suture - occipital bone to parietal bone
Squamous suture - parietal bone to temporal bone
1. Malleus (Hammer)
2. Incus (Anvil) - (6) Auditory Ossicles, 3 on each ear (MISHAS)
3. Stapes (Stirrup)
1. Nasal Bones (2)
2. Palatine Bones (2)
3. Maxillary Bones
(2)
4. Zygomatic Bones
- (14) Facial Bones or Viscerocranium
(2)
5. Lacrimal Bones (2)
6. Nasal Conchae (2)
7. Mandible
8. Vomer
- cavities enclose and protect the eyes
Orbits - the major portion of each eyeball is within the , and the portion of the eye
visible from the outside is relatively small
Nasal Cavity - nose framework surrounds the nasal cavities
Nasal Septum - divides the nasal cavity into right and left halves
Foramina of the
- passageways for blood vessels and nerves
Skull
Foramen magnum - spinal cord passage
- no articulation with other bones
- floats in the superior aspect of the neck just below the mandible
Hyoid Bone
- suspended by ligaments from styloid process
- supports the tongue
Vertebral Column - there are 26 vertebral column bones
1. Cervical (7)
2. Thoracic (12)
3. Lumbar (5) - (26) Vertebrae Bones
4. Sacrum (1)
5. Coccyx (1)
Cervical - possess bifid spinous processes
Thoracic - possess long, slender spinous processes directed inferiorly
Lumbar - possess quadrangular spinous processes
Primary Curve - includes the thoracic and sacral
Secondary Curve - includes the cervical and lumbar
33 or 34 bones - a developing embryo has
1. It supports the weight of the head and trunk
2. It protects the spinal cord
Functions of
3. It allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
Vertebral Column
4. It provides a site for muscle attachment
5. It permits movement of the head and trunk
Thorax or ribcage - encloses and protects heart and lungs
1. Sternum
2. Costal cartilages
3. Bodies of Thoracic
- (3) The thorax or rib cage is made up of:
Vertebrae
Sternum - it is the breastbone
Costal Cartilages - are flexible and permit the ribcage to expand during respiration
1. Manubrium - (3) Parts of the Sternum
2. Body or Gladiolus
3. Xiphoid process
Xiphoid Process - attachment for diaphragm and rectus abdominis
- also called costae
Ribs (24)
- attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae
1. True Ribs (1-7)
2. False Ribs (8-10)
3. Floating Ribs (11-
- (12) Pairs of Ribs
12)
- they articulate with the thoracic vertebrae and attach directly through their
True Ribs
costal cartilages to the sternum
- they articulate with the thoracic vertebrae that are joined by a common
False Ribs cartilage to the costal cartilage of the seventh rib, which in turn is attached to
the sternum
Floating Ribs - they articulate with the thoracic vertebrae but do not attach to the sternum
Appendicular Skeleton
1. Upper Extremities
(64)
2. Lower Extremities
- (2) Major Parts of the Appendicular System
(62)
1. Shoulder Girdle
2. Arm - (2) Parts of the Upper Extremities
1. Clavicle
2. Scapula - (2) The pectoral or shoulder girdle comprises the following:
Scapula or Shoulder
- it is a triangular bone
Blade
Acromion process - can be felt at the tip of the shoulder
Coracoid process or
- provides attachments for some shoulder and arm muscles
Crow’s beak
- extends from the acromion process across the posterior surface of
Spine of Scapula
the scapula
Clavicle or Collar - forms the only bony connection between the pectoral girdle and the axial
Bone skeleton
Lateral end - the of the clavicle articulates with the acromion process
Medial end - the of the clavicle articulates with the manubrium of the sternum
1. Upper arm
2. Forearm
3. Wrist - (5) The arm comprises the following:
4. Hand
5. Fingers
1. Humeral head
2. Anatomical neck
3. Surgical neck
4. Capitulum - (6) Parts of the humerus or upper arm
5. Trochlea
6. Medial and Lateral
Epicondyles
Anatomical neck - immediately distal to head
Surgical neck - common site for fracture or diseases
Capitulum - it is the lateral portion that articulates with the radius
Trochlea - it is the medial portion that articulates with the ulna
1. Ulna (Medial)
2. Radius (Lateral) - (2) The forearm comprises the following:
Ulna - is on the medial side of the forearm, the side with the little finger
• Trochlear notch
• Olecranon process - (3) The ulna consists of the following:
• Styloid process
Radius - is on the lateral, or thumb side of the forearm
• Radial end
• Radial tuberosity - (3) The radius consists of the following:
• Styloid process
1. Carpal bones (8)
2. Metacarpals (5) - (27) The wrist, hand, and fingers consists of:
3. Phalanges (14)
Carpal bones - arranged in two rows (proximal and distal)
• Scaphoid
• Lunate - Proximal (Lateral to Medial):
• Triquetrum Some Lovers Try Positions that they cannot handle
• Pisiform
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid - Distal (Lateral to Medial):
• Capitate Some Lovers Try Positions That They Cannot Handle
• Hamate
Metacarpals - are numbered 1-5
- thumb: proximal and distal
Phalanges
- fingers: proximal, middle, and distal
1. Pelvic Girdle
2. Leg - (3) Parts of the Lower Extremities
3. Foot
1. Ilium
2. Ischium - (3) The coxal bones or ossa coxae is a fushion of bones:
3. Pubis
Acetabulum - the three coxal bones are joined by the to the femur
1. True Pelvis
2. False Pelvis - (2) The pelvis is subdivided into:
Pelvic inlet, Pelvic - the opening of the true pelvis is the , and the inferior opening of the true
outlet pelvis is the
• Sacral promontory
• Pelvic brim - (3) The pelvic inlet makes up the following:
• Symphysis pubis
• Ischial spine
• Coccyx - (3) The pelvic outlet makes up the following:
• Symphysis pubis
1. Femoral head
2. Femoral neck - (6) Parts of the femur or thigh (upper leg) bone
3. Femoral condyles
Femoral condyles - it is where the tibia articulates
- largest sesmoid bone
Patella or Knee cap - it is not articulated to any bones
- articulated on the fascia
1. Tibia
2. Fibula - (2) Lower Leg Bones
- larger lower leg bone
Tibia - supports most of the weight
- articulates with femur
- the distal end of the tibia is enlarged to form the which helps form the
Medial malleolus
medial side of the ankle joint
- does not articulate with femur but has a small proximal head where it
Fibula
articulates with the tibia
- the distal end of the fibula is also slightly enlarged as the to create the
Lateral malleolus
lateral wall of the ankle joint
1. Tarsal bones (7)
2. Metatarsals (5) - (26) The foot consists of:
3. Phalanges (14)
1. Talus
2. Calcaneus
3. Navicular - (7) Tarsal Bones
4. Cuneiforms (3)
5. Cuboid
- ankle bone
Talus
- articulates with tibia and fibula to form the ankle joint
- heel bone
Calcaneus
- largest and strongest tarsal bone
Navicular - boat-shaped
1. Medial
2. Intermediate - (3) Cuneiforms
3. Lateral
Cuboid - cube-shaped
Metatarsals - are arranged in a similar manner to that of the metacarpal bones
- great toe: proximal and distal
Phalanges
- toes: proximal, middle, and distal
1. Medial
Longitudinal Arch
2. Lateral - (3) Major Arches
Longitudinal Arch
3. Transverse Arch
Joints and Movement
- union between two or more bones
Articulation
- can be mobile or immobile
Examples of - sutures between skull bones
Articulation - knee or elbow joint
Joints - are classified into three major groups

