TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE. PHILIPPINES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT PME1-M MACHINE DESIGN 1 NOTEBOOK Submitted By: ’ pipe Icaodapo, Alyssa Maria E. BSME - 3B Submitted To: Engr. Romulo V. BasaenMACHINE DESIGN 1 Textbook: Design of Machine Elements by V.M. Faires References: Books in MD with the following authors: Mott = Shigley = Black and Adams = Doughtie and Vallance = Sports ~ Hamrock Norton ~ Juvinal Bhandari Gupta ~ Creamer ~ Ugural Handbook for Mechanical Engineers Kent's (Design Volume) = Machinery Handbook = PSME Code (2004 edition and earlier) ~ Mark's ME Handbook = Magazines and www for latest info Topics for Machine Design 1 1, Stresses, Materials & Properties 2. Pressure Vessels 3, Impact Loading 4, Stress Raisers and Stress Concentration 5. Variable Stresses 6. Screw Fastenings 7. Springs 8. Columns 9. Combined Stresees, Power Serews 10. Shefting Ne Keys ond Couplings ‘COURSE DESCRIPTION ‘The course deals with designing simple machine components by using various significant properties of materials and appropriate design factors on the basis of strength, rigidity and other criteria, It includes analyzes of simple, variable and combined siresses applied 10 different mechanical elements such as bolts, springs, columns, shafts, keys and couplings. ‘COURSE OBJECTIVE The course aims to 1, Provide students with different concepts in designing machine ‘components. ‘Machin: Design 1 BASAEN, RV 2. Enable students to acquire knowledge in the determination of suitable design factors, design stresses, and the application of simple, variable, and combined stresses to machine components. 3. Develop students’ ability in the analysis of different theories of failure brought about by static and cyclic loading of the machine member. COURSE OUTCOMES Atte end of the course, the students will beable to: 1. Identify the sources of loads on machine part. 2. Compare the different types of stresses. 3. Solve problems in every topic ofthe course using prescribed concepts. 4. Design machine components by considering suitable material properties, the appropriate assumptions for the loads and the acceptable theory of failure required inthe calculation, 5. Develop a technical skill in presenting design works through standard specifications. Important Definition of Terms Mechanical Engineering ~ branch of engineering that deals with energy conversion and design of machines. Design —a process of devising a component, a process ‘ora system to satisfy a desired need. Engineering design — a process in which scientific principles and the tools in engineering ~ math, graphics, computer, English, etc. are used to produce a plan, which ‘when cartied out, will satisfy a human need. ‘Machine — a combination of several mechanical ‘components that are properly arranged or assembled to cause the forces of nature to produce a desired work with constrained motion, ‘Some Considerations in Engineering Design 1. Strength Rigidity 3. Cost 4. Satery 5. Reliability 6 Weight 7. Volume, space 8. Aesthetics 9. Manufacturability 10, Legal requirement, etc, Note: ‘The first two considerations, stress and rigiity, are usually the prime considerations in Mechanics of 1Materials since they are treated with the use of stress and deformation formulas. Other considerations may include functionality, utility, life, noise, control, surface, marketability, ‘maintenance, liability, ete. Pyrmeny TCAONAPO1, DESIGN FOR SIMPLE STRESSES ‘Two General Types of Stresses ore ‘There are different suesses that may apply Wo luadedl i members, but these can be generally classified into two: © Sw 6F mormal and shear stresses. Satew peaah chime bh Normal Stress, ¢ ors gh citre Sires in which the direction ofthe applied Se Sd Joad is perpendicular tothe resisting area of ‘the member. ~ This includes the following stresses: tensile ee eee rem Seat crew and bending stress. (AF 1 da) 2, Shear Stress, Tor S, + Stress in which the direction of the applied load is parallel or tangent tothe resisting area of the member. = This includes the following stresses: direct shear, induced or indirect shear, punching ‘shear, and torsional shear stress. (dF || dA) NORMAL STRESSES, (@ or S) 1. Tensile stress, S, 2. Compressive Stress, S¢ TCAonaPo 9 ‘Machine Design 1 BASAEN. RV. Note: ‘Above formulas apply to a uniform cross-sectional area A only. The stress magnitude computed is also Constant at any section along the length of the member under the axial Ioad F. 3. Bearing Stress, Sy or oy + Also a contact ora crushing stress = Shown below is bearing stress in the plate in a riveted joint Bearing area (projected area ofthe ‘contact surface); (s= at) 4. Bending stress, S, or ay From the normal stresses, bending stress is the ‘most complicated. Its magnitude differs at any section in the beam. Most calculations are focused on the section of the beam having the greatest magnitude of sess, or the section having the greatest deflection. M_ = bending moment © = distance of the stressed fiber from the neutral axis I= rectangular moment of inertia of the bbeam’s cross section from the neutral axis E = modulus of elasticity of the beam’s material radius of curvature ofthe beam z S a Not: Treatment of the useful equations in bending involves the calculations of