UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

PRACTICAL AGRICULTURAL EXPERIENCE

AGPR 102 & 103 COURSE

STUDENTS HANDBOOK
2010 EDITION

by Jiri, O and Siringwani, H

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CONTENTS

AGRICULTURE PRACTICE 1 (AGPR 103)

UNIT 1: GUIDELINES FOR SOIL SAMPLING ........................................................... 3

UNIT 2: CROP VARIETY SELECTION AND ESTABLISHMENT............................ 8
UNIT 3: TILLAGE SYSTEMS ..................................................................................... 10
UNIT 4: SURVEYING AND CONTOUR PEGGING ................................................. 15
UNIT 5: HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTION/MARKETING ................................... 19
UNIT 6: IRRIGATION SYSTEMS............................................................................... 21
UNIT 7: FINANCING OF AGRICULTURE IN ZIMBABWE.................................... 29

AGRICULTURE PRACTICE 1 (AGPR 102)

UNIT 8: TOBACCO PRODUCTION ........................................................................... 33

UNIT 9: PRINCIPLES OF GRAZING AND VELD MANAGEMENT ...................... 39
UNIT 10: SOIL CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION .................................................... 43
UNIT 11: SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION .......................................................... 49
UNIT 12: CATTLE PEN FATTENING........................................................................ 59
UNIT 13: MAIZE AND SOYABEAN HARVESTING ............................................... 64
UNIT 14: IRRIGATED WHEAT .................................................................................. 69
UNIT 15: CATTLE DIPPING ....................................................................................... 72
UNIT 16: DAIRY MILKING AND CALF REARING ................................................ 75
UNIT 17: POULTRY PRODUCTION .......................................................................... 87
UNIT 18: PIG PRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 97
UNIT 19: WORKSHOP SKILLS ................................................................................ 130

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UNIT 1: GUIDELINES FOR SOIL SAMPLING

Soil test values are no better than the soil samples you collect. Proper soil
sampling procedures must be followed to obtain meaningful test results for
fertilizer decisions. The best guideline for determining fertilizer needs is a
reliable analysis of a soil sample that is representative of the field. Proper
procedures must be followed to collect representative soil samples.

Quick Facts...
A quality fertilizer recommendation depends on a quality soil sample. A
composite soil sample should represent a uniform field area. Use a systematic
sampling scheme, and a minimum of 15 subsamples throughout the field,
regardless of acreage. Sampling depth depends on the crop and the tillage
depth. Sample most fields every year for nitrate analyses. Thoroughly air dry
all soil samples within 12 hours after sampling. Careful soil sampling is
essential for an accurate fertilizer recommendation. A sample must reflect the
overall or average fertility of a field so analyses, interpretations and
recommendations accurately represent the nutrient or mineral status of the soil.
An accurate evaluation will result in more efficient fertilizer use, which can
increase yields, reduce costs and potentially reduce environmental pollution.

Consider each of the following before obtaining a soil sample:

 field area (acreage) per sample,
 sampling procedure,
 sample depth,
 when to sample,
 sampling tools,
 sample handling,
 information needed, and
 handling and mailing.

Field Area
A composite soil sample should represent a uniform field area. Each area
should have a similar crop and fertilizer history for at least the last two years.
Soil characteristics (color, slope, texture, drainage and degree of erosion)
should appear similar. Exclude small areas within a field that are obviously
different. These can be sampled separately if they are large enough to warrant
special treatment. The field area represented by a single composite sample
should represent no more than 16 irrigated ha or 40 dryland ha.

Objectives
The objectives of soil sampling are to:
1. determine the average nutrient status in a field
2. pH determination
3. determination of clay content for herbicide application or irrigation
purposes
4. obtain a measure of nutrient variability in the field. When the variability
is known, fertilizer application can be adjusted to more closely meet the
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 supplemental nutrient needs of a crop for specific field areas. Correct
fertilizer nutrient use can result in increased yield, reduced cost, and
reduced potential water pollution.

General Guidelines
Divide Fields
Fields must be divided into uniform areas before soil samples are collected.
These divisions should be based on soil type, slope, degree of erosion, cropping
history, known crop growth differences, and any other factors that may
influence nutrient levels in the soil.

Figure 1. Dividing and sampling a 24 ha gravity irrigation field.

