12

3 Soil Sampling and Analysis

3.1 Principles of Soil Sampling

Soil sampling and analysis is the only way to determine the available nutrient status
of a field and to receive field-specific fertilizer recommendations. To be fully
effective, an on-farm soil testing program should properly sample and test every
field every year. In order to use manure as a fertilizer, soil sampling principles
should be incorporated into sustainable manure management practices.

There are a variety of ways to take a soil sample. Before deciding on a soil sampling
strategy, the objective(s) of the sampling program must be considered (e.g.
improved crop response, identification of micronutrient deficiencies and problem
areas, or monitoring of soil nutrient levels). A good sampling strategy will provide
information that can be used to support or adjust manure application practices,
given the site characteristics and application equipment.

Although most manure management programs are based on “Representative

Random Composite Sampling”, details on all of the popular soil sampling strategies
are provided.

Whichever method of soil sampling is employed, all fields should be sampled at the
0 to 15 cm and 15 to 60 cm depths (0 to 6 and 6 to 24 inch), and the composite
samples for each depth should be kept separate for analysis.

3.2 Representative Random Composite Soil Sampling

Representative random composite soil sampling (commonly referred to as
Traditional Composite Sampling)
is the most common soil
sampling strategy. It involves
taking random core samples
throughout a field, bulking and
thoroughly mixing them, and
submitting a single,
representative sub-sample to the
soil-testing laboratory for
analysis.

Before sampling, evaluate the

field to determine
representative areas for
sampling. Level fields are
relatively easy to sample. For
hilly fields with knolls, slopes or
depressions, take samples from
mid-slope positions to get
“average” results.

Avoid sampling obvious sources

of unusual variability, such as
saline areas, eroded knolls, old
manure piles, burn piles, haystacks, corals, fencerows or old farmstead sites,
headlands, areas within 15 metres (50 feet) of field borders and shelterbelts, or
areas within 45 metres (150 feet) of built-up roads.
 13
13
A composite soil sample should include at least 15 to 20 sample sites per field, with
a minimum of one sampling site for every 3 – 4 hectares (8 to 10 acres). Sample at
0 to 15 cm and 15 to 60 cm depths (0 to 6 and 6 to 24 inch), and separate the
samples according to depth.

Features
· Reduced analytical costs as single sub-samples are submitted as “representative”
of an area.
· Supportive data for agricultural fertility programs.
· Level fields are relatively easy to sample.

Limitations
· Does not provide any indication of field variability. Small areas of very high
nutrient levels that are probed and included in composite samples may
artificially raise the “average” reported value, resulting in much of the field being
under-fertilized. This frequently occurs in sulphur sampling, but may occur with
other nutrients as well.
· Minimizes the potential for site-specific soil management and does not support
variable-rate fertilizer application as whole fields are represented by a single
composite sample. University, government and industry soil-sampling guidelines
have indicated for some time that major areas within fields having distinctly
different soil properties (such as texture) should be sampled and fertilized
separately because of differences in nutrient requirements. This was rarely done
in the past, since farmers had limited options for variable rate fertilization.

3.3 Site-Specific Soil Sampling

Site-specific soil management
focuses on managing the
variability that occurs within
fields. Understanding the pattern
of variability allows the field to
be divided into relatively
uniform units, which can be
managed individually.

More detailed soil sampling

strategies have been developed
to support site-specific
management techniques. These
techniques often incorporate
Global Positioning System (GPS)
technology so that soil sampling
locations can be geo-referenced
and these areas can be revisited
in the future for fertilizer
application, scouting or re-
sampling.