the shearing force V and benMachine Design |: BASAEN. RV ‘moment M (shear and moment values) acting at desired Note: sections of the beam. ~~” M is usually solved with the aid of shear & © Shear and moment values ‘moment equations & diagrams, or by some = use the area method established formulas. ~ _Cisthe distance of the outermost fiber from Pee aera ITC the neutral axis or centroidal axis Ma = Ms + Aretinear ~ Bending is the most complicated of all loadings. Tension and compression bees % simultaneously occur, and beam’s normal stress is also accompanied by a shear stress. re (lope of the shear diagram)? : SHEAR STRESSES, (¢ or S,) ° i 1. Direct shear stress, 5, ve a) Single Shear (lope oF omnent diagram ) 2 ithe sess Beam Deflection, 6: oa = For some’ special bending cases, formulas for maximum beam deflections are shown in tables or charts P P from MDB. In general beam defection at a section ofthe beam is expresed 8 wa Fly I] Max d+ Gx + Gy ee 5 P where & is determined hy double integration et P Note: “6 = Bending is no longer a uniformly distributed stress F = Inbending, tension & compression occur simuitancously. ~The maximum stress happens ata fiber P_?P farthest from the neutral axis, r9rS.= a= re Ingeneral, [My 4) Double Shear S15re ~ two identical areas resist the load where ra A Y= distance of the stressed fiber from the a NA. For the maximum stress magnitude, rors,= Fe Fa Snax Pow (doubie ra use ¢ for tension’and c, for compression) where 1 = moment of inertia ofthe beam’ eross section M_ = bending moment ating onthe beam. ICAON APO©) Punching Shear where Az = circumference of hole multipli plate thickness (A. =dt) 2, Indirect Shear of Induced Shear Stress ued joint ofarea, A, 8 inclination of joint fromthe ars of black P= axa load of Dock @.m Pcosd _ P(sin26) ome i; ta o P(sin26) 87 Serctee The block is under compression but shearing (Gliding) may happen at the joint as shown, we RONB POD “Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV 3. Torsional shear stress, S, y 3 stat witioo yo hd Reece pit Diss point toque T Refene pin Deformation in the Cross Section of Shaft where @ = angular deformation or angle of twist 6s = shear deformation (circular arc b-b’) D = shaft diameter L = shaft length Note: - Torque T produces a shear stress and a shear efor ‘but no change in dimension, only a change of position (point b tu b. Stress Distribution of ¢ across the Shaft’s Cross-Section Of ‘Thus, ifthe maximum stress: itis desired use, Let ter 1D? “Toa Note: Z0? “The maximum torsional stress in th'shaftis located at its outermost layer.Commonly Used Formulas for Tax (solid shaft) (hollow shaft) ‘Torsional Deformation or Angle of Twist, @ TL. (radians) Ie Note: ‘Cross sections other than round require correction factors for their stress and deflection formulas. Refer to ‘handbooks or other sources if these sections are desired, Other shear stresses may come out from the combination of the above shear stresses. 4. Shear Stress in Beams vertical shearing force ‘moment of area rectangular moment of inertia = width of beam atte section considered CEne ‘This shear stress tis generally maximum at the neutral axis, while the bending stress o is zero at the said axis, Fora beam of rectangular section. y,.- For a beam of circular section of dia vyaye ay Q Fnax 34 rvenuere Machi v Shear deformation - ue s G+ 80.000 ma Relationship between Gand E: © = 80 efo ~sieé) oe a+) y= Poisson's ratio of the material (ypically, 0.25 to 0.3 for metals) (©) or expansion for heating © or contraction for cooling Bs deat & = coefficient of thermal expansion’ ja 8¢ (mmimm-°C) L_ = dimension of the member At = change in temperature Note: If the above deformation is preyented to occur due to some restriction or constraint, said deformation is converted to a load deformation. The member is then under a thermal stress, or [6r=aL(Ad] = [Sr =(PL/AE)], where o = P/A= or; “Thus, the resulting thermal stress equation is or = Ea(at) [Ifthe constraint is partial the above thermal stress formula should also be correspondingly adjusted. Stress-Strain Diagrams: ‘) For ductile materials (e.g. mild steel) RP REGIONProportional limit = Elastic Limit YP = Yield Point Unimate Point Rupture Point ')- Forbrittle materials (e.g cas ron, concrete, lass, etc) Note: ~ The allowable stress or working stress is computed from the yield strength S, or ultimate strength 5, of the material as tested. These stresses are often referred to asthe stress at failure where F.S.orN = factor of safety = As much as possible the allowable stress should not exceed the proportional limit (ie. where the stress is still proportional to strain) since most assumptions in Engineering estimates are based ‘on Hooke’s law (ie. 0% €). Note: ~ Strength of materials are described generally in terms of the yield strength (S,) & the ‘ultimate strength (S,). These are the highest points on the diagram and are easily estimated. ‘Machine Design 1 BASAEN. RV. = AT3 onwards of DME by Fares, give the values of Sy & Sy. Design Stresses, Sg and Sy ~ Design stresses is analogous to the stress used in MDB which could be any ofthe following, ‘Normal Design Stress, Working Stress, Allowable Stress, Sa Sy Se N,N where N= factor of safety, safety factor or design factor Note: ~ Table 1.1,page 20 of Fares gives the recommended values of W. = In general, ductile materials are designed based on’ the yield point (S,) unless otherwise specified ~ Britle materials are designed based on the ultimate point (S,), since there are no well designed S, values. Shear Design Stress, Se ye op Sus Sua FE or HE where Sye = yield strength in shear Sup = ultimate strength in shear Typically for steels, Spe = (0.5 100.6)S, —Tore Sus ™ OTS, — Tar c + Use 0.6 for torsion. = Use O55 for other shear stress application. ‘© Designing Based on Strength Sinduced $ Saesign OF Sa OF Soa me: Hiyds where aitee Sarin ~ design stress Sineucea = induced stress (stress due tothe) y+ applied load) at Nate * Design Based on Rigidity lead 7 8 due to load < allowableConversion of Computed Size to Preferred Size, = The following guide (increment and size ranges) will be tentatively used to arrive at a standard or preferred size or dimension of a ‘machine member. This will be superseded by other more specific tables later. = Other sources are presented in Chapter 3. 0.0156 fe 6.09175 Machine Design 1: BASAEN.RV Significant difference between MDB and Simple ‘Machine Design Problems: 1. In MDB, the allowable stresses or limiting sitesses are generally specified. and thus. the ‘material description (steel, wood, ete.) may not be in detail. Tnevement | Range ofsine “[nefcnent [ Range ataiog |, 0-02 2, Problems in Machine Design may require the use on anoint | Oe Teahnldfrtesene ae pore a oa | wet eo and a factor of safety or design factor. From these ae | bemensziog |g | tetweengeo3 +~0.995 3 values, the allowable or design stresses are : betwen 3 =6 ; par determined and thus, reverting the analysis to, as Soase Dag oF Modine leas Wy VM Fae, if, an MDB solution. A sound foundation in MDB ‘Suey t 0.835 A=1.(0 1m ig then a must for Machine Design. Thorough ‘Other useful Tables and Charts from DME by Faires J =| understanding about Machine Elements, Material include the following: properties and Kinematics is also of utmost ATI = properties of sections 26:19(8) 0.4 -thmartanoe, AT2 = moments and deflections of beams Pa eae er ATS > properies ofnon-ferous materials [4 = ¢“]3+ Most. Machine Design problems in Heensue Foc = steel : examinations at presen, if not all, are fumished ATS — = properties of stainless stels | soncatent ATS = properties of pss 070 se iq» with enough data for their solution ~ without the carnation Arg | Propet of at rou metals x -g cy oq ROU OF opening portant Tables, Chars weio 0.40%, VAT? + properties of wrought ferrous metals, so“ be (eels) ry) To avoid the cumbersome tsk of opening tables ATS) | = © Geopntos of Yatioos ties of wosls 12213") sand charts while solving problems, most examples AT | properties of heat-treated cls Le em be converted wit icon dems ceely AFL * properties of AISI C1040 tiving the required data from Tables and Charts. AF2 > properties of AISI 340 Thishas been the ease ofthe previous board exam 4p0-4 AP4 > felaion among hardness numbers questions, since nothing i allowed to be opened rable 2.4 during exams, except non-programmable Rian reece cere carer at est seed eed oa seared Scere oper with Tole shot te sana ses . Stinteciniqee of conning able would be abeoned . C+ Ale ccedy procrtin 409 Sct Numbering Systenyfor Seat AM1'Ca9 + AISL SAE (example: AISI C1030, AISI $3140) 3 Ductile Material deciety oF Aukematve 3. Militaly Numbering System for Cast Iron Engineers =" use = ASTM (American Society for Testing. and Materials) ~ Brittle Material, ist No. Materials are often described with numbering systems Lptypecr From the numbers, the main components of the alloy are sreel—indieated For both the AISI and SAE steel numbering systems, p. 48 of DME Faires serves as a guide in identifying the Iain alloying elements: AISI fleier More descriptions about material properties and numbering systems are shown in Chapter 2. Appendix Tables = at Appendix figuies © AF indian standard = 1S fron ancl steel Instifule AISLC1020,as rolled steel and is to have the given calculators. However, it should always be emphasized thatthe student should ar lease know ‘where and how to get material properties, ete Example 1: ‘The link loaded as shown is to be machined from proportions below. Recommend the cross-sectional dimensions h and b if the maximum tensile load is 12 kips, repeated but not reversed. Take h = 4b, Base the design on ¥ a Yield Point (gen- oasis por ductile materéals)) ‘retgh C8 Uiimate Poin rigidity (Elongation not exceeding 0.005" ina length of 18 inches. Solve part a) if the load is repeated andis axially loaded with a maximum magnitude of 12 kips, repeated, but not reversed. Fez kips FON fav? Sus 0 5S For the usefil material properties: (AT7 af DME. Faires) S, = 4B ksi and S, = 65 ksi ‘And for the recommended factor of safety (Table 1.1) Nj =3and Ny = 6; (repeated, one direction) hye =? (leased on sy) PP 306 Properties of C1020, ac tolled stee\ Chad Sy* 48 ksi Suz OS hsi Arador of Sarely (table 4.4) ~- PF -77 Np=3 3 Nu=G@ J rep. Cone direction) Ny = 4 5 NuF8 J rep. and rev, Thus, From tle [Ser Ge * qi] Soe px nb * Ye ¥ (s) 5 b= 0.433 im. (pp-33) 1 use be) b=? (based on Se) Smox= f= EE 2 mx? > Elsa fe ele be be eet ys ey ww Kos agen a? io tae C) bibs 7 (rose on Satews 0.005" s16r) rem [2] rsaw 5 2°08) coos a csc coe pu. be SRT i 5 Bs