• Synarthroses
• Ampiarthroses - (3) Classification of joints according to degree of movement allowed (function)
• Diarthroses
• Fibrous
- (3) Classification of joints according to type of material holding bones together
• Cartilaginous
• Synovial (structure)
Synarthroses
- exhibit no movement
(Fibrous)
• Suture
• Syndesmosis - (3) Joints in this group are subdivided on the basis of structure as:
• Gomphosis
- bones connected by thin layer of connective tissue
Suture
- example: skull
- connected by ligaments between bones
Syndesmosis
- example: radius and ligaments
- conical process in a socket
Gomphosis - “peg-in-a-hole
- example: teeth
Ampiarthroses
- exhibit slight movement
(Cartilaginous)
• Symphysis
• Synchondrosis - (2) Joints in this group can either be:
- connected by disk of fibrocartilage
Symphysis
- example: pubic symphysis
- connected by hyaline cartilage
Synchondrosis
- example: growth plate between diaphysis and epiphyses)
- allows free movement
Diarthroses
- capsule with internal cavity
(Synovial)
- responsible for weight bearing and movement
• Fibrous cartilage
• Ligaments
• Tendons
- (5) Capsule Composition:
• Muscle
• Synovial
Membranes
1. Flexion and
extension
2. Dorsiflexion and
plantar flexion
3. Abduction and
adduction
4. Rotation
5. Circumduction
6. Supination and
pronation
7. Eversion and - (11) Movements at Synovial Joints
inversion
8. Protraction and
retraction
9. Opposition and
reposition
10. Elevation and
depression
11. Radial deviation
and Ulnar
Deviation
- is a bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint to bring the
Flexion
articulating bones closer together
- is a straightening movement that increases the angle of the joint to bring the
Extension
articulating bones farther apart
Hyperextension - abnormal extension
Dorsiflexion - the movement of the foot toward the shin, as when walking on the heels
- the movement of the foot toward the plantar surface, as when standing on the
Plantar flexion
toes
Abduction - is the movement away from the midline
Adduction - is the movement toward the midline
Rotation - is the turning of a structure around its long axis
Circumduction - is the combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction
- is the rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces superiorly if the elbow is
Supination
flexed to 90 degrees
- is the rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces inferiorly if the elbow is
Pronation
flexed to 90 degrees
Eversion - turning of foot so that the plantar surface faces laterally
Inversion - turning of foot so that the plantar surface of the foot faces medially
Protraction - is a gliding motion that moves a structure in an anterior direction
Retraction - is a gliding motion that moves a structure in an posterior direction
- is a movement when the thumb and the tip of a finger on the same hand are
Opposition
brought together toward each other across the palm
Reposition - is a movement when the thumb returns to the neutral anatomical position
Elevation - moves a structure superiorly
Depression - moves a structure inferiorly
Radial Deviation - movement of the wrist towards the radius
Ulnar Deviation - movement of the wrist towards the ulna
1. Ball-and-socket - (6) Types of Synovial Joints
2. Hinge
3. Pivot
4. Condyloid or
ellipsoidal
5. Saddle
6. Plane
- permits the widest range of movement
- movement can occur in all planes
Ball-and-socket - allows 3-degree movement (flexion/extension, abduction/adduction,
circumduction)
- example: shoulder and hip
- convex surface fits into concave surface
Hinge - allows 1-degree movement (flexion/extension only)
- example: knee and elbow
- rotation in one plane
Pivot - atlas and axis (cervical spine)
- example: rotation of the head
- oval-shaped condyle fits into elliptical cavity
Condyloid - motion in two planes at right angles
(ellipsoidal) - allows two-degree movement (extension/flexion, radial/ulnar deviation)
- example: radius and carpal bones
- motion in two planes at right angles
Saddle
- example: permits opposition of the thumb
- permits gliding motion
Plane
- example: intervertebral joints in spine
- closed sacs prevent friction between tissues
Bursae
- synovial membrane lining
Bursitis - inflammation of the bursa
Subcutaneous
- located between skin and underlying bony processes
Bursa
Subfascial Bursa - located between overlying muscles
Subtendinous Bursa - located between overlying tendons or bony projections
LESSON 2: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
“No matter where muscle tissues are in the body, they all share the same feature: CONTRACTION.”
1. Movement of the body
2. Maintenance of posture
Functions of the 3. Respiration
4. Production of body heat
Muscular System 5. Communication
6. Constriction of organs and vessels
7. Contraction of the heart
Movement of the - most skeletal muscles are attached to bones and are responsible for the
body majority of body movements
Maintenance of - skeletal muscles constantly maintain tone, which keeps us sitting or standing
posture erect
Respiration - skeletal muscles of the thorax carry breathing movements
Production of body - when skeletal muscles contract, heat is given off as a by-product that is
heat critical for maintaining body temperature
- skeletal muscles are involved in all aspect of communication including
Communication
speaking, writing, typing, gesturing, smiling or frowning
Constriction of - the contraction of smooth muscles within the walls of internal organs and
organ and vessels vessels causes those structure to constrict
- helps propel and mix food and water in the digestive tract
Constriction - removes materials from organs
- regulate blood flow through vessels
Contraction of the - the contraction of the cardiac muscle causes the heart to beat, propelling
heart blood to all parts of the body
1. Contractility
2. Excitability
3. Extensibility
- (4) Functional Properties of Muscle
4. Elasticity
Contractility - is the ability of muscle to shorten forcefully
Excitability - is the capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus
- means a muscle can be stretched beyond its normal resting length and still be
Extensibility
able to contract
- is the ability of muscle to recoil to its original resting length after it has been
Elasticity
stretched
1. Skeletal
2. Smooth - (3) Types of Muscle Tissue
3. Cardiac
Skeletal Muscle - moves under conscious control or voluntary control by the nervous system
- it is striated and multinucleated
- constitutes about 40% of a person’s body weight
- these muscles are attached to the movable parts of the skeleton
 - it is responsible for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, respiratory
functions, and many other body movements
- it is under unconscious control or involuntary control by the Autonomic
Nervous System (ANS)
- it is non striated and uninucleated
- is found in the walls of hollow organs, such as the stomach and uterus, and
tubes, such as blood vessels and the ducts of certain glands
Smooth
- is also found in the iris of the eye for pupil dilation
- performs a variety of functions, including propelling urine through the urinary
tract, mixing food in the stomach and the small intestine, dilating and
constricting the pupil of the eye, and regulating the flow of blood through blood
vessels
- it is under unconscious control or involuntary control by the Autonomic
Nervous System (ANS)
Cardiac - it is striated and uninucleated
- is found only in the heart, and its contractions provide the major force for