3.3.1 Benchmark Soil Sampling

The basic principle of benchmark sampling is continued sampling at the
same location from year to year. A benchmark is an area of approximately
1/10 ha or 30 by 30 metres (1/4 acre or 100 by 100 feet) that is chosen as
being typical of the field or a dominant soil type within the field. In this
benchmark area, 15 to 20 samples are randomly collected and mixed
together as a composite. This technique assumes that the benchmark area is
less variable than the entire field, because it is much smaller. By using the
same benchmark location and method year after year, sampling error should
14
be minimized, provided the benchmark is representative of the field or
management unit. It is treated as a reference area on which all fertilizer
recommendations for that field are based. More than one benchmark site per field
may be chosen if complex soil types or variable landscapes occur, or if variable-rate
fertilization is an option.

The critical part of this method is the selection of the benchmark site.
Representative sites can be selected by close observation of the crop (particularly
during early growth stages when fertility differences are most evident), past grower
experience, yield maps, soil surveys and remotely sensed images.

Features
· Less expensive and time-consuming than grid soil sampling (see 3.3.2).
· Year-to-year variations better reflect actual nutrient changes.
· May provide information for variable-rate application when different
benchmark sites are selected to represent different areas of the field.

Limitations
· Does not provide a full indication of field variability, but assumes that the rest
of the field will respond similarly to the benchmark area.

3.3.2 Grid Soil Sampling

The grid sampling system
uses a systematic method to
reveal fertility patterns and
assumes fertility patterns do
not vary within a field.

The first step in grid

sampling is to divide the
field into small cells called
grids. The second step is to
identify a sample location
within the grid. The point at
the centre of the grid cell is
usually referred to as the
grid point. From this centre
point, approximately 10
sample cores would be
collected in a 3 to 6 metre
(10 to 20 foot) radius to
form a composite sample.
Generally, as sampling intensity increases, the identification of fertility patterns
becomes more accurate. Some jurisdictions recommend a sampling density of one
sample per half hectare (1 acre) in order to obtain representative soil N, P, K and
pH data. Less intensive sampling may still provide useful information on the
magnitude of field variability, but may be too inaccurate for variable-rate
management.

Features
· Grid sampling is well integrated into commercial GPS-based soil sampling and
nutrient-mapping GIS programs.

Limitations
· Grid point sampling may result in bias because of the regular row and column
sample alignment. Other regularly spaced patterns, such as tillage, drainage
tiles and ditches, or fertilizer spreading may cause a repeating pattern that, if
aligned with the sample rows, will seriously bias results. Modifications to the
 15
15
sampling pattern, such as staggering of sample points or random placement
within the grid, may be used to overcome this problem.
· The intensive grid sampling required to effectively reveal fertility patterns can
be quite expensive, especially for the lower-value grain and oilseed crops
grown on the Prairies.
· There is no soil-landscape rationale for grid size. In fields with complex
landscapes, there is a risk of missing some soil units with a large grid size,
and commercial grid spacing is often too large.

A field may be suitable for grid sampling if the field history is unknown or its
natural fertility patterns have been masked because:
· The field has a history of manure application.
· Smaller fields have been merged into a larger one.
· High rates of fertilizers or lime have recently been used.

3.3.3 Landscape-Directed Soil Sampling

Landscape-directed sampling is based on spatial patterns defined using some
prior knowledge or observation of a field, and assumes that fertility patterns exist
for logical reasons. Patterns in soil and crop variation can often be observed by
reviewing the management history and consulting soil survey information, detailed
elevation mapping, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, yield monitor maps, and
the land owner. This type of variation is called “systematic variation” because it
follows a system or pattern and is predictable and manageable if that pattern is
understood. The recent use
of yield monitors has shown
that yield variation is often
related to topography,
although this variation may
be due more to differences
in drainage or available
water and weed pressure
than to nutrient variation.

Soil development and

productivity are largely a
function of water flow, which
is in turn controlled by
landscape properties such as
slope gradient and length,
slope curvature and relative
elevation. The combination
of these factors determines the location of soil types in the landscape and their
inherent productivity. Nutrient levels, particularly for the mobile nutrients, N and S,
have shown consistent relationships with landscape or topography in recent
studies. Soil/moisture relationships largely control N availability in the landscape
through processes of denitrification, leaching, mineralization of organic matter
and crop uptake. Elevation measurements may be used to initially develop
topographical management zones, but it is actually landscape features or slope
position that influences nutrient relationships.

This system requires the identification of areas (polygons) with similar soil and
hydrological conditions. Properly identified, there will be less variability within each
polygon than among polygons.
16
Research has not firmly established the required sampling density or pattern for
landscape sampling. If landscape units were totally homogeneous, one sample
would characterize the entire unit, but in reality these units are not homogeneous.
Options are to take several point cores per landscape unit or to take a composite
sample of 10 to 20 cores for each area. Within a field, various management zones,
based on topographic variation, can generally be delineated with the aid of
elevation maps, yield maps or remotely sensed images. Boundaries may be
adjusted with further data and experience with the system.

Features
· Potentially fewer soil samples required than intensive grid sampling.
· Nutrient distribution and management-unit boundary delineation are
often superior to grid sampling, especially for N.

Limitations
· Requires previous knowledge of crop performance within the field and an
ability to discern slight topographic and soil changes within the field.
· Crop growth and yield relationships with topography may be completely
reversed in years of extreme wetness versus years of extreme dryness.
· For fields with subtle changes in topography, a digital elevation map may
be needed to select sample sites. Such elevation mapping is available as
a commercial service.
· Past management, such as heavy fertilization or manure application, may
mask the landscape-nutrient relationships and reduce the usefulness of
this method.

Research and field experience suggests a field may be suitable for

landscape-directed soil sampling if:
· Remote sensing or yield mapping reveals some relationship between crop
growth and landscape properties.
· The field does not have a history of manure application.
· Relatively low rates of nutrients have been applied.

3.4 Soil Analysis

It is recommended that the soil-testing laboratory be consulted regarding specific
requirements for sample size and shipping, turn-around times, analytical options,
costs and any additional instructions they may have. As well, some labs provide
bags, labels and submission forms for soil samples.

Although a variety of analytical packages are available, a package that includes

nitrate-N, exchangeable K and available P should be selected. There are a number of
analytical methods for determining P, including Modified-Kelowna, Olsen (sodium
bicarbonate) or Mehlich-lll. These analytical methods can yield considerably different
results. The soil-testing laboratory will calculate the crop nutrient recommendations
for the region based on the analytical method used.

In areas where salinity or sodicity is a concern, electrical conductivity (EC) and

sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) should be considered. Electrical conductivity is used
as an indicator of salt accumulation in the soil (i.e. salinity). Sodium adsorption
ratio is a measure of sodium (Na+) in relation to calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium
(Mg2+) in soil. For the purpose of manure management planning, it is also useful to
have an estimate of the amount of potentially mineralizable N in soils that have
received solid manure applications. Some labs offer a test intended to determine
potentially mineralizable N.
 17
17
3.4.1 Depth of Sampling
The type of information that is required from the soil analysis will determine
the depth of soil sampling:
· At a minimum, nitrate-N analysis should be conducted on both the 0 to
15 cm (0-6 inch), 15 to 30 cm (6-12 inch), 30 to 60 cm (12-24 inch) depth
samples because nitrate is a mobile nutrient in soil water.
· If the fields have received heavy or unknown N applications or if the soil is
susceptible to leaching, nitrate-N analysis should be conducted on deeper
samples (greater than 60 cm or 24 inches) to determine if leaching is
occurring.
· At a minimum, P and K analysis should be conducted on the 0 to 15 cm
(0 to 6 inch) depth sample.
· Sulphur and salinity analysis should be conducted on the 0 to 15 (0-6 inch),
15 to 30 cm (6-12 inch), and 30 to 60 cm (12-24 inch) depth samples, if this
information is required.
· pH, organic matter or micronutrient analysis should be conducted on the 0 to
15 cm (0 to 6 inches) depth sample, if this information is required.