t0ntotyy: “Machine Design|: BASAEN. RV (based on Sy) Hep and rey dj) bibs? =, 30. ee Wor Ny? abe owe fixe a rey pes Example2: (ot! Quen ‘The piston rod of a “-@ouble acting air compressor is tobe made of steel, AISI 3140 OQT 1000 °F. The pressure inside the cylinder is to have & maximum value of 200 psi. Recommend the piston diameter ithe design is based on the yield strength, F ag (3Pet) cl : dé Ot Solution: pr 908 Properties of 9140 OGT Wwourr (Ar 2) Sz? . YP oF Sy Factor op capety Crapie 4.1) Since the compressor (double aching, The Pist0O see's foadng 6 9 heey Ny 24 then, ftom, Smox ® 2H) 5 oa os 200(2)*_ 153 000 ae * qe PEE sd cocamnin Example 3: wees ‘A 10hp,800 rpm electric motor drives a centrifugal pump by means of a shaft that is made of AIS/ 1040, normalized steel. Recommend the shaft diameter required if shaft only rotate clockwise motion.Solution: This isa simple torsion example. If there are no tested ‘Mash Design 1: BASAEN, RV For AISIC1040, normalized steel, 5, = 79000 psi \F torsional strengths for steel, most books use Sy. = ar : ft ” 4 teN= 2000 Io n=no. oF holes 5 * cemaly, (512 0635 sand, = 0755, eee duchle mat Ts 4, eld strength in shear: are designed 0.68, for torsion and 0.5S, for other shear As, 2 Mat bosed on 55 Su, = ultimate strength in shear: a 0.785, for shear in general Syg 2 0-655 Te punch the plate, ‘Croreion : — Ausepal formulas: Paner, 1, and a Ss 2 Sus ® mace ae L ultimate cheor shength T = Fonet (63023) mer —t he oF pote rs 8 rim induced shear porstecley in 7 len ites sufZossu gered re Renee (4.549K8) o o uy 3 1 [ fore f° aa] Lebel 7 @ Noww = 7 a (9025) 5 T= 461,41 Wein Pr C1040, annealed steel (AF 4) pp-20 ee sue vaeo Then. prom: (Ssmax = tes -+ fie s]40 Ms Bi] wo? \y Seay curse camer aN APropertics Gp AIS! C1040, normalized steel (AFT) chess Pot pp: 704 ——— 7 WS hus, cubshting values info @ Subshtiving vaues into @ yA sae ve te 187.8) _9,6(s 8008) e ee 10> 3 n(Tdey) ww D= 0.102" 8600) ¥ 4g 45 (79008) PH ‘Factor op sapety Cable 4d) cee wa Ny = 3-4 rep Coneekredion) ne 5.16 Example 4: 2B hole eng Determine the number of %" diameter holes that can be punched in one stroke from a steel plate, "thick, ifthe plate is made ofan annealed AISI C1040, The maximum Typteally Fer punching a steel pate applied load isto be 90 tons. ftom Machinery Hardiboels Solution: F = 80d} tons This is @ basic punching stress problem, but ‘n* skooltmecu punches er to bo gags i just cit strobe, i Since the plate is to be punched, the applied stress Typically > For steels Sus w50 ksi should be at least equal tothe ultimate sheer strength ofthe ek plate, and there should be no factor of safety. ss £ tus Unless specified, the ultimate shear strength of steel “cd oe isS,, = 0.755, . = ——— Te aR o4dt x goun ©Example A cast iron beam, ASTM 25 is loaded as shown with F, = 40001b & F, = 2000 Ib. The loads are in phase and are repeated, but not reversed. a. Recommend the cross-sectional Mien dimensions of the beam (H x B) if itis, arranged as a T-section as shown. b. The same as a), except that the cross- section is arranged as an inverted T- section. Igotvepre-s tee! a Fy = 4000 fo F,7 2000 tb Solution: ATS of Feires shows the following properties of cast iron ASTM 25: Sa =25ksi Se =97ksi Su 3S ksi brittle A Properties oF Cast Woh ASTM 25 (ATO) pp.303 Ysa = 15 et Y Sue 2 41 ksi Suc = 55 wey Sacwviny = 32 KEI X 4 Fado oF safety (Table 4.4) pp. 20 Nu = 7-8 =157T te Cay @) 8,02? [= e]t g] se efor c Arrongement {5° Teechon (39907 30 ath ayy = 3a%(i.38) 4407559 + fort re2[Feney 5 Ts a0? 4 308 (i.sa-2.¢asay? + 4a(a* + 4a? (3.5063. 6 a)2 Iz 4.4404 Phys, unsymmetrical! l= }2\cecrm 0 Mex-32'G00 © Based on pt-@ from cy qension [Smee = te] fe “pr T We \wo0a( 2.0430) 25 000 ae h.io4 en Tatat 7 compression: [Rese a \eooe (1.3570) @dta4 «Based on pt. @ Tension: flpon* ete Pad» (eel From 72000 (1.9910 45000 4. #408 75 compression: [Weee 2 Sug 52000 (1.6830 97.000 - azo. b65in err 75° Use gs ANS mig Ene sees fasta s[axee4s beam is arranged as an inverted“ kechien tn = 1680 ia te EES, 2.03 ty ° {.3810 33 T= @Hat Based on pi. © prom eg © Tension: Meee: Sus Late) , gn ee eee (28. w2600 5 geo stingyCompression: Wace , Sve “rT” NA 1w900( 26438) 97000. a+0.702 v9 q.44a¢ 73 —_— + pased on pt-© prom og @ Tension: 32000(2.0430) | 23600. ae 1.0m 9.at a Compression 32060 (1993 _ 47008» 4 29 0d in ~~ gat 1S - a= 4.590 in (aieaiess yoy a= HE” py (mda lesser 05» exconch dio) the beam’ is stronger te giranged as aT" Sechen Hee = daxta = e~c'] Example 6: ‘A steel 2° diameter and 24" long is inserted between rigid walls, preventing axial deformation. If the rod is made ‘of A c 1020, @) compute for its final stress when heated by 150°C (302 F ),‘dlso determine the elongation of this rod ifthe ends are fre. Solution: Should @ gap exist between the rigid wall and the rod, partial conversion of stress takes place and the analysis below applies. Once heated, thermal expansion freely takes place until the rigid wall is reached. Then, the remaining supposed thermal expansion is converted to a load deformation. This is a more ‘generalized treatment of a thermal stress problem. — Aigtdwals SY Senter ae -s0re 2 Ata a eer ao 5 4 B tnawedl sees @) Themal snes. Sr : ae Sas ye Spe At whore 30X08 psi TT) ge Tx ei of (Oxmey (1x08) (02); 8 (ia ‘Machine Design |: BASAEN, RV. we). $r aaa | Ley —s Sy = ALaes 7x10" (24) (302) 20.0% m Le. partial convetsionPRESSURE VESSELS ‘THIN WALLED VESSELS = vessels whose ratio of the wall thickness rand the inside diameter D does not exceed 0.1. inside dans $04 snes analysis FoF TECTIA of vessel is based ‘on simple stresses (ie. stress distribution is, uniform) A. Cylindrical Thin walled Vessels Tensile stress at section A-A: ‘Transverse stress; fangential sess, iroumferential sess; hoop sires; girth stress Tensile stress at section B-B: } Longitudinal sess — cial fess where p= internal pressure D = inside diameter t wall thickness joint efficiency or relative strength of joint Note: ‘The stress at section A-A is greater and thus, in designing @ cylindrical pressure vessel, use 254 Suu ae design ctrecs Smrax, B. Spherical Thin walled Vessels Tensile stress at any section AA, BB, CC: Machi Design l:BASAEN. RV Note: ‘The stress at any section of the spherical vessel (cutting the vessel into two hemispheres) is constant and thus, in designing a eylindrical pressure vessel, use Spherical vessels are the strongest vessels. They are twice stronger than cylindrical vessels! Example f ‘A’ cylindrical thin-walled vessel with two hemispherical ends is made of stainless steel, AISI 301, Y hard (S, = 75 ksi). = 75% 8) Determine the maximum permissible mass of oxygen ‘gas that can be safely contained by the vessel at 80°C. Use a factor of safety of 4, based on Sy. ')_ Ifthe above vessel is to be replaced by a hypothetical llipsoidal vessel containing equal volume of gas with same material and operating conditions, determine the dimensions ofthe vessel: D,, dy and ty if Dy = 2d. ©) The same as b), bt the replacement is spherical vessel. Determine D, and ts. Solu 2) m=? (mass of 0; inkgs) (AT4) gP- 201 prom tte deal gas e/a pve maT m: 8 > a ® where precise = 75 VE Veyt + Veph Foy + Lo? Fou +Lo = Tescytcaeye Tro? 5 phe (UB Epserrcaeys E (90%, (aa ve 4.204 wm? R= 8.58 Ko any 2 telad= 92 Pips 2 13For PP abcclute precsure From , “Machine Design: BASAEN. RV 40 Sa = S f= #] a. For equal operating condition f chrength voelin me {Snore 4] afta ost] weater (091) sein ” ua ny 495.31 (92) 75 600 ZOO | 15000 9. 495 34 ps Tee 7 a 3f0.29)(0.75) a e pst ACAD 4 Then, gaye pres tes 0.181 ine 2 Pos pt Palm = 195,91 pet (01.925 WE) + tor. s2sce ls 17 pt p= 1947.6 KFao Then , From @ By, 1997.6 $F (1.701 wh) MW” ee _ EF Dw 2. THICK WALLED PRESSURE CYLINDERS 26 kgm) (1 weimniesitole muss = vessels whose ratio of the wall thickness ¢and al eee the inside diameter D ex« Ol. b) Dimensions of ellipsoidal vessel if D, = 2dg: = stress distribution (particularly at its weak te secon) isnot nfo, CcDp-Cs a + Lame’ oqation ar gamely ed e = ade For equal volume. 4.204 m= Tde*(0e) , gut Dre zde 4.201 = E (ae) (260) dee toda m 24424 De=2de= 2047.28) for te _ pbede [fs F [vet dere ask, ee = pede (Gage}ie 2(bedte radial stress tangential stress internal pressure external pressure 495.94 (82.50) (41.28) 2( 83.80) Fe (0.45) 15 000 ©) Dimensions of spherical vessel: D ¢ t 0.25" te > | b=? aniginal = For equal volume: Yonig’! = ror nt +E oywhere +=" if inner surface of the eylinder is considered 1 reif outer surface ofthe cylinder is considered Note: From the above stress equations, the greatest ‘magnitude of stress isthe tangential or transverse stress 5, particularly at the inner surface of the vessel Thus,use S,, = Sq Suet = Sip Stress distribution across the wall: Note: If the vessel has no external pressure, the above equation for tangential stress can be expressed as (taking r =n): DI [sei S-Di where t = wall thickness D_ = inside diameter of the cylinder S; = tangential stress pi infernal pressure ‘Example 1: Boiler tubes with 50 mm inside diameter are used in handling steam at a maximum pressure of 20 MPa. Ifthe allowable tensile stress of the tubes is only 80 MPa, what ‘minimum tube thickness is required? Solution: ‘+ Ifthe tubes are treated to be thin-walled, the result ‘may not be satisfactory. Frou Sa + 80 fo, “Machine Dsion |: ASAEN. RV spassaming thin=Woated (emax = 2 [i SB) Lo 2 4.0( at cpedipied) 20(80) —— = 8 46.25 mn ne ot check eae ws 704K o = 6 wacsaming = walled ati oa 4 Sax = S17 PLM TfEte vt | met wee LM 4.123 .0.49971 0” 0 Example AA pressure cylinder has an inside diameter of 26” and an outside diameter of 32”. Ifit is applied with an internal pressure is 8 ksi and an extemal pressure of 2 ksi, calculate the hoop stress at its (a) inner surface, and (b) outer surface Solution: D432"A) woop secs al the mer cwroce + 645 From he lame’s equation por tangential shes Ser gt 2 Pe Rete, (gio) wi (1S oa Tee ag = 8 (Mi) = 2(14)? (8-2) (108 Ge From the Lames ye eo ee eerie .& fowst (tS Taiidt * Gecgn Ube = a()>- 2[t0)? & (8-2) (19)? (46* - 97) Gy = 14.54 ksi bs, = ap Uke Gee) Example 3: A spherical vessel as an inside diameter of 24" and a uniform wall thickness of 2.5”. If it is loaded with an internal pressure of 3 ksi, determine the maximum tensile stress induced in the vessel. Solution: From the given dimensions, 23 0.1041 0.1: thick — walled! $1 29 ns | Aye (rd -t39) sas Saat = C6phit fevet BUG) ? | Sa(axial) Che ney ‘Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV for spnencal nick -watted vessel , Smae *Sae iti? pote? miayit Msc ferrites teas = 14S in Swax = 302)? eae? Swox "0921 Kal L may. densile chess lp thin-walled formula fs ased = (Hin ReD Snax GE. 328) at Wa Smax = 1.20 sy —» wrong s 16FACTOR OF SAFETY OR DESIGN FACTOR, N > Table 1.1. Factors of Safety for Different Material “Type and Loading Conditions Cast] Timber Steel, Ductile Metals | Tron, Brite Kind of Lond mets Basalon | Basalon | — Based on Ulimate Utimate | Yield ‘Senath Seengih_|suengin Dead oad eo Ts2 | 36 7 Repeated.one | 6 3 14 10 direton, radial (id shock) Repeated, 8 4 wor | as revered, sgradual (ld shock) Shock 10-15 $7 15:20 20_| ‘Souree” Design oF Machina Eemeis, VM, Fares, 3 Factors in the Selection ofa Safety Factor Selection of an appropriate value of safety factor is based primarily on the following factors: 1. Degree of uncertainty about loading. 2. Degree of uncertainty about material strength, 3. Degree of uncertainty in stress analysis. 4, Human safety and economics. > Table 1.2. Recommended Values for a Safety in N.RV Note: ‘Above values are based on the material's yield strength. For brittle materials, the factors should be approximately doubled. For repeated loads, the factors must be applied to the endurance limit rather than to the yield strength of the material For impact forees, an impact or shock factor should be included. More thorough analysis is should be undertaken before considering the use of a higher safety factor. Other recommendations are available from other sources. However, they involve a lot of considerations and oftentimes the listed values are in terms of range of factors, In actual designing, a thorough investigation about the use of an appropriate safety factor is a must. For a more straightforward value of safety factor or a design factor, an older source may be used as the reference. Table 2 shows conservative values of safety factor, typically used when only the material's yield strength or ultimate strength is the basis. Most calculations involve in the succeeding examples, in which safety factors are required, involve assumptions based on Table 2 Some problems give directly the safety factor to be used in the computation to come up with a result that is not too far from the expected range of answers. > Table 1.3. Factors used to determine a safety factor for ductile materials Factor Taformation | Quality of infomation Fasior Factor of Conditions El Safety “The aca material sed was] 13 725 10 13 | exceplionally reliable materials Material : Under contolable conditions; loads propery data ota materials tet dala] 7 and stresses can be determined with Rumbo Fost as she —— sh rte uty represenaive materials 2 ‘well-known materials, under “eatdesa aie ailable Ee eae terials, und Poorly representative materials + reasonably constant environmental # test data ae available conditions, loads and stresses ean be 2 determined readil “Ae Wentialo materatiet | 13 Tio23 | average materials in ordinary condition environments: loads and stresses can Environmental [Essentially wom-anbiea z be determined condition in | envionment 25to3 Jess tried materials; or materials arc ‘wich ft wt “Moderately challenging 3 brittle under average conditions of ‘be used environment environment, load, and stress_ Extremely challenging ad 3t04 untried materials under average ercamien, = conditions of environment, load, and Models have been tested against] 13 stress experiments 3ioF | better known materials in uneerain Analytical [Models accurately present] 2 environments or subjected to models for | system uncertain stresses leading and Models aproninately present | 3 ‘Source: Fundamentals of Machine Component Design stress system by RC. Juvinal, 5” ed. Models are crude approximation | $= Phyctmn , ”‘Source: Machine Design: An Integrated Approsch; Norton ‘Then, the factor of safety N is the product of the three factors above N= Fx(E,)(Es) Again, for britle materials the above factor of safety is usually doubled, pki t Pian Machine Design|: BASAEN. RV 184, DESIGNING FOR IMPACT LOADS IMPACT LOADING impact loading trom Potential Energy gid body (2) topper ot (1) where W = weight ofrigid body (2) f= height of dop of @) fiom the stopper of body (1) P = impact load equivalent of (2) caused on body (1) 6 = deformation of the elastic body (1) due to P xx = lowest level reached at impact, Analysis: (Energy balance based on level x-x) hts 0 6 Potential Energy Strain Energy Introducing the spring constant or stiffness of the elastic material, k do CAONAPO ‘Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV Substituting 8 into equation (2) wis tl = 3P(2) m+tr= sec 2whk + 2wP = PE Pt 2wP = 2Wik ‘Completing the squares, P? — 2WP + W? = 2Whk + W? 2h — wy = wf 4 24 e-wy =wefr+ | pawlrs [1+ 22) equation (4) I [p= w (ieee Fac) where Shock Fectorort coef FP ale 2 W = dead load“, P= impact load / ip ho Note: P2w =P depends on W, h and k - Ifh = Othen P= 2W this isa case of suddenly, applied load. ~ “Above expression of P is conservative since body (Q) is treated to be rigid. Actual collisions involve both deformable bodies for (1) and (2) — resulting in a smaller magnitude of impact load P. ‘Case B: Impact loading from Kinetic Energy ae @ = eases aT wen are é [Energy given-off by body (2)] = [Energy absorbed by body (1)] [kinetic Energy] = (Strain Energy] al a zmvt= 5 Ps Substituting k, Note: ‘The above equations in (A) and (B) neglect the effect of the clastic body's mass me. If its mass or weight is 37considered, the resulting impact load tends to be smaller. From the law of conservation of momentum (m, + m2)¥e 2 where:m, =m; m,=m mvs + mae _ [ th eld aren Or, expressed in terms of weights corrected contact velocity equivalent weight of the beam or of the elastic body ‘Thus, if the beam’s mass or the elastic body's mass is consideréd, the contact velocity becomes smaller. Also, in ‘equation (A), the height of drop is modified with ‘The above conditions result in a lower impact load P. Thus, aside from being simpler in the resulting impact load ‘equations, the analysis is more conservative if the elastic body's mass is neglected. In designing members for impact loading, itis generally on the safer side if the mass of the elastic body is neglected. + Expressions of the Stiffness or Spring Constant, k. a. Axial Loading P PL aE Dhy racine YS me Ye + mvdme im) b, Bending Loads (Special Cases Only): Cantilever w/ load at its free end i PL 19287 Note: Only three special bending cases are listed above. Other bending cases are not included since they result in a more complicated expression of beam deflection y; and stifnessk. 38Example 1: Determine the maximum stress caused by the 20- Ib rigid body in each of the following cases, The absorbing body i a steel rod with 1” diameter and a length of 12", The height of drop ish = a. Strnight a, axially Inde @ rigid w W720 hee" L=iz" steel rod 1 a, Feson De psi b, Cantilever Beam, loaded at free end h B =30x10¢ ©. Simply-supported Beam, loaded at midpoint a nie steel md (071") es Machine Desi I: BASAEN, RV. ©. Cantilever beam, struck by a horizontally moving body at a velocity equal to that of a) ° Solution @ Sax =?: Axial loading 6 A Snax = $* EF a 50 here + [Be weed ic Nh aaa k E10 efron ee K = 1963495 Ib fin. Pe as [ier AND Oran P= 11144 to Tin a b. Swe =? Bending; cantilever bean loaded al free te toes " r koe, 3 (sone (et) ie cry ke 2956.6 t/a 20 [vs (7+ FED fol if 5] 54.9 Io Sax = 689.9 (ny (#) gat Smon = 80 666 psi© Sax =? Bending; simply-supported beam loaded at midpoint 2 Me ote T i) Smox = ser deg s TEAM m= BE = U4 (UF ThE p= w[ tr aE | . fh 2 48EL , 48 (d0R10°) FOF 3 a K= 40906 tb/in be do [ee (Ue TR | Ps 2578.4 th 578.9 (8) (4) Smex = a rot a Smax = 78 190 d. Smax =? Bending; beam with fixed ends, loaded at midpoint Smoy = ™ sly me Bey 7% = qq! me PL 8 pew [rs[rr ae] k= M2EL _r(soxo BOX no k= [63624 @ tb/in. Pz 20 [fie 2 DED] Pe 5136.7 “ Cra Snax 2 OY Eat Smax= 16 482 psi Snax =? Bending; cantilever beam loaded at free end Ps [RE 5 gh tev? 3 Ve agh v efagh = Jags 2) (2) Ve 4.635 w/e 5 ke aero Ros hase aa Pr 9954 ‘Machine Design |: BASAEN, RV 5 = Eos Smax > 78 177 pei Example 2: A platform is to be designed to absorb the impact from a 20-1 rigid body that may accidentally drop from a height of 6” as shown. The platform has a width of 8” and ‘an unknown thickness “H” Ifthe platform material has E = 20 x 10 psi and S, ~30 ksi, what thickness “H” should bbe recommended? Use N=3, based on the yield point. Ee 20010© psi Gy» 30 ksi #3000 esi Solution From aa : eh eu Gammep cb ey DANY eS ethos ah ee We tl 5 Lew Wel BF] sheen: wero we 2EL a Subchiving ph values and expressions: into © . 2(a) r=onr)) of (EEA) au? 3 Atte? a ifs tng) = & = 1,008" 40Example 3 A beam of hollow circular seetion with D = 3” and 4 = 1.5, is made of an AISI C 1020, as rolled steel. Its simply-supported ata length of ft. A rigid body weighing 30 Ib is to strike the beam horizontally at its midpoint, resulting in a stress equal to the material's yield point value, Calculate this striking velocity vin kph. Solution: Simply-supported, hollow section beam art croze , as relied Sy = 48 KSI E + 50x10" ps) = 48(s0x0°) cro: [tenors cga-ae) > 6 us m= et Kz 4853604 bbfin \ 4 . Thus, Pe [pops ote) 185304) aie, a ee P= (130.67¥ co ge e fubsthiting values into 40 @ (136-0) ¥ (48) eros) ee 34 188) oa 49 000 psi v= 3.48 ft/s Machine Design I: BASAEN, RV. np ID AA gt Hoe, Awe tm os * the * 528 eh * Fone Ve 14.4 kph STRESS RAISER AND STRESS CONCENTRATION Stress Raiser ‘Any discontinuity or change of section such as holes, grooves, bends, scratches, notches, etc. is a stress raiser. Its presence in a loaded member results in a concentration of stress or “localized stress” Sq, Which is greater than the average or nominal stress val, If a loaded member has a stress raiser, the ‘maximum magnitude of stress becomes .. Snax = KS herd ee inl or average 1 stress value ‘— Theoretical stress concentration Gtr (SCF) ‘Maximum magnitude of stress (at the location of the stress raiser) Where, K,>1, for members affected by stress concentration Note: * The nominal stress S, can be any of the following areas ETM aT T) © The value of the stress concentration factor depends on both the stress raiser involved and the nature of loading (i.e. Kz for torsion is different from K, for bending). Values of K, can be seen from Charts AF8 HEAD ARIS of DME by Faires. Other similar charts rom Sources give almost equal factors. ‘he effect ofa stress raiser is more pronounced ifthe member is loaded with several repetitions (repeated 80% or wore og all pailures of machine parte are due to*pahgue’ loading). Failure in such case is generally known as “fatigue failure”. Seg tt ik har Smee. ky ger) a‘Comparison between loaded members with and without a Stress Raiser © Tension (Shh witha notch or groove) ) Tr yt Ky Example 1 ‘The stepped shaft with given dimensions is loaded with the following loads as specified. Determine the maximum stress in each case, a. F = 1000 b (Tension) b.-M = 2500 in~ Ib (Bending) ¢. T = 3500 in — lb (Torsion) aoF 1000 lb (Compression) pany we TcRONATO Solution: @) Sax * Smax 14g 1000 — = (nt a Smax = 1884.39 ps b) Smax #2) m dst” *) (EE) » Smax = Ky Me 22M 1) 54 32(2908) F re TO = is ieee Os Sax = ky TL = Ky WT 2 4g 1629009 T “nae TNs Swag = 24.09?-92 psi #) Smox = Sea Snax = 1213.24 psi Theare Heal SCF, Res (N12) : 7 Tension Vv ao Fe tP eon Torsion} 85 ”Example 2: Determine the stress concentration factor K; and the ‘maximum stress on each ofthe following members loaded Stax = 4240. psi as shown, a. Plate witha central hole b. Shaft with a radial hole T= 3000 b~in 2 22 —ppior section modutn © rae wate eon oh : 1e wih an ecenihoe 10? gor chrt ih) M A ween Mm hele t= 025" Smax = (.46 a= 0.35" [zee 925(0"| ba oF" we & enas 316 psi) - Weer - — 3, do. SB cos len Bo oe ' e ‘ aio =? p (ears 26.25 a : eet — — . Considering Smox at pt as ia fe ead Oy sd a For Simo w Smax = 3.5 (4000) [0.¢28) fete? yf 2h, 5 fe= 2573(0.28) a (ay = Smax = 78307 psiA Conideriag Cmax at ph. B. 2b alo 147, 22” Smog 2 Met 4060 (1) r pala fe 259700 2] Smaxg > 35925 psy pi cniain Smax = 78 3907 pay | (al ph ad)5. DESIGNING FOR VARIABLE STRESSES Variable Stresses These are stresses due to cyclic loadings. They are characterized with loads that vary between values and are applied for several repetitions or cycles. ‘Types of Variable Loads: 1. Reversed load 2. Repeated load 3. Fluctuating load 4. Alternating load 1. Reversed Load ~ Variation has equal values but of opposing signs (ie. loads are oppositely directed) Stress (+). ~~ Sax Sm*0 no.of cycles Sin Syax = maximum magnitude of stress Fas». Tmax(?) Mnax(©) Smax =“ OF TaeuaaT \inimum magnitude of stress Frnin Tin) Mmin (6) Simin A° 7 or FMT = axial load, bending moment, twisting moment on member Smnin = Sy, ~mean or average stress 5, — Saez t Sin ™ 2 aremating ses Snax ~ Sin Sa 7 Sa For a reversed load, since Sn Sm = Oand Sp Snax Reversed load is the worst possible loading of a member. 2. Repeated Load + Variation is from zero to a certain maximum value. It can be purely tensile or purely compressive, ie. one direction only. Stress (+) oe Spat 7 9 roof eyeles (Pure tension) 9 Spin = Sm Stress (~) _ no. of cycles Spa (Pure compression) For arepeate load, since Sy = 0 then = Variation is between two values that are unequal in magnitude, but of the same directions. It an be purely tensile or purely compressive, Stress (+) ol —______~ no of cycles (Pure tension) no.of eycles Stress (~) (Pure compression) + This is similar to a repeated load, except that Snin #0 ~ This is the usual load applied to members that are already stressed during the assembly and are further loaded with several repetitions during ‘operation. (eg, springs, bots, etc.) 4, Alternating Load = Variation is between two values that are unequal ‘magnitude and of opposite directions.Stress (+) Sy et no.of cycles Sie (Large part tension, small part compression) Stress (+)... 0 no. of eyeles se Sin (Small part tension, large part compression) ~ Thisis similar toa reversed load, but the limits are not equal, Spar # Spin + For any of the above types, the mean and alternating stresses are always defined as, Note: The algebraic signs (+ or -) of the strecces are to be observed in the calculation of the mean stress Sq and the alternating stress S,. However, only absolute values of Sy and S,are to be considered when they are used inthe design ‘equations for variable stress analysis - Soderberg equation, Goodman equation, Gerber equation, etc. 5," Endurance stres and endurance Ii Endurance Strength (Sn) ‘This is the highest stress at which a material can be subjected to for several repetitions until it breaks (e.g. at the rotating beam test or fatigue test. Ex. S220 ksi @ 10° cycles Endurance Limit (Sn’) This is similar to the endurance strength S,, but the specimen did not break after several repetitions (n > 10° cycles, usually). This is described without an accompanying number of cycles EX. Sy’ = 15 ksi Note: = Most ferrous materials have defined values of endurance limit (Sn’) — steel, alloy steel, cast iron, ete. + Nonsferrous materials don’t exhibit endurance limits ~ aluminums and copper-based materials, etc. | s pees [re _ Tea tederberg ‘Machine Design BASAEN, RV. Rotating Beam Test This is a standard test for the endurance strength or ‘endurance limit of a material specimen. It is also generally known as a “fatigue test” imple Setup: evan Courter F chuckot Dea of Tes Specimen 8S socthaurtcs Test Highlights: ~ Specimen should be ideally mirror-polished = Specimen’s diameter is about 0.25” to 0.3” = Specimen is under bending, applied with a load F and thus, its stress is Mc _ 32M =e: where M = FL ae Bore os «aay aah ae a te ras ae at oT sein ani omy ed Ts ae. The mays wen te inn xx ksi @ntycles Nov of eyes atrpture pote Graph of Endurance Strength Test sees (8) Lg oteqcn tn) boas) |X tase oN -e-~ Feros Materials Graph of Sm vs. Si: Specimen is tested with loads having combing both Sq and Sy.