moving blood through the circulatory system
Anatomy of the Skeletal Muscle
- each skeletal muscle is a complete organ consisting of cells called
Muscle fibers - are long, cylindrical cells, each with several nuclei located near the plasma
membrane
Sarcolemma - the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber is called the
Fasciculi - bundles of fascicles or individual muscle fibers
1. Fascia - (4) Organization of the skeletal muscle
2. Epimysium Fascia → Epimysium → Muscle → Perimysium → Fasciculus →
3. Perimysium Endomysium → Muscle Fiber → Myofibrils → Myofilament → Actin and
4. Endomysium Myosin
Fascia - covers the epimysium
Epimysium - covers the perimysium
Perimysium - surrounds each fascicle
Fascicle - a muscle is composed of numerous visible bundles called muscle
Endomysium - surrounds each muscle fiber
1. Transverse tubules
or
T tubules - (2) The sarcotubular system is made up of:
2. Sarcoplasmic
Reticulum
Transverse tubules - tubelike invaginations along the surface of the sarcolemma
or T tubules - connecting the extracellular environment with the interior of the muscle fiber
- highly organized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Sarcoplasmic
- stores Ca2t ions and releases them into the sarcoplasm
reticulum
- plays a major role in muscle contraction
- it is the cytoplasm of muscle
- organelles, such as the numerous mitochondria and energy-storing glycogen
granules are packed into the cell and constitute the cytoplasm
Sarcoplasm
- contains large amount of K, Mg, PO4
- also contains numerous myofibrils
- has mitochondria because it needs more ATP to contract
- bundles of protein filaments
Myofibrils - is a threadlike structure that extends the length of the muscular fiber
- consists of two kinds of myofilaments
1. Actin
myofilaments
2. Myosin
- (2) Kinds of Myofilaments
myofilaments
- thin filaments
Actin myofilaments
- resemble pearls arranges in two twisted strands
- elongated protein that winds along the groove of actin and lie on top of active
Tropomyosin
sites on resting state
Troponin - blinding site for Ca2+
Myosin - thick filaments
myofilaments - myosin heads from cross bridges
3 important 1. The head can bind in the active site of actin
properties of the 2. The head can bend or straighten during muscle contraction
myosin head 3. The head can breakdown ATP
- it is the basic structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle
- the actin and myosin myofilaments are arranged into highly ordered units
called _
- portion between two adjacent Z lines
Sarcomere
- actual contraction process occurs here
- the arrangement of myofilaments give the myofibril a banded, or striated
appearance when viewed longitudinally
- during contraction, the sarcomere shortens
 - filamentous network of protein forming a disk-like structure
- attachment of actin myofilaments
Z disk
- gives the muscle a banded appearance
- during contraction, the z disk narrows down
- light bands containing actin filaments
I bands - isotropic to polarized light
- during contraction, the I band shortens
- dark bands containing myosin filaments
A bands - anisotropic to polarized light
- during contraction, nothing happens to the A band
- center of each A band
- actin and myosin filaments do not overlap
H zone
- only myosin are present
- during contraction, the H zone disappears
- middle of the H zone
M line
- helps hold the myosin myofilaments in place
- attaches to Z disks and extends along myosin myofilaments to the M line
Titin - one of the largest known proteins
- functions as a spring, allowing the sarcomere to stretch and recoil
Physiology of Muscle Contraction
Motor unit - all muscle cells innervated by one motor neuron
Neuroelectrical - it is the uneven distribution of potassium and sodium ions around the muscle
factors cell
Potassium ions (K+) - there is a higher concentration of inside the cell than outside the cell
- there is a higher concentration of outside the cell membrane than inside
Sodium ions (Na+)
the cell
- the outside of the cell is positively charged and the inside of the cell is
Resting Potential
negatively charged
- it is the rush of sodium ions inside the cell and potassium ions moves outside
Electrical Potential
cells attempting to balance
- actin and myosin myofilaments do not change in length during contraction
Sliding Filament - actin and myosin myofilaments slide past one another in a way that causes
Model sarcomeres to shorten
- actin and myosin myofilaments will not change in length
1. Relaxed State
2. Contracted State - (2) States in a muscle contraction
- in a relaxed muscle, actin and myosin myofilaments overlap slightly and
the H zone is visible
- the sarcomere length is as its normal resting length
Relaxed State
- as a muscle contraction is initiated, actin myofilaments slide past the
myosin filaments, z disks are brought closer together, and the sarcomere
begins to shorten
- in a contracted muscle, the A bands, which are equal to the length of the
myosin myofilaments, do not narrow because the length of the myosin
Fully Contracted
myofilaments does not change, nor does the length of the actin myofilaments
Sarcomere
- the ends of the actin myofilaments are pulled to and overlap in the
center of the sarcomere, shortening it and the H zone disappears
Resting Membrane - charge difference across the plasma membrane of an unstimulated cell
Potential (RMP) - the membrane remains at rest
The resting 1. The concentration of K+ inside the plasma membrane is higher than that outside the
membrane plasma membrane
potential is the 2. The concentration of Na+ outside the plasma membrane is higher than that inside
result of three the plasma membrane
factors: 3. The plasma membrane is more permeable to K+ than to Na+
-90 millivolts (mv) - resting membrane potential is
- the inside of the plasma membrane becomes positively charged compared
with the outside
Action Potential - ions channels open when a cell is stimulated
- the diffusion of potassium and sodium ions through these channels changes
the charge across the plasma membrane
What causes the
- The influx or entry of sodium inside the membrane making it more positive
action potential?
1. Depolarization
2. Repolarization - (2) Phases of Action Potential
- the inside of the cell becomes positively charge brought by the inflowing
Depolarization
positively charged sodium ions
-65 millivolts (mv) - once threshold is reached ( ), an action potential is triggered
- rapid diffusion of potassium ions to the exterior re-establishes Resting
Repolarization
Membrane Potential
All or none principle - if a stimulus is strong that reaches threshold, or even if it is threshold by a
substantial by a substantial amount, all of the permeability changes
responsible for an action potential proceed without stopping
- if a stimulus is so weak that the depolarization does not reach threshold, the
 membrane returns to its resting level after a brief period without producing an
action potential
Neuromuscular - each axon branch forms a cluster of enlarges axon terminals that rests in an
junction invagination of the sarcolemma
1. An action potential from the nervous system arrives at the presynaptic terminal and
causes calcium channels in the presynaptic membrane to open.
2. Calcium ions enter the presynaptic terminal and initiate the release of
neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) from synaptic vessels.
What happens at 3. ACh is released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis,
the Neuromuscular 4. ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to sodium channels on the
Junction? postsynaptic membrane.
5. Sodium channels open and sodium enters the postsynaptic cell, causing the
postsynaptic membrane to depolarize.
6. If depolarization passes threshold (-65mv), an action potential is generated along
the postsynaptic membrane.
1. Presynaptic
terminal
2. Synaptic cleft - (3) Parts of the Neuromuscular Junction
3. Postsynaptic
membrane
Presynaptic
- each axon terminal is the , that contains the acetylcholine (ACh)
terminal
Acetylcholine - it is the neurotransmitter that is released in the presynaptic membrane
Synaptic cleft - space between the presynaptic terminal and the muscle fiber
Postsynaptic
membrane or motor- - muscle plasma membrane in the area of the junction
end-plate
Excitation- - the mechanism by which an action potential causes of a muscle fiber
Contraction - begins at the neuromuscular junction with the production of an action
Coupling potential in the sarcolemma
What happens in AP in sarcolemma → T tubules → sarcoplasmic reticulum → Ca2+ channels open
Excitation- → release Ca2+ into the sarcoplasm → Ca2+ binds to troponin of actin → troponin-
Contraction tropomyosin complex move → exposes active sites → head of myosin binds to
Coupling? active site → cross-bridge formed → power stroke → muscular contraction
1. An action potential that was produced at the neuromuscular junction is propagated
along the sarcolemma of the skeletal muscle. The depolarization also spreads along
the membrane the of the T tubules.
2. The depolarization of the T tubule causes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in the
sarcoplasmic reticulum to open, resulting in an increase in the permeability of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum to Ca2+, especially in the terminal cisternae. Calcium ions
Action Potentials and
then diffuse from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm.
Muscle Contraction
3. Calcium ions released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum bind to troponin molecules.
The troponin molecules bound to G actin molecules are released, causing
tropomyosin to move, and to expose the active sites on G actin.
4. Once active sites on G actin are exposed, the heads of the myosin myofilaments
bind to them to form of the myosin myofilaments bind to them to form cross-
bridges.
1. Exposure of active sites. Before cross-bridges cycle, Ca2+ binds to the troponins
and the tropomyosins move, exposing active sites on actin myofilaments.
2. Cross-bridge formation. The myosin heads bind to the exposed active sites on
the actin myofilaments to form cross-bridges, and phosphates are released from the
myosin heads.
3. Power stroke. Energy stored in the myosin heads is used to move the myosin
Breakdown of ATP and heads, causing the actin myofilaments to slide past the myosin myofilaments, and
Cross-Bridge ADP molecules are released from the myosin heads.
4. Cross-bridge release. An ATP molecule binds to each of the myosin heads,
Movement During
Muscle Contraction causing them to detach from the actin.
5. Hydrolysis of ATP. The myosin ATPase portion of the myosin heads split ATP into
ADP and phosphate, which remain attached to the myosin heads.
6. Recovery stroke. The heads of the myosin molecules return to their resting
position, and energy is stored in the heads of the myosin molecules. If Ca2+ is still
attached to troponin, cross-bridge formation and movement are repeated (return to
step 2). This cycle occurs many times during a muscle contraction. Not all cross-
bridges form and release simultaneously.
Summary of Muscle 1. An action potential travels along a motor nerve to its endings on muscle fibers.
Contraction 2. At each ending, the nerve secretes a small amount of the neurotransmitter
substance acetylcholine.
3. The acetylcholine acts on a local area of the muscle fiber membrane to open
multiple “acetylcholine-gated” cation channels through protein molecules floating in
the membrane.
4. Opening of the acetylcholine-gated channels allows large quantities of sodium ions
to diffuse to the interior of the muscle fiber membrane. This causes of a local
depolarization that in turn leads to opening of voltage-gated sodium channels. This
initiates an action potential at the membrane.
5. The action potential travels along the muscle fiber membrane in the same way that
the action potentials travel along nerve fiber membranes.
6. The action potential depolarizes the muscle membrane, and much of the action
potential electricity flows through the center of the muscle fiber. Here it causes the
sarcoplasmic reticulum to release large quantities of calcium ions that have been
stored within this reticulum.
 7. The calcium ions initiate attractive forces between the actin and myosin
myofilaments, causing them to slide alongside each other, which is the contractile
process.
8. After a fraction of a second, the calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum by a Ca2+ membrane pump and remain stored in the reticulum until a new
muscle action potential comes along; this removal of calcium ions from the
myofibrils causes the muscle contraction to cease.
Three major ATP- 1. The sodium-potassium pump must actively transport Na+ and K+ to return to and
dependent events maintain resting membrane potential.
2. Detachment of the myosin heads from the actin and return them to their resting
are required for
position
muscle relaxation: 3. Reuptake of Ca2+ into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- single, brief contraction and relaxation cycle in a muscle fiber in response to a
stimulus
Muscle Twitch
- does not last long enough or generate enough tension to perform any work
- stimulus > latent period or lag phase > contraction phase > relaxation phase
1. Lag Phase
2. Contraction Phase - (3) Phases of a Muscle Twitch
3. Relaxation Phase
- it is the time between the stimulus application to the motor neuron and the
Lag phase
beginning of contraction
Contraction phase - it is the time during which muscle contraction occurs
Relaxation phase - it is the time during which muscle relaxation occurs
- the constant tension produced by muscle for long period of time
- state of partial contraction throughout whole muscle
- it is responsible for keeping the back and legs straight, head in an upright
Muscle Tone position, and the abdomen from bulging
- maintains pressure on abdominal contents
- helps maintain blood pressure
- aids digestion
1. Normotonic
2. Hypotonic - (3) Types of Muscle Tone
3. Hypertonic
Normotonic - normal muscle tone
- low muscle tone
Hypotonic
- cannot maintain a specific movement
- high muscle tone
Hypertonic
- cannot maintain a specific movement
1. Isometric
Contraction
- (2) Types of Muscle Contraction
2. Isotonic
Contraction
Isometric - the length of the muscle does not change but the amount of tension increases
Contraction during contraction
Isotonic - the amount of tension is produced by the muscle is constant during
Contractions contraction but the length of the muscle changes
1. Concentric
2. Eccentric - (2) Types under Isotonic Contractions
Concentric - tension in the muscle is great enough to overcome the opposing resistance,
Contraction and the muscle shortens
Eccentric - tension is maintained in a muscle, but the opposing resistance is great enough
Contraction to cause the muscle to increase in length
- it is the decreased capacity to do work and the reduced efficiency of the
Muscle Fatigue
performance that normally follows a period of activity
1. Psychological
2. Muscular - (3) Types of Muscle Fatigue
3. Synaptic
Psychological
- it is the most common types that involves the central nervous system
Fatigue
Muscular Fatigue - occurs in the muscle fiber
Synaptic Fatigue - occurs in the neuromuscular junction
- it is the development of rigid muscles several hours after death
Rigor Mortis - shortly after death, ATP production stops, and ATP levels within the muscle
fibers decline
1. Creatine
phosphate
2. Anaerobic
respiration
- (3) The energy required to produce ATP comes from the sources:
3. Aerobic
respiration
- creatine phosphate reacts with ADP to produce ATP and creatine
Creatine Phosphate
- provide enough energy to sustain maximum contraction for about 8-10
System
seconds
- because the muscle cells cannot store ATP, they store a high energy molecule
Creatine Phosphate called that provides a means of storing energy that the body can use to
maintain an adequate ATP in the contraction of muscle fibers
 - does not require oxygen to produce ATP
- results in the breakdown of glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
Anaerobic
- it produces lesser ATP than aerobic respiration, but it can produce ATP in a
Respiration
matter of few seconds
- support intense muscle contraction for up to 3 minutes
- requires oxygen
- breaks down glucose to produce ATP, carbon dioxide and water
Aerobic Respiration
- involved in long-term exercise, such as long-distance running or other
endurance activities
Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
Slow-Twitch Oxidative Fast-Twitch Oxidative Fast-Twitch Glycolytic
(SO) Glycolytic (FOG) (FG)
(Type I) (Types IIa) (Type IIb)
Mitochondria levels Many Many Few
Fatigue Resistance High Intermediate Low
Location where Generally in postural
Generally in upper
fibers are most muscles and more in lower Generally in lower limbs
limbs
abundant limbs than upper limbs
Maintenance of posture and Rapid, intense
Endurance activities in
Functions performance of endurance movements of short
endurance-trained muscles
activities duration
- are small spindle shaped, with a single nucleus in the middle of the cell
- fewer actin and myosin myofilaments are present
- actin and myosin myofilaments are organized as loose bundles instead of
Smooth Muscles sarcomeres, thus having a non-striated appearance
- more actin than myosin myofilaments
- has a slower contraction speed than skeletal muscle
- does not contain the normal troponin complex
- and dense areas are considered equivalent to the Z disks
Dense bodies
- attachment of actin and myosin myofilaments
Calmodulin - calcium ions that enter the cytoplasm bind to a protein called
1. Longitudinal
(outer) - (2) Arrangements of Smooth Muscle
2. Circular (inner)
• Skeletal muscle contracts and relaxes rapidly
• Smooth muscles are prolonged tonic contractions lasting hours to days
Comparison of • Rapidity of cycling of the myosin cross bridges in smooth muscle is much slower
Smooth and than in skeletal muscle
Skeletal Muscle • Low energy requirement to sustain smooth muscle because of fewer actin and
myosin myofilaments
• Slowness of onset of contraction and relaxation in smooth muscle
1. Visceral (unitary)
2. Multiunit - (2) Types of Smooth Muscle
- more common type of smooth muscle
- sheets of smooth muscle cells function as a unit, and a wave of contraction
Visceral (unitary)
transverses the entire smooth muscle sheet
smooth muscle
- has numerous gap junctions
- found in the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts
- cells or group of cells act as independent units
- occurs in various configurations: sheets, small bundles, single cells
Multiunit smooth
- fewer gap junctions than visceral smooth muscle
muscle
- founds at the walls of blood vessels, ciliary muscle of the eye, iris muscle of
eye, piloerector muscle, and capsule of spleen
- found only in the heart
- adjacent cells join to form branching fibers by specialized cell-to-cell
attachments
Cardiac Muscle
- action potential has longer duration and refractory (unresponsive) period
- are auto rhythmic, and one part of the heart normally acts as the pacemaker
- can contract, relax, and contract 75 times per minute
Intercalated disks - are branching fibers by specialized cell-to-cell attachments
1. Hypertrophy
2. Atrophy
- (4) Muscle Changes
3. Sarcopenia
4. Muscle cramps
- is the enlargement of skeletal muscle due to an increased number of
Hypertrophy
myofibrils, as occurs with increased muscle use or as a result of other diseases
- is the decrease in muscle size due to a decreased number of myofilaments
Atrophy
- can occur due to disuse of a muscle, as in paralysis and other pathologies
Sarcopenia - the age-related reduction in muscle mass and regulation of muscle function
- it is the painful, spastic contractions of skeletal muscle
Muscle cramps
- it is usually due to a buildup of lactic acid
1. Origin - (5) General Principles of Muscle Anatomy
2. Insertion
3. Belly
4. Tendons
5. Aponeurosis
- more fixed attachment of muscle
Origin
- usually the most stationary, proximal end of the muscle
- movable attachment of the muscle
Insertion - usually the distal end of the muscle attached to the bone undergoing the
greatest movement
Belly - part of the muscle between the muscle and insertion
Tendons - attach muscle to bone
Aponeurosis - wide flat tendon
1. Agonist
2. Antagonist
3. Prime mover - (5) Muscle Roles during Movement
4. Synergist
5. Fixator
Agonist - muscle(s) that accomplishes a certain movement
Antagonist - muscle(s) acting in opposition
Prime mover - muscle that plays the major role in accomplishing a movement
- group of muscles working together to produce a movement
Synergist
- assist the prime movers
- muscles that hold one bone in place relative to the body while a usually more
Fixator distal bone is moved
- stabilizers of prime movers
1. Location
2. Size
3. Shape
4. Orientation
5. Origin and
- (7) Nomenclature
Insertion
6. Number of heads
7. Action/ Function
Skeletal Muscles by Regions
1. Sternocleidomastoid
Muscle of the Neck 2. Trapezius
3. Scalene
1. Temporalis
Muscle of 2. Masseter
Mastication 3. Lateral pterygoid
4. Medial pterygoid
Muscle of 1. Diaphragm
2. External Intercostals
Respiration 3. Internal Intercostals
1. Infraspinatus
Rotator Cuf 2. Subscapularis
Muscles 3. Supraspinatus
4. Teres minor
- muscles that originate outside the hand but insert into structures within the
Extrinsic Muscles of
the Hand hand
- muscles that move the wrist
- muscles that originate inside the hand and insert into structures within the
Intrinsic Muscle of hand
the Hand - the muscles intrinsic to the hand are those that move the thumb and the little
finger
LESSON 3: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM AND BLOOD
1. Generating blood pressure
Functions of the 2. Routing blood
Cardiovascular 3. Ensuring one-way blood flow
System 4. Regulating blood supply
5. Exchanges nutrients, waste products, and gases with tissues
Generating Blood - contractions of the heart generate blood pressure, which is responsible for
Pressure moving blood through the blood vessels
Ensuring one-way - the valves of the heart ensure a one-way flow of blood through the heart and
blood flow blood vessels
Exchanges
- the vessels transport the blood which carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones,
nutrients, waste
enzymes, and cellular waste to and from the trillions of cells that make up our
products, and gases
bodies
with tissues

Anatomy of the Heart

- shaped like a blunt cone and is approximately the size of a closed fist
Adult Heart - positioned obliquely between the lungs in the mediastinum
- about two-thirds of its bulk lies to the left side of the midline of the body
- the heart is located in the , a midline partition of the thoracic cavity that
Mediastinum
also contains the trachea, esophagus, thymus and associated structures
Apex - blunt, rounded point of the heart
- directed anteriorly and slightly inferiorly
 - located deep to the 5th intercostal space to the left of the sternum and medial
to the midclavicular line
- larger, flat part at the opposite end of the heart
Base - directly posteriorly and slightly superiorly
- located deep to the sternum and extends to the 2nd intercostal space
Intercostal Space - is the space between two ribs
Pericardium or
- is a double layered, closed sac that surrounds the heart
Pericardial Sac
1. Fibrous
Pericardium
2. Serous
- (2) Layers of Pericardium
Pericardium
- it is the outer layer made up of tough, fibrous connective tissue
Fibrous
- prevents over distension of the heart
Pericardium
- anchors the heart within the mediastinum
- it is made up of thin, transparent, inner layer of simple squamous
Serous Pericardium
epithelium
1. Parietal
Pericardium
2. Visceral
- (2) The serous pericardium is further divided into:
Pericardium
Parietal
- part of the serous pericardium lining the fibrous pericardium
Pericardium (outer)
Visceral
- part covering the heart surface
Pericardium (inner)
- the heart lies in the
Pericardial Cavity - it is formed by the pericardium or the pericardial sac
- separates the epicardium and serous pericardium
1. Epicardium
2. Myocardium - (3) Layers of the Heart Wall
3. Endocardium
- also called the visceral pericardium
Epicardium
- it is the outermost layer of the heart wall
- it is the middle muscular layer
Myocardium
- it is responsible for the heart’s contraction
Endocardium - lines the heart and its valves
1. Superior vena
cava
2. Inferior vena cava
3. Coronary sinus
- (6) The Great Vessels of the Heart
4. Pulmonary trunk
5. Pulmonary veins
(4)
6. Ascending Aorta
Superior vena cava
- receives blood from upper body to the right atrium
(SVC)
Inferior vena cava
- receives blood from lower body to the right atrium
(IVC)
Coronary Sinus - drains blood from the heart to the right atrium
- consists of the right and left artery
Pulmonary trunk
- carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for gas exchange
Pulmonary veins
- return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart (left atrium)
(4)
Ascending aorta - carries oxygenated blood out to body
1. Brachiocephalic
2. Common carotid
(L) - (3) Branches of Aorta
3. Subclavian (L)
1. Aortic Arch
2. Descending
Thoracic - (3) Sections of Aorta
3. Abdominal
1. Atria (2)
2. Ventricles (2) - (4) Heart Chambers
Right Atrium - has 3 major openings
1. SVC
2. IVC - (3) Major openings of the Right Atrium
3. Coronary sinus
SVC and IVC - receives blood from the body
Coronary Sinus - receives blood from the heart itself
Left Atrium - receives blood from the four pulmonary veins coming from the lungs
- the right and left atria are separated from each other by the wall of tissue
Interatrial Septum
called
- opens into the pulmonary trunk
Right Ventricle
- pumps blood into the lungs
Left Ventricle - opens into the aorta
 - pumps blood through the systemic circulation
Interventricular
septum - the two ventricles are separated from each other by the
1. Atrioventricular
valves - (2) Heart Valves
2. Semilunar valves
Atrioventricular
- allow blood to flow from the atria into the ventricles but prevent blood from
Valves
flowing back into the atria
(AV valves)
1. Tricuspid valve
2. Bicuspid (Mitral) - (2) Valves under Atrioventricular
valve
Tricuspid valve - between right atrium and right ventricle
Bicuspid (Mitral)
- between left atrium and left ventricle
valve
Chordae tendineae - cusps attach to ventricles by
Semilunar valves
- keeps blood from flowing back into the ventricles
(SL valves)
1. Pulmonary valve
2. Aortic valve - (2) Valves under Semilunar
- right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
- pulmonary trunk exits the heart
- left ventricle
Aortic valve
- ascending aorta leaves the heart
1. Pulmonary
Circulation
- (2) Types of Circulation or Routes of Blood Flow through the Heart
2. Systemic
Circulation
Pulmonary - carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs and returns it to the left atrium of the
Circulation heart
Carbon Dioxide - in pulmonary circulation, diffuses from the blood into the lungs
Oxygen - in pulmonary circulation, diffuses from the lungs into the blood
- delivers oxygenated blood and its nutrients to all the remaining tissues of the
Systemic body
Circulation - from those tissues, carbon dioxide and other waste products are carried back
to the right side of the heart