When sampling soil for nitrate-nitrogen tests in furrow irrigation fields, the
upper, middle, and lower portion of the field should be sampled and analyzed
separately (Figure 1). The amount of water that percolates into the soil will
influence the amount and depth of nitrate-nitrogen in the soil. Odd areas in the
field (eroded spots, turn rows, abandoned farmsteads, or feedlots) must be
avoided or sampled as separate areas. Soil samples from these areas can change
the test results for the rest of the field.

Select Proper Sampling Depth

Surface (tillage layer) samples are used for determining soil pH, lime need,
organic matter, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, and zinc. Soil test correlations
and calibrations for these tests are based on surface samples. It is best to use the
same sampling depth from year to year so soil test values can be more
accurately compared. Sampling deeper than the tillage layer generally results
in lower soil test values for organic matter, phosphorus, and zinc. Potassium
and pH may increase, decrease, or remain the same with tests from deeper
samples. Both surface and subsurface soil samples are needed to estimate
nitrate-nitrogen in the root zone because nitrogen in the nitrate form leaches
into the subsoil. Nitrate-nitrogen in the root zone is used by plants. Surface soil
samples are needed for all crops. Fertilizer recommendations for all nutrients
except nitrogen are based on the crop to be grown and soil tests of the surface
samples.

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Collecting Soil Cores
A soil core is an individual boring or coring at one spot in the field. Soil cores
can be collected at random in the sample area or in a grid pattern. Collection at
random (Figure 2A) may save some time; however, cores need to be collected
from the entire area to obtain the most reliable estimates. Collecting soil cores
in a grid pattern (Figure 2B) may require more time to establish the grid;
however, it does ensure that the entire area is represented in the sample. Less
variation from year to year is expected when samples are collected in a grid
pattern from the same areas each year.

Figure 2. Methods of collecting soil cores from a field.

Proper random sampling can provide an accurate picture of the average

nutrient level in the field. In addition, grid sampling can provide an
opportunity to obtain even more information. If individual samples from a grid
sampling pattern are analyzed separately, they can be used to produce nutrient
level maps of the field. Various computer programs are available to help with
averaging and mapping. These maps then can be used as a database for fine-
tuning fertilizer application across a field when a computerized fertilizer
applicator is used.

Take Continuous Cores

As soil cores are collected, the entire core for the desired depth should be
placed in a plastic pail for mixing. Separate buckets are needed for surface
cores and each subsurface depth sampled (Figure 3). Soil cores in each pail are
then thoroughly mixed and a subsample placed in a separate bag or box which
has been labeled for the sample area in the field, and for the depth of sample.

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Figure 3. Division of soil cores by depth.

Time of Sampling
Winter is a good time for soil sampling except for testing for nitrate-nitrogen in
sandy soils. Winter sampling allows more time to get the results from the
testing laboratory and avoids the busy laboratory schedule in the spring. Mid
or late summer is the appropriate time to collect soil samples for winter wheat.
Phosphorus level in the soil should be determined prior to seeding winter
wheat. Nitrate-nitrogen tests made prior to planting winter wheat help predict
nitrogen fertilizers needs for the crop.

Select Soil Sampling Equipment

Surface soil samples can be collected by using a soil probe, soil auger, or spade;
however, for collecting subsoil samples, a spade is not very satisfactory. A post-
hole digger can be used for collecting deep samples, but its use requires some
special techniques. The soil probe or tube is the most desirable tool for
collecting soil samples. It will give a continuous core with minimal disturbance
of the soil. The cores can be divided for the various depths. There should be
very little contamination of subsoil sample with surface soil when using a soil
probe. A soil probe cannot be used when the soil is too wet, too dry, or frozen.
The soil auger can be used in soils that contain gravel; however, great care
must be taken to obtain representative samples and to avoid mixing of soil
from different depths. The use of a soil auger in wet, sticky soils will result in
mixing soil from different depths. A soil auger will not effectively gather dry,
powdery soils. Use a soil auger only when a soil probe cannot be used.

