BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING - ECOLOGY

CHAPTER 2:

ECOLOGY
 BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING - ECOLOGY

2.1 ECOSYSTEM CONCEPT

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
a) Define ecosystem
b) Describe lake ecosystem based on:
● Light penetration (photic and aphotic)
● Distance from the shore and water depth (littoral, limnetic)
c) Describe terrestrial ecosystem of tropical rainforest stratification (emergent, canopy,
understory, shrub, ground layer/forest floor)

Ecosystem
Definition : A natural unit of biotic (living) together with the abiotic (non-living)
components through energy flows and nutrient cycle

i. Biotic Components
AUTOTROPH HETEROTROPH DECOMPOSER
● Organism that obtain ● Organisms that ● Organisms that
organic molecules cannot synthesize the obtain their energy
from inorganic organic nutrients they through
materials by need decomposition
photosynthesis ● Also known as ● Extracellular
● Known as producer consumer digestion by secreting
● E.g: green plants, ● They get their organic digestive enzyme onto
algae nutrients by feeding dead or waste
producers or other materials
consumer ● E.g. Saprophytic
bacteria and
● Four type of fungi
organisms:
1. Herbivores
2. Carnivores
3. Omnivores
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4. Detritivores

HETEROTROPH EXPLANATION EXAMPLES

HERBIVORES ● An animal that feeds on ● Small crustaceans and
plants or algae Mollusca (in aquatic
ecosystem),
● Cows and deer (in
terrestrial ecosystem)
CARNIVORES ● Animal that feeds on ● Tiger, lion
other animals
(flesh-eater)
OMNIVORES ● Animal that feeds on ● Human
both animals and plants ● bear
DETRITIVORES ● Animal that feeds on ● Earthworm (feed on
detritus dead leaves),
● Detritus: Dead organic ● Louse and maggot (feed
matter. (E.g. Dead plants on remains of dead
& animals) animals)
o

What is the difference between DETRITIVORES & DECOMPOSERS?

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ii. Abiotic Components

ATMOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE LITOSPHERE
– The atmosphere is the Based on salinity, water is – Soil & rock of the
gaseous envelope divided into: Earth’s crust
surrounding earth i. Freshwater (salt (outermost layer)
– CO2’ N2’ O2 ii. concentration less
than 1%)
iii. Marine (salt
concentration
average 3%)
Ecosystem structure:
a. Lake ecosystem;
● Lake zonation is based on:

Basis of three physical criteria Zone

Distance from shore and water
depth Photic and aphotic zone

Light penetration Littoral and limnetic

zone

Label all zone of lake ecosystem in the diagram below;

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✔ Well lit shallow water near to the shore where aquatic

plants are dominant
Littoral Zone ✔ E.g. Floating plants (water lilies, duckweed), emerge
plants, submerged plants, insect larvae.
✔ Most productive zone

✔ Well lit open surface water farther from shore

Limnetic Zone ✔ Dominated by phytoplankton, zooplankton and fishes
✔ Role of phytoplankton: Serves as the producer and
produce oxygen
Photic Zone area with sufficient light for photosynthesis

✔ Open water below limnetic zone

✔ Where there is insufficient light for photosynthesis
Aphotic Zone ✔ Dominated by detritivores & decomposers
(profundal) Why does this zone does not exist in shallow lake ?
sunlight reaches all the way to the bottom of lake

Benthic Zone made up of sand and organic and inorganic sediments. The
bottom of all aquatic biomes

b. Terrestrial ecosystem of tropical rain forest.

● Write the physical variations to match with their examples of terrestrial
ecosystem:

Physical Example
Variations
● Climate high annual rainfall, high average temperatures,
high humidity
● Soil nutrient-poor soil
● Topography Flat lowland plains marked by small rock hills to
highland valleys criss-crossed by streams
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Diagram below shows a rain forest stratification. Fill all the blank spaces with the
correct forest stratification.

Name the correct rain forest stratification.

The Emergant layer
● The tallest tree
o towers up to 60m above the forest floor, the trunks measure up to 5m
perimeters
● Usually supported by buttress roots to brace against the high winds
● Most trees are broad-leaved, hardwood evergreens
o Leaves often have thick, waxy layers to hold water
● Developing winged seed/fruits that dispersed by wind to other part of the forest
● Sunlight is plentiful
● Animal: Eagles, bats
● Tree: Cengal, meranti, tualang
The Canopy Layer
● Reaches 45m
● Most canopy trees have smooth, oval leaves
● Exposed to:
o more sunlight
● Consists most of insects, bats, birds because abundant shelter and supplies of
leaves, flowers and fruits
● Tree: Epiphytes, include orchids and bromeliads grow well in the canopy at
the trunks or branches of the tree
● Animals: insects, birds, monkeys
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Understory Layer
● This layer gets only 2-5% sunlight
● Limited light: How to survive? unique ways to survive, such as the
solar-collecting dark green leaves
● Plant that survive include dwarf palms and soft-stalked species of families
such as ginger family and acanthus
● Plants here have difficult time with air pollination because lack of air
movement.
● So, what is the adaptation? most rely on insects
o Brightly coloured so they can be seen easily by pollinators
o Strongly scented so they can attract pollinators with their smell.
Plants: Many plants adapted to climb already-established host trees e.g.: Lianas
(woody tropical vines)
Animals: snakes, frogs & large number of insects
Shrub
● Has the densest plant growth
● Receive little light
● Contains shrubs and ferns and other plants that need less light
● Provide food for small animals and birds
● Animals: insects, snakes and lizards, birds

Forest Floor
● Dark & damp
● Contain layer of decomposing leaves & animals called litter
● Decomposition occurs rapidly
● Animals: Large mammals such as tapirs
● Other animals: Insects, cockroaches, beetles, centipedes, scorpions, earthworm,
fungi

a. Which layer of tropical rain forest stratification that a decomposer can be found? List
down two example of decomposers.
● Forest floor.
● Example: bacteria, fungi, worm and small arthropods.
b. What is the function of decomposer in tropical rain forest ecosystem?
● Enriching soil
● promoting the growth of living plants and animals by increasing levels of
certain nutrients, such as nitrogen.
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2.2 ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEM

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
a) Explain the energy transfer in ecological pyramids in relation to trophic level.
b) Calculate energy loss in each trophic level

a. Food Chain & Food Web

Food Chain
Definition:
● A path of feeding relationship
● The successive series of organisms through which energy flows from one
trophic to another trophic level
● Begins with PRODUCER. Each organism eats the one below it in the chain

● TWO types of Food Chain:

i. Grazing Food Chain
ii. Detritus Food Chain
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Figure 2.5: Types of Food Chain

Examples:
a. Predatory Food Chain
Grass 🡪 Grasshopper 🡪 Toad 🡪Snake 🡪 Hawk
b. Parasitic Food Chain
Root of plants (Cell sap) 🡪 Nematodes 🡪 Bacteria
c. Detritus Food Chain
Dead phytoplankton 🡪 prawn (detritus consumer) 🡪 fish🡪 bird
or any logical examples

FOOD WEB
Food web is a complex network of food chains that is interconnected with one another.
A particular organism feeds on more than one trophic level
What is Trophic level?
● The position that an organism occupies in food chain.
● Many animals feed at several trophic level

Figure 2.6: Trophic levels in a forest food web.

b. Ecological Pyramid
● A diagram of the trophic structure of an ecosystem
● 3 types of ecological pyramids:
i. Pyramid of numbers
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ii. Pyramid of biomass

iii. Pyramid of energy

Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy

❖ Shows the number of ❖ Indicates the total mass ❖ Shows energy content of
organisms for each of all organisms in each all organisms in each
trophic level in a food trophic level trophic level.
chain
❖ Usually, the number of ❖ Most biomass pyramids ❖ Size of each block is
producers (at the narrow sharply from proportional to the net
pyramid base) are primary producers at production (expressed
larger the base to the in energy units) of
❖ While at the top, carnivores at the top each trophic level
organisms are larger- ❖ sometimes, an inverted ❖ Shows the loss of energy
size and the number is biomass pyramid is with each transfer in a
smaller produced. food chain
WHY? ❖ Only ~ 10% of energy
within 1 trophic level
will be transferred to the
next
❖ Can NEVER be
INVERTED
ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES:
❖ Number of organisms, ❖ Gives better indication ❖ Most accurate method
especially the larger of mass of organisms of representing feeding
animals, can be counted and the flow of energy relationships
easily and a pyramid of through different
numbers can readily be trophic levels of food
constructed chain

DISADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:

❖ Changes in size of the ❖ Problems encountered ❖ Difficult to obtain
organism may occur in determining the energy data
during its life cycle biomass because it ❖ Energy values for given
❖ Problems of classifying involves the killing and masses of organisms are
and grouping the drying of certain needed
organisms into their organisms
different trophic levels ❖ The biomass may
❖ Difficulty in counting change with time and in
small organisms that different organism
are very large numbers ❖ It does not show the
productivity
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Identify each of the Pyramid below:

c. Energy Transfer
● Energy flow in an ecosystem based on 2 Laws of Thermodynamics

1. First Law:
Energy cannot be destroyed or created
2. Second Law:
When energy is transformed from one organism to another, some of the
energy are lost as heats
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● Original source of energy is from the sun.

o 40% of solar energy reach Earth is reflected immediately
o 15% is absorbed and converted to heat energy in the atmosphere (by
ozone & water vapour)
o 45% penetrates the Earth’s surface (only 1-5% (of 45%) is used by plants
in photosynthesis.
● Energy is transferred from 1st trophic level to 2nd trophic level
● 90% of energy is lost to environment which only 10% of energy is transferred to
the next trophic level
● There is energy lost from herbivores through respiration, excretion (urine) and
egestion (faeces)
● Usually there are less than 5 trophic levels in a food chain. WHY?

i. Based on Figure above, name the process A, B, C and organism D

A: consumed /feeding/ assimilation

B: respiration/ heat
C: excretion // egestion
D: detritivore // decomposer

ii. Based on the given data in FIGURE 2.7, calculate the;

a. Percentage of Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) becoming Net Primary
Productivity (NPP)
8000 x 100% = 80%
10000
b. Percentage of efficiency of energy transfer from green plants to the herbivores
800 x 100% = 10%
8000
iii. Why green plants only assimilate small amounts of solar energy?
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● A certain amount of solar energy is reflected

● A certain amount is radiated as heat to atmosphere
● Certain wavelengths are not suitable to be used for photosynthesis
iv. Why in an ecosystem, a food web is more realistic than a food chain?
● Most organisms have more than one predator.
● Diets of animals shift as they develop.

2.3 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) Describe biogeochemical cycle components (cycling pool and reservoir pool) in
carbon and nirogens cycles
(b) Illustrate phosphorus cycle

a) Introduction
Biogeochemical cycles - The cycling of nutrient from the abiotic environment to
organism and then back to the abiotic environment
Involved organism (bio), environmental geology (geo) and chemical changes
(chemical)
Biogeochemical cycle components

Figure 2. 8 : A model for a biogeochemical cycle.

● The main biogeochemical cycles studied in ecology are:
o the carbon cycle,
o the nitrogen cycle
o the phosphorus cycle.
a) Compare between cycling pool and reservoir pool.
Cycling pool Reservoir pool
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Contains organic and inorganic contains organic and inorganic

materials that are directly materials which cannot be assimilated
available for use by organisms directly
involve biotic components involve abiotic components

a) Carbon cycle
● A Cycle of carbon between abiotic and biotic components.
● Carbon is essential for proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates.

I. The reservoir pool in Carbon Cycle:

Hydrosphere Lithosphere Atmosphere

Parts of the Ocean and Rocks Gas
earth freshwater
Form of As dissolved CO2 In the form of As CO2 gas in the
carbon in the form of calcium carbonate air
carbonate ion (CaCO3)
(CO32-) and
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bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-)

II. The processes that increase carbon content

● Occur during photosynthesis
Carbon Fixation ● Fixed by the autotrophs (plant, algae)
CO2 + H2O 🡪 Carbohydrate + O2
● Occur in plants and animals
Cellular Respiration ● Returns CO2 to the atmosphere
● CO2 is released during decomposition of dead
Decomposition plants and animals by decomposer
● Also known as burning process
Combustion ● coal, peat and oil are called fossil fuels
● The calcium carbonate contained in the
shells of mollusks, deposited as limestone.
Weathering ● Chemical and physical weathering slowly
erode it away to return CO2 to atmosphere
and water

Fossil fuels;
Fossil fuels, such as oil, gas and coal, form when organic material is
preserved from the complete effect of decomposers, generally buried deep
and under pressure over millions of years. Under such conditions, the
organic material transforms into hydrocarbon fuels.
Fossil fuels are a natural reservoir of carbon. When oxygen is present,
these fuels can be burned and carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are
released into the atmosphere.
b) Nitrogen cycle
● The cycle of nitrogen between abiotic and biotic components.
● The reservoir pool for nitrogen is the atmosphere. 80% of nitrogen is in the
form of N2 (gas) but they can’t be simply used by plants.
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I. Nitrogen fixation
● Free nitrogen in the atmosphere is change into nitrogenous compound which
can used by plants through 3 process of nitrogen fixation
Biological fixation ● N2 is fix by Nitrogen fixing bacteria
● Can fix free N2 & converted into ammonia & nitrate
compound & released into the soil.
● Some nitrates is absorbed by the plant root

Atmospheric ● Electrical discharge during thunderstorm cause free

fixation N2 to be oxidized into nitrogen dioxide
● Dissolve in rainwater to form nitrous acid & nitric acid
● React with other compounds to form nitrate salts in
the soil

Industrial fixation ● Nitrogen is combined with H2 to produce ammonia

through Haber process
● Iron powder is used as catalyst at high temperature
● N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) -> 2NH3 (g)
● Can be used directly as fertilizers

II Assmilation by plant and animals

● Nitrates salts are absorbed by plants & eaten by animals is used in protein
synthesis
● Eventually the organic nitrogenous compound is returned to the soil
through:
i. Excretory product
ii. Death of the organisms – plants, herbivores, carnivores
III Ammonification
● Organic nitrogenous compound are then broken down by saprophytic
bacteria & fungi producing ammonia
IV Nitrification (by nitrifying bacteria)
● The ammonia is then oxidized through a nitrification process
● 2 types of nitrifying bacteria
a) Nitrosomonas sp – responsible for the oxidation of ammonia to nitrites
● b) Nitrobacter sp – responsible for the oxidation of nitrites to nitrate

IV Denitrification (by bacteria)

● The nitrates are broken down by denitrifying bacteria where nitrate are
reduced to N 2 (g) as in absence of O2 through denitrifying process
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The table shows some microbes . Match their roles in the nitrogen cycle.
Microbe Role
I Azotobacter sp (c) (a) Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria
II Nitrobacter sp (e) (b) Symbiotic bacteria in the leguminous root nodule
II Nitrosomonas sp (d) (c) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live freely in the nodule
I
I Nostoc sp (a) Oxidises ammonia to nitrite
V (d)
V Rhizobium sp (b) (e) Oxidises nitrite to nitrate
c) Phosphorus cycle
● Phosphorus Cycle involve 4 main steps:
1. Weathering
2. Absorption by Plants
3. Absorption by Animals
4. Return to the environment through decomposition
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2.4 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) Describe sustainable development
(b) Explain threats to biodiversity in Malaysia
(c) Illustrate conservation of biodiversity in Malaysia

a) Sustainable development
▪ Explain sustainable development
The development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
▪ Name the methods (conservation vs preservation) in sustainable development
Conservation protect, manage and renew the natural resources
Preservation preventive actions that limit the damage to
biosphere.

▪ Give THREE examples of sustainable development in Malaysia;

i. Sustainable Forestry
ii. Sustainable agriculture
iii. Sustainable fishery.
▪ THREE programmes which applied in Malaysia to maintain and enhance our forest
systems for the benefit of the present and future generations of living organism.
Reforestration, Conservation of forest ecosystems, gazette forest reserve
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▪ What is the meaning of reforestry.

Replanting programmes – to ensure that forests where logging has been carried
out are not damaged and that production and wildlife are preserved.
▪ Why do we apply “closed season” for sustainable of fishery management techniques?
To avoid disturbing breeding process of a particular fish species during the
breeding season
▪ Explain about Sustainable Fishery; i.e: Tagal System in Sabah
A system of rehabilitation, protection, and conservation of the river
environments and the fisheries resources for its sustainable development
▪ The rivers of each Tagal System is divided into three (one-kilometre-long per zones):
Match the zone system
Green zone harvesting and sharing of fish on a community basis is
carried out at specific times decided by the local
Tagal Committee

Orange zone catching of fish is totally prohibited

Red zone individual villagers are allowed to catch fish for own
consumption at any time

▪ Compare between In situ conservation and Ex situ conservation.

In situ conservation Ex situ conservation

Purpose: To maintain plants and animals in To maintains species outside
their original habitats so can protect their original habitats in
biological diversity. facilities

Example National and State Parks, Wildlife arboreta, zoological gardens,

: Sanctuaries, Turtle Sanctuaries and seed gene banks, in vitro
Wildlife Reserves, Permanent Forest gene banks and field gene
Estate, Virgin Jungle Reserves and banks
Marine park in Malaysia
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2.5 POPULATION ECOLOGY

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
a) Explain biotic potential (r) and environmental resistance (K) and their effect on
population growth.
b) Explain carrying capacity and its importance
c) Describe natality and mortality and their effects on the rate of population growth
d) Explain population growth curves (state the basic forms of growth curves):
i. exponential growth curve (human)
ii. logistic growth curve (Paramecium sp.)
e) Explain the limiting factors affecting the population size:
i. density dependent factors
ii. density independent factors

INTRODUCTION
Population Ecology:
• A study of change in the number of individuals in a population in defined time and
space
Population growth:
The increases or decreases in population size.
a) Biotic Potential (r) And Environmental Resistance
i. Biotic Potential (r)
Definition The maximum reproductive rate of a population, under unlimited
resources and ideal environmental conditions.
Affecting ● Low male to female ratio.
factors ● The beginning of the reproductive age.
● Number of progeny produced from each reproductive episode.
● Frequency of reproductive activities.
● Survival rate of offspring
Importance If biotic potential increase;
● The growth of population increase
● The population size also increase
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● How would you compare the biotic potential between these two types of
organisms?

ii. Environmental Resistance

Definition : The biotic and abiotic factors that prevent the achievement of biotic
potential of a population.
Effects on Population Growth :

Identify A, B, C and D in Figure 13.3 below.

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A ● Environmental resistance rise

B ● Fall in population
C ● Increase in population
D ● Further increase in population

b) Carrying capacity (K) and its importance

Definition ● The maximum number of individuals in a population that can
be supported by the available resources in the ecosystem
(space/ habitat/ food resources)
Affecting ● Amount of available resources
factors ● The population size
● Amount of resources consumed by each individual
Related to Predation, disease, food, shelter, water and light
Importance K will limit the population size.
If carrying capacity increase;
● The growth of population increase
● The population size also increase

● Which of these has higher carrying capacity?

● Complete the diagram and discuss the connection between biotic

potential, carrying capacity and environmental resistance.
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Figure 2.13: Carrying capacity and the limit to population growth.

● Life Application : According to Figure below, the overgraze caused the decline in
reindeer population during winter.

● In this case, what can we do to solve the problem?

● Remove some of the reindeer
● Introduce predator to the population

c) Natality & Mortality

● Natality : Birth rate/ The rate at which particular species

in the population produce offspring
Definition ● Mortality : Death rate/ The rate at which particular
species
dies
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● Population growth increase

If natality > mortality ● Population size increase
● Population size is above carrying capacity
● Population growth decrease
If mortality > natality ● Population size decrease
● Population size is below carrying capacity
If natality = mortality ● Population size become stable
● To balance the population growth
Importance ● To oscillate around the environmental carrying capacity.
● Equilibrium achieved

d) Population growth curves

i. Exponential Growth Curve
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● Explain the exponential growth curve.

o Exponential growth refer to unlimited growth of a population.
o Example is human population.

A: Lag phase ● Population

growth increase slowly.
● The population growth increase rapidly due to:
B: Log phase o Increase food production
o Improvement in healthcare and medical field

ii. Logistic Growth Curve (Paramecium sp.)

● Label and explain each phases in Figure 13.5.

A: Lag phase ● During this phase, growth is slow due to the organism is
adapting itself to the new environment
● The population is small
● Small number of matured (reproductively active) individuals

B: Log phase ● The organism adapts to new environment and establishes

itself
● Organism has reach maturity and reproducing stage
● Abundance of food and space
● Growth rate increase rapidly
● Natality more than mortality
C: Decelerating ● Available resource is limited ( environmental
resistance increases)
● Increasing competition for limiting resources
● Increased mortality but natality rate is still higher than
mortality rate
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D: Stationary ● Growth rate of population stabilizes around carrying

capacity.
● Natality equals to mortality.
● The population is stable
● Rate of natality = Rate of mortality
● Population growth rate =0
● The population is at the carrying capacity of the
environment

e) Limiting factors affecting the population size

The limiting factors affecting size and distribution of populations

i. Density Dependent Factors

Definition: Any factors limiting the size of population which effect is
dependent
on the number of individuals in the population.
Match the following limiting factors
Predator-prey Competition between individual of
relationship (Predation) the same species

Territorial behavior Competition between individual of

different species.
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Interspecific Predator catches and feeds on the

competition prey.
Intraspecific There is little or no overlap between
competition neighbouring territories of the same
species.

What can you conclude from this graph?

● According to the Figure 2.19, what is the purpose of the dog’s action?

● According to Figure 2.20, determine which is the strong competitor between P.

caudatum and P. aurelia.

Figure 2.20 : Population growth curves for P. aurelia (a) and P. cudatum (b)
that were cultured separately with limited food supply.

ii. Density Independent Factors

Definition: Any factors limiting the size of population which effect is dependent
on the number of individuals in the population.
Match the following limiting factors
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Climate The use of herbicides to control specific

weed species harm birds population by
decreasing their vegetation
Natural disaster Tsunami hit human population in an
urban city
Pesticide Extreme weather may decrease the
reproduction rate of a species