Blood Flow
Through the Heart

Conduction System -a relays action potentials through the heart

Sinoatrial (SA) - pacemaker of the heart that initiates impulse
node - located medial to the opening of the superior vena cava
Atrioventricular
- sends impulse to AV bundle
(AV) node
- passes through the interventricular septum and sends impulses to both sides
AV Bundle of His
of system: the right and left bundle branches
Purkinje fibers - send impulse to myocardial cells
1. Action potentials originate in the sinoatrial (SA) node (the pacemaker) and travel
across the wall of the atrium from the SA node to the atrioventricular node
2. Action potentials pass through the AV node and along the atrioventricular (AV)
Conducting System bundle, which extends from the AV node, through the fibrous skeleton, into the
interventricular septum
of the Heart
3. The AV bundle divides into right and left bundle branches, and action potentials
descend to the apex of each ventricle along the bundle branches
4. Action potentials are carried by the Purkinje fibers from the bundle branches to the
ventricular walls and papillary muscles
- the normal ECG consists of a P wave, a QRS complex, and a T wave
Electrocardiogram
- the summated record of the cardiac action potentials is an
(ECG or EKG)
- is a record of the electrical activity of the heart
- conducted through the heart during the cardiac cycle produce electrical
Action Potentials
currents that can be measured at the body surface
Small voltage - electrodes placed on the body surface and attached to an appropriate
 changes
recording device can detect resulting from action potentials in the cardiac
muscle
- can reveal abnormal heart rates and rhythms, abnormal conduction pathways,
ECG Analysis
or hypertrophy or atrophy portions of the heart
P wave - result from the atrial depolarization and signals the onset of atrial contraction
- result from the ventricular depolarization and signals the onset of ventricular
QRS complex contraction
- also atrial repolarization but it is overlapped by the former
T Wave - represents ventricular repolarization and precedes ventricular relaxation
- time between the beginning of the P wave and the beginning of the QRS
PR interval
complex
QT interval - extends from the beginning of the QRS complex to the end of the T wave
- refers to the repetitive pumping process that begins with the onset of cardiac
Cardiac Cycle
muscle contraction and ends with the beginning of the next contraction
0.7 – 0.8 second - the normal cardiac cycle
Systole - contraction phase
Atrial systole - contraction of the atria
Ventricular systole - contraction of the ventricles
Diastole - relaxation phase
Atrial diastole - relaxation of the atria
Ventricular diastole - relaxation of the ventricles
I. Atrial Systole: Period of active ventricular filling
Events of Cardiac II. Ventricular systole: Period of isovolumetric contraction
III. Ventricular systole: Period of ejection
Cycle IV. Ventricular diastole: Period of isovolumetric relaxation
V. Ventricular diastole: Period of passive ventricular filling
Atrial systole: - the atria contract, forcing additional blood to flow to the ventricles to
Period of active complete ventricular filling
ventricular filling - atrioventricular valves are opened, semilunar valves are closed
- the atria are relaxed, and blood flows into them from the veins
Ventricular systole:
- ventricular contraction causes ventricular pressure to increase and causes
Period of
the AV valves to close, which is the beginning of ventricular systole
isovolumetric
- the semilunar valves were closed in the previous diastole and remain
contraction
closed during this period
- continued ventricular contraction causes a greater increase in ventricular
Ventricular systole:
Period of ejection pressure, which pushes blood out of the ventricles, causing the semilunar valves
to open
Ventricular - as the ventricles begin to relax at the beginning of ventricular diastole,
diastole: Period of blood flowing back from the aorta and pulmonary trunk toward the relaxing
isovolumetric ventricles causes the semilunar valves to close
relaxation - the AV valves are also closed
Ventricular - as ventricular relaxation continues, the AV valves open, and blood flows
diastole: Period of from the atria into the relaxing ventricles, accounting for most of the ventricular
passive ventricular filling
filling - SL valves are closed
- sound produced by closure of valves
Heart Sounds - best heard by applying the stethoscope at particular sites in relation to the
heart valves
1. S1
2. S2 - (2) Primary heart sounds
S1 S2
Closure of AV valves (lub) Closure of SL valves (dup)
Soft closure Rapid snap
Duration: 0.14 sec Duration: 0.11 sec
Low pitch High pitch
Blood Pressure and Hemodynamics
- is measure of the force blood exerts against the blood vessel walls
Blood Pressure
- measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg)
Sphygmomanomet
er - health professionals often use in getting the blood pressure
Stethoscope
- sound that is produced by blood flow vibrations in the blood and surrounding
Korotkof sounds
tissues that can be heard through the stethoscope
Antecubital area - Where is the stethoscope placed for getting blood pressure?
Brachial pulse - When getting the blood pressure, you are using the
Radial pulse - When getting the heart rate, you can use the
Systole - first distinct sound when getting blood pressure
Diastole - sound disappears when getting blood pressure
<120/80 mmHg - normal BP

Blood Pressure Classification in Adults

Systolic Blood Pressure Diastolic Blood Pressure
 (mm Hg) (mm Hg)
Normal blood pressure <120 <80
Prehypertension 120-139 80-89
Stage 1 hypertension 140-159 90-99
Stage 2 hypertension ≥160 ≥100
Pulse pressure - it is the difference between the systolic and diastolic blood pressure
- the amount of blood that leaves the ventricles per minute
Cardiac Output - expressed in L/min
- Cardiac Output = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume
Stroke Volume - the volume of blood ejected with each myocardial contraction
Heart Rate - number of heart beats per minute
Pulse oximeter - used to measure heart rate
60-100 bpm - normal heart rate
Venous return - the amount of blood returning to the heart from the systemic circulation
Anatomy of Blood Vessels
1. Arteries
2. Anterioles
3. Capillaries - (5) Types of Blood Vessels
4. Venules
5. Veins
- carry blood away from the heart
Arteries
- thicker and stronger
Arterioles - connect small arteries to capillaries
- the most common blood vessel type
Capillaries - responsible for gas, nutrient and waste exchange
- connects arteries to veins
Venules - connect capillaries to veins
- vessels that carry blood toward the heart
Veins - less elastic than arteries
- contain valves
1. Tunica intima
2. Tunica media
3. Tunica adventitia/
- (3) Three layers of arteries and veins
externa
Tunica intima - innermost layers
Tunica media - middle layer
Tunica adventitia/
externa - outer layer
Lumen - blood vessel cavity
Anastomosis - junction of blood vessels
Blood
1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products
2. Transport of processed molecules
Functions of the 3. Transport of regulatory molecules
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
Blood 5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protection against foreign substances
7. Clot formation
Transport of
- for example, the precursor to vitamin D is transported by the blood to the liver
processed
and to the kidneys for processing into active vitamin D
molecules
Transport of
- the blood carries the hormones and many enzymes that regulate body
regulatory
processes from one part of the body to another
molecules
Regulation of pH - bufers, which help keep the blood’s pH within the normal range of 7.35 –
and osmosis 7.45, are in the blood
Maintenance of - warm blood from the interior of the body are transported to its surface, where
body temperature heat is released
- white blood cells in the blood make up an important part of the immune
Protection against
system, protecting against foreign substances, such as microorganisms and
foreign substances
toxins
- blood clotting protects against excessive blood loss when blood vessels are
Clot formation
damaged
- type of connective tissue consisting of a liquid matrix containing cells and cell
The Blood fragments
- makes up about 8% of the total weight of the body
4-5L in females
- the total blood volume in the average adult is about
5-6 L in males
- makes up 55% of the total blood volume
- is the liquid matrix of the blood
Plasma - pale yellow fluid in nature
- it is a colloid which is a liquid containing suspended substances that do not
settle out of solution
1. Proteins - (3) Composition of the Plasma
2. Water
3. Other solutes
- the fluid portion of the blood is
Water
- makes up 91% of the plasma
1. Albumin
2. Globulin - Plasma Proteins (7%)
3. Fibrinogen
- makes up 58% of the plasma proteins
Albumin
- partly responsible for blood viscosity
- accounts for 38% of the plasma proteins
Globulin
- provides protection against microorganisms
- constitutes 4% of the plasma proteins
Fibrinogen
- responsible for the formation of blood clots
1. Ions
2. Nutrients
3. Waste products
4. Gases
- Plasma Solutes (2%)
5. Enzymes
6. Hormones
- makes up 45% of the total blood volume
Formed Elements
- includes the cell fragments
- it is the process of blood cell production
Hematopoiesis or
- occurs in tissues such as the yolk sac, liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and
Hemopoiesis
red bone marrow
Red bone marrow; - after birth, hematopoiesis is confined primarily to , though some white
Lymphatic tissue blood cells complete their development in
- all the formed elements of the blood are derived from a single population of
Hemocytoblasts
stem cells called
1. Erythrocytes
(RBCs)
2. Leukocytes - (3) Kinds of Formed Elements
(WBCs)
3. Thrombocytes
Erythrocytes or - 95% of the volume of blood cells
Red Blood Cells - has no nucleus, and it can bend or fold around its thin center
5.14 million/ μL - males have about RBCs
4.8 million/ μL - females have about RBCs
- normal red blood cells are shape, meaning that their edges are thicker than
Biconcave disks their center
- increases the cell’s surface
120 days - red blood cells normally stay in the circulation for about
Reticulocyte - immature red blood cells
Primary Functions 1. To transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues
of Red Blood Cells 2. To transport carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs
- main component of the red blood cell
- it is the pigmented protein which occupies about one-third of the total red
Hemoglobin
blood cell volume
- accounts for the blood cell’s red color
- approximately of the oxygen in the blood is transported in combination
98.5%
with the hemoglobin in the red blood cells
- a hormone produced mostly by the kidneys
Erythropoietin
- stimulates red bone marrow to produce more red blood cells
1. Heme
2. Globin - Hemoglobin has 2 components:
- binds with oxygen
Heme - each heme contains one iron atom which is necessary for the normal function
of hemoglobin
Globin - binds with carbon dioxide
- yellowish in color
Bilirubin
- breakdown by-product of heme
- lack hemoglobin but have a nucleus
Leukocytes or
- protect the body against invading microorganisms and remove dead cells and
White Blood Cells
debris from the body
Ameboid
- WBCs can leave the blood and can travel by
movement
High WBC count - may indicate that the immune system is working to destroy an infection
Pus - accumulation of dead white blood cells and bacteria
1. Granular
Leukocytes
- (2) Categories of White blood cells based on their appearance
2. Agranular
Leukocytes

1. Neutrophils - (3) Types of Granular Leukocytes

2. Eosinophils
3. Basophils
- 60-70% of white blood cells
- the first line of defense of the body
Neutrophils
- phagocytize bacteria, antigen-antibody complexes (antigens and antibodies
bound together), and other foreign matter
- 2-4% of white blood cells
Eosinophils - important in the defense against certain worm parasites
- releases chemicals that modulate inflammation such as in allergic reactions
- 0.5-1% of white blood cells
Basophils
- release histamine and heparin
Histamine - promotes inflammation
Heparin - prevents clot formation
1. Monocytes
2. Lymphocytes - (2) Types of Agranular
- 20-25% of white blood cells
Lymphocyte - smallest white blood cells
- regulation of the immune system and contributes to allergic reactions
1. B lymphocytes
2. T lymphocytes - (2) Types of Lymphocytes
- produces antibodies and other chemicals responsible for destroying
B lymphocytes
microorganisms
T lymphocytes - for graft rejection and tumor control
- 3-8% of white blood cells
- typically the largest of the white blood cells
Monocyte
- phagocytic cell in the blood
- leaves the blood and becomes a macrophage
- phagocytizes bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments, and other debris within
Macrophage
tissues
- are disk-shaped cellular fragments without a nucleus
- are minute fragments of cells
Thrombocytes or - consist of a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane
Platelets - prevent fluid loss when blood vessels are damaged
- forms platelet plugs and release chemicals necessary for blood clotting
- performs a major role in hemostasis
Megakaryocytes - thrombocytes are produced from large
The Clotting
- the stoppage of bleeding which is very important to the maintenance of
Mechanism:
Hemostasis homeostasis
1. Vascular spasm is the immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel that
results when smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel contracts
Three major events 2. Platelet Plug Formation is the accumulation of platelets that seal small breaks in
in Hemostasis blood vessels
3. Coagulation. Formation of a blood clot which is a network of threadlike protein
fibers, called fibrin
Fibrinolysis - it is the dissolution of blood clots
Thrombosis - it is the unwanted blood clotting
Embolus - is the circulating blood clot through the blood vessels
Infarction - are the tissues killed as a result of loss of blood supply
- the surfaces of red blood cells have molecules called antigens and the plasma
Blood Grouping
includes proteins called antibodies
- clumping of the cells occurs when the antibodies in the plasma bind to the
Agglutination
antigens on the surfaces of the red blood cells
Agglutinogens - the antigens are often called
Agglutinins - the antibodies are called

ABO Blood Group

Rh Blood Group - the antigen involved in this blood group is the D Antigen
- antibodies against the Rh antigen do not develop unless an Rh-negative
 person is exposed to Rh-positive blood
Rh-positive - if they have a certain Rh antigen
Rh-negative - if they do not have this Rh antigen
Hemolytic diseases
- mother in Rh-negative and the fetus is Rh-positive
of the newborn
- no problem in first pregnancy
(HDN) or
- dangerous in subsequent pregnancy
Erythroblastosis
- prevention by RhoGAM
fetalis

IMAGES
Skeletal System
Bone Repair and Remodeling
Cranial Sutures Cranial Sutures
Auditory Ossicles

Hyoid Bone

Vertebral Column
 Cervical

Thoracic Lumbar

Sacrum and Coccyx

 Scapula or Shoulder Blade

Clavicle or Collarbone Upper Arm Forearm

Surface Anatomy Showing Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

Lower Extremities
Thigh and Knee Leg

Foot Arches of the Foot

Surface Anatomy Showing Bones of the Lower Limb

Movements at Synovial Points

Plane
Muscular System
Neuromuscular Junction Action Potentials and Muscle Contraction
Muscle Twitch

Smooth Muscle

Cardiovascular System and Blood

 Route of Blood Flow

Conduction System EKG

 Layers of Arteries and Veins

Blood Production of Formed Elements

Agranular Leukocytes

Granular Leukocytes