Soil Sampling Procedures

Collect one sample for each 8 ha (or less for small fields). This will give a good
measure of the average nutrient status in the field. Divide large fields into areas
of 20 acres or less to obtain a good measure of variability. By knowing the
variability in a field, fertilizer application can be adjusted accordingly.
Determine cores per sample. Collecting 15-20 cores for the surface sample and
six to eight cores for subsurface samples per 8 ha usually will give reliable
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mean values for the sampled area. When cores are collected in a grid pattern
(Figure 2B) and a nutrient level map of the field is to be developed, individual
cores should be kept separate and analyzed individually. Although the
procedure will require more time and will increase the cost of analysis, it
provides more information. This procedure will give a picture of the nutrient
variability in the field and will provide a reliable estimate of the nutrient means
for the area sampled.

Information Form
Fill out the information form completely. Interpretations depend on a series of
field and crop factors. Such items as past crop, manuring, crop to be grown and
its yield goal, and irrigation, all enter into the final fertilizer recommendation.
Without this information, a fertilizer recommendation cannot be tailored to the
specific situation.

Handling and Mailing

Soil sample bags and information forms are available soil testing laboratories.
These include the Soil Testing Laboratory at the University of Zimbabwe‘s Soil
Science Department; the Chemistry and Soil Research Institute at DR&SS; the
Soil Productivity Research Laboratory in Marondera; Tobacco Research Board,
etc.

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UNIT 2: CROP VARIETY SELECTION AND ESTABLISHMENT

HYBRID SELECTION
Altitude has an effect on a number of days from planting to flowering and
maturity because the rate of development of maize is affected by air
temperature. The warmer the weather the faster the development of the crop.
That is why maize takes a shorter time to develop in the lowveld than in the
highveld.
Yield performance of a maize hybrid is based on the following factors:
 amount and distribution of rainfall
 length of the growing season
 altitude and air temperature
 soil fertility and fertiliser application
 planting date
 plant density
 occurrence of pests and diseases
 management
Some of these factors you cannot control e.g. rainfall and temperature others
can be managed by the farmer to ensure that the best possible conditions are
provided so that one gets the best possible yield under the prevailing
conditions.

Examples of varietal choice:

MAIZE
1. SC 709 is a long season high yielding variety and has high tolerance to GLS.
It is a good choice where you aim for more than 6t/ha. It is however
susceptible to cob rot.
2. SC 627 is a white medium maturity hybrid with Grey Leaf Spot tolerance and
very good maize streak virus tolerance. It has good grain quality
Both SC709 and SC 627 are produced as seed at the UZ farm so retention is
possible.

SOYABEAN
Soprano is an intermediate variety with a very high yield potential of 4t/ha
though the UZ farm tends to average 2,5t/ha. It has high resistance to lodging
and shattering, a good clearance of the lower pods and good plant dehydration
that make very suitable to for combine harvesting. It is resistant to frogeye but
susceptible to a new strain of virus. It is however susceptible to rust.

Maize planting preparations

 Discing to kill weeds and conserve moisture
 Marking planting lines
 Compound fertiliser banding by machine
 Seed planting
Soyabean planting preparations
 Shredding of maize stover
 Lime acid soils (ideal pH >5.5 ) and apply gypsum
 Use conservation tillage to conserve soil and moisture
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 Apply compound fertiliser based on yield target and soil nutrient status
 Apply herbicide and disc
 Apply fungicide seed dressing and inoculate the seed with inoculants
 Plant in rows 25-50cm
 Best planting should be 300000 plants/ha (seed rate of 70-100 kg/ha.

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UNIT 3: TILLAGE SYSTEMS

Tillage is defined as:

(a) The modification of the soil physical structure for the establishment and
growth of crops.
(b) The mechanical soil stirring action carried out on the soil for the
purposes nurturing crops.
(c) Manual and mechanical soil stirring activities necessary for the
establishment and growth of crops.

AIMS FOR TILLAGE

 To loosen soil to a suitable depth so that roots can easily penetrate the
soil. This encourages water infiltration, aeration, and the activity of
microorganisms.
 To create a suitable tilth in the plough zone for germination and
development of seeds.
 To incorporate fertilizers, crop residues and organic mater.
 To control weeds, pests and diseases.
 To remove obstructions in the soil profile like the plough pane
 To increase soil-seed contact.

EFFECTS OF TILLAGE AND SOIL STRUCTURE

If soil is tilled when it is too wet, the crumbs of the soil are destroyed through
compressing particles together. In the presence of free or gravitational water
the soil particles slide over one another and are tightly packed together. This
results in the formation of compact mass, which on dying is extremely hard
and difficult to work.
If the soil is tilled when it is too dry it will pulvense into dust as for the sand
soil or break into large particles as for the heavy clays.
Damage of soil structure due to tillage can be minimized by tilling the soil at
the right moisture content when it is not too wet or too dry. Also keep tillage
operations to a minimum.

TIMING OF TILLAGE
Optimum time to plough is at the end of rains before the soil dries up. This is
generally referred to as early ploughing. Ploughing can also be done at the
beginning of rains but the disadvantage is that planting can be delayed. Early
ploughing reduces draft power requirements, allows organic material to
decompose for the next crop and enables some crops to be planted at the
earliest time.

TILLAGE CATEGORIES
These are two general categories which refer to the depth of tillage, type of
implement and goals in preparing the seedbed.

1. PRIMARY TILLAGE
This is when the soil is inverted cut or shattered to a depth of about of about 15
- 36 cm. This may result in the burying of trash by invasion. The soil is usually

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rough after this tillage operation. Heavier implements are used to achieve the
operation.

Aims of primary tillage

 loosen and aerate the soil surface layer
 incorporation of fertilisers
 lower plant residues from previous crops

Implements used in primary tillage include mould board plough or chisel

plough, disc plough sub-soil, offset and heavy tandem disc harrows

2. SECONDARY TILLAGE
This denotes tillage operations that follow primary tillage. The purpose is to
prepare a final seedbed which is suitable for planting, seed germination,
seedling establishment and weed control. The operation works the soil to a
shallower depth of about 5 – 15 cm.

Aims of secondary tillage

 leveling and firming the soil
 further pulvering the soil to ensure good soil seed contact
 controlling weeds

Implements used in secondary tillage include disc harrow, field cultivators,

spring, spike and tine tooth harrows, roller packers and roller harrows

TILLAGE METHODS
These are basically two main tillage methods/systems. These are conventional
tillage and minimum tillage

A. CONVENTIONAL TILLAGE
This practice involves both primary and secondary tillage operations.
Operations of conventional tillage may include:
 shedding or discing of crop residues as a preliminary operation
 piping or ploughing as primary tillage operations
 secondary tillage operations.
These eliminate the risk of trash interfering with planting operations but it
leaves the soil in a very erodable condition.

This system of tillage involves of operations that have been adopted by farmer
for a too long a time. It has its on advantages and there are a lot of
disadvantages that follow this system. Most farmers use this technique since it
has been in use for a long time, but conversation framing through practice has
shown to give better results. Most operations employed in convectional tillage
have some effects.

Some of the conventional tillage methods include: -

1. Burning crop residues

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All crop residues that are left on the field at the end of the season are raked up
and burned. The reason for burning these residues is that they clog up the
ploughing and interrupt ploughing operations. Also they act as habitat for
pests and encourage diseases carry over to the next season. In communal areas
burning may aid the hunting of mice.

Burning of crop residues though helpful somehow is very destructive. Crop

residues protect the soil from drop splash and sheet erosion. Where there is a
soil crop residues cover there is an improved infiltration of water into soil.
Also bare soil aids I the fluctuation of temperature on bare soil temperature can
be as high as 50 degrees (2003) the crop residues also protect soil from capping.
Burning residues kills termites and other soil fauna which are very important
in the incorporation of the residues into the soil aeration and maintaining the
soil structure and organic matter. Bare soil increases run off and soil loss.

2. Ploughing using oxen

In most areas of the country farmers have to wait for rains so that they plough
their lands. For each day of delay after the first ploughing rains 1,5% of
potential maize yield is lost. Ploughing is done after the long dry season when
the animals are malnourished. Ploughing may take several days or even a
week if the last rains are unreliable.

Other effects of conventional farming:

 soil is degraded and there can be total crop failure in season of rainfall
deficit. The financial and physical investment for the failed crop is
wasted.
 in seasons of heavy rain, soil that develop soil pan do not drain properly
and thereby become waterlogged.
 there is increased annual weed infestation
 in ploughed lands there is eventual decline in soil fertility. The soil
becomes quickly exhausted through the yearly ploughings
 there is a higher rate of soil erosion in ploughed lands
 topsoil is likely to be washed away more in ploughed areas and this
causes reduced rooting zone.

B. CONSERVATION TILLAGE
B.1. MINIMUM TILLAGE
This means reducing tillage operations to the minimum required to plant a
crop. Usually for hoe and ox draft this involves scratch or ploughing

B.2. ZERO TILLAGE

Strictly speaking the method which falls into zero tillage should not involve
any mechanical contact with the soil. This is successfully achieved by
broadcasting seed over the previous crop residue. This is normally practiced
with cereals. If there is a big residue layer, seed should be shaken through
some operation to ensure seed reaches the soil surface.

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B.3. CONSERVATION (TILLAGE) FARMING
Any tillage practice which leaves at least a 30% crop residue cover on the soil
surface after planting. Conservation farming involves using the land in
accordance to its capability and suitability and managing the land with the
principles of conservation. It also encompasses a number of practices that in
combination conserve soil, moisture, fertilizer, seeds, energy and money. It is a
form of minimum tillage which uses other simple techniques like:
reduction of runoff and keeping more rain water on the fields (rain harvesting).
making the best use of fertilizer ad seeds that aids to high input costs
protection of soil from the damaging effects of raindrop effects
allowing farmers to finish land preparation well before the coming of rains and
thereby easy planting enhanced.

Advantages of minimum tillage/zero tillage/conservation tillage

Conservation tillage has many long-term advantages as well as short term
economic benefits.
The advantages are:
 the impact of raindrops is cushioned and this reduces surface sealing
 soil erosion is minimized with improvement of infiltration since there is
reduced movement of water along the soil surface
 a minimum of 30% residues on the surface after planting ensures
reduced evaporation and therefore allows maximum utilization of
rainwater.
 there is moderation of extreme s oil temperature. This leads to
protection of seeds from extreme heat and cold
 soil fauna activity is encouraged
 there is reduced soil casting and compaction leading to better seedling
emergence
 young seedlings are protected ad shaded from direct sun
 decomposed roots make channels through the soil facilitating water ad
infiltration and penetration
 soil pulverization is greatly reduced thus allowing soil fauna to develop
 lastly and time-consuming land preparation are eliminated reducing the
need for heavy draft power.

KEY ELEMENTS IN CONSERVATION

1. Apply good management principles e.g.
 timely operations
 forward planning
 record keeping
 self evaluation
2. Zero or minimal soil disturbances
 avoid ploughing if a plough pan has developed it needs to be broken by
ripping rather than ploughing
3. Maintain a protective cover to the soil with the previous crops residue (tied
ridges can be constructed alternatively)
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4. Maintain soil structure by minimizing corporation. This is achieved by:
 keeping movements of cattle people or tractor to the same track between
crop rows every year
 avoiding working in the land when the soil is wet and vulnerable to
compaction
5. Ensure lands are prepared and fertilized well before first planting rains so
that planting is not delayed. Timely planting ensures good yields and also
means the soil is protected from rain drop impact by crop canopy early in the
season.
6. Control weeds - ensure that all weeds do not produce seeds so that weed
infestation in the following season is minimized.

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UNIT 4: SURVEYING AND CONTOUR PEGGING

Definition of terms
Leveling: process of determining the difference in elevation between two or
more points on the ground or distance in height between two or more points on
the ground.
Datum: any conveniently assumed level surface or line which heights
measured from.
Benchmark: a starting point within a surveying and is a useful reference point.
It can be permanent or temporary benchmark. Its location is easily found or
described.
Elevation: height of a point above or below the datum. It can be called reduced
land or altitude.
Reduced level: calculated height of a point above or below the datum.
Slope /gradient/grade: is the ratio of the vertical height and the distance
between points on the line. It is expressed as:
 vertical rise to the horizontal distance e.g. 1:200 gradient
 a percentage e.g. 2% slope
 a vertical angle with the surface

LEVELING INSTRUMENTS
Dumpy level
The level is an expensive and delicate instrument and must be handled with
the greatest care. The level must be secured in its box when it is not in use.
Always place the box on the ground surface when removing or returning the
level. When not in use the mounted level must always be in front of the
bearer‘s eyes when moving from one station to the next. The telescope can
move in a plane at 360 degrees to its axis. The direction of the axis is controlled
by the leveling head which comprise two parallel plates screw to the tripod.
The axis of rotation of the telescope is perpendicular to the upper parallel plate
and may be made vertical by correctly adjusting footscrews.

Staff
It is graduated in cm. Readings are read to two decimal places and the unit
should always be shown e.g. 0.75 m. The staff is always carried and stored in
the folded position when not in use in order to protect the graduated face from
scratches. When taking readings the staff is held both vertically with both
hands in front of the bearer‘s face.

Tripod
It has 3 legs. It is a stand on which the level is placed .The legs can be adjusted
to a convenient height by the user. The tripod can be made of aluminum or
wood

Setting the level

1. Position 2 tripod legs and spread the third so as to make the tripod head
almost level and at a convenient level.

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 2. Place the instrument on the tripod head and screw it onto the bottom for
securing it to the tripod.
3. Bubble tube on the telescope is to be rotated until it is parallel to 2 of the
footscrews. The 2 footscrews are turned simultenously in opposite
directions until the bubble is at the centre f its run. The bubble attached
to the telescope is then turned through 90 degrees and the bubble
centred by the third screw. The two operations are repeated in turn until
the bubble is central in both positions of the telescope.

Observing the staff

Aim and focus on the staff. Turn telescope until the vertical cross has bisect the
middle of the staff. Read at cross hair and look the staff graduation at central
cross hair.

Testing the level for accuracy

The level may easily be put out of adjacent by bumping or through gradual
stresses. Set out three pages A, B and C 25m apart in a straight line. Place the
level over the middle peg B and the head to the staff held in turn on top of the 2
outside pegs A and C. Read to the nearest 0.01m. Set the level at point D which
can either be 10m from either A and C and then take the readings at point A
and C.

Work out the differences between readings i.e.

(1) when instrument is at point B
reading on staff A = 1.60 m
C = 1.45 m
Difference = 0.15 m

(11) when instrument is at D

reading on staff A = 2.78 m
C = 2.69 m
Difference = 0.09 m

The difference at B should be equal to the difference at D. If the differences are

not equal as above then the instrument is not fit for use.

TAKING READINGS AND COMPLETING THE LEVEL BOOK

Backsight (BS) – is a staff reading taken when the instrument is set up on a new
position.
Foresight (FS) – is the last staff reading taken before changing instrument
position.
Intermediate sites (IS) – are all other staff readings taken between backsight
and foresight
Change Point (CP) – is the point of staff reading when the instrument is
changed giving the FS and BS at one point on staff reading.

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METHODS OF STAFF READING
Rise and Fall Method

Peg Distance BS IS FS Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

No. level
1 0 3.00 100.00 Benchmark
2 25 2.50 0.50 100.50
3 50 2.10 0.40 100.90
4 75 2.60 2.00 0.10 101.00
5 100 2.40 0.20 101.20
6 125 2.50 0.10 101.10
7 150 2.90 0.40 101.70

NB: Reduced level – is always assumed to be 100 m at the first staff reading. It
is therefore written in the RL column before any of the staff readings are taken.

CONSERVATION LAYOUT
It is the system in which roads, storm drains, and waterways and within the
land protective works are integrated with the natural land features to establish
a safe storm water disposal system.
Examples of conservation works include roads and artificial waterways

Grade
Grade means the rise or fall in height in relation to distance. Storm drains are
pegged at a grade of 1:250.
This means 1 m fall in 250 m
1 mm fall in 250 mm
1 km fall in 250 km

Grade Rise or fall between pegs

10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m
1:250 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

Contour pegging records

Information to be included: date, place (Farmer‘s name, Headman, ICA), soil
type, vertical interval, north point etc

Contour designs criteria

Runoff: Contours must be able to carry most of the runoff from a bare soil
produced by a storm.
Soil erodibility: the detachatibility and transportability of soil.
Length of slope: between contours must be limited to prevent accumulation of
storm runoff which would increase rill erosion between contours
Size of contour channel: must be large enough to carry runoff from the area of
land it serves.
Channel depth: should assume the natural shape adopted by the soil after a
few showers.
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Contour gradients: must not lead to excessive velocities and consequent
scouring.

Storm drain
Is the drain that intercepts and diverts runoff which would otherwise flow
from higher ground into the arable land which it protects. It is the first line of
defense. All structures below it will be designed on the assumption that it will
effectively control run-off from outside the arable land. Contours below it are
designed to control run-off from within the arable land. The depth of the storm
drain is related to the storm drain catchment. For a catchment of 1 – 6 ha it
should be 0.3 m and for 6 ha and above it should be 0.45 m. The length of the
storm drain is determined by the type of the soil.

Contour Ridges
These are graded open-ended channels with raised banks that intercept surface
runoff so that it flows gently off arable land to a place where it can be safely
discharged. The spacing of contour is determined by the slope and soil type.
The standard gradient is 1:250 m.

Measurement of slope
Percentage slope means the rise in fall in metres per 100 metres. Take staff
readings at 50 m up and down the slope. The difference is the slope to the
nearest whole number. e.g. 8.20 – 6.35 = 1.85 m (difference); slope = 1.85% =
2%

Vertical Interval
This is the difference in height between two points. The following is a guide
used in contour layout design:

% Slope Red soil Sandy soil

1% 0.92 m 0.77 m
2% 0.92 m 0.77 m
3% 1.08 m 0.92 m
4% 1.23 m 1.08 m

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UNIT 5: HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTION/MARKETING

Objectives:
 To teach students how to properly grow and market vegetables, fruits,
nuts, flowers, and ornamental plants.
 To teach students to recognize the value of having the proper soils for
growing horticultural crops.
 To afford students the opportunity to market horticultural crops as a
learning experience for future endeavors.

Presentation Ideas:
 Growing tomatoes in the garden
 Producing healthy seedlings
 Marketing fruits and vegetables
 How to run a pick-your-own operation

Suggestions/Helpful Hints:
Horticultural Production: Any practice that has to do with growing vegetables,
fruits, nuts, flowers, ornamental plants and turf, as well as those practices
concerned with maintaining, replenishing, or increasing the production
capacity of the soil. Terrarium construction and dish garden presentations
should be entered in this program.

Horticultural Marketing: Operations in preparing vegetables, edible tree nuts,

fruits, flowers, and ornamental plants for market, offering for sale to a buyer, or
for storage and in preparing for and exhibiting these horticultural crops.

Basic principles of horticultural produce include:

Principle 1: Prevention of microbial contamination of fresh produce is favoured
over reliance on corrective actions, once contamination has occurred.
Principle 2: To minimize food safety hazards in fresh produce, growers,
packers, or shippers should use good agricultural management practices in
those areas over which they have control.
Principle 3: Fresh produce can become micro biologically contaminated at any
point along the farm-to-table food chain. The major source of microbial
contamination with fresh produce is associated with human or animal feces.
Principle 4: Whenever water comes in contact with produce, its quality dictates
the potential for contamination. Minimize the potential of contamination from
water used with fresh fruits and vegetables.
Principle 5: Practices using animal manure or bio-solid wastes should be
managed closely to minimize the potential for microbial contamination of fresh
produce.
Principle 6: Worker hygiene and sanitation practices during production,
harvesting, sorting, packing, and transport play a critical role in minimizing the
potential for microbial contamination of fresh produce.
Principle 7: Follow all applicable local and state laws and regulations for
agricultural practices.

19
Principle 8: Accountability at all levels of the agricultural environment is
important to a successful food safety program.

There must be qualified personnel and effective monitoring to ensure that all
elements of the program function correctly, and to help track produce back
through the distribution channels to the producer.

20
UNIT 6: IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Irrigation is the process of supplying water to the land by artificial means for
the purpose of growing crops. Basic objectives are to supplement the natural
supply of water to the land so as to obtain an optimum yield from the crop
grown on the land. To achieve this objective there is need for proper planning,
designing construction, operation and maintenance of the various irrigation
works.

Necessity of irrigation
1. There is inadequate rainfall in most parts of the country to achieve optimum
crop yields.
2. Uneven distribution of the rainfall in Zimbabwe call for some supplementary
irrigation
3. Superior crops can be grown

Reasons for irrigation

1. Assurance of production against drought
2. Softening of the land before preparation
3. Application of chemicals and fertilizers is enhanced
4. To keep moisture at adequate levels for plant growth
5. To allow nutrient movement in the plant
6. To cool the soil and atmosphere to make favorable environment and to
prevent frost

Benefits obtained from irrigation

a. There is no water stress from crops so crops yields are increased with
irrigation
b. There is an assured protection from drought
c. Superior (high value) crops can be cultivated
d. Mixed cropping can be eliminated
e. Leads to general prosperity of farmers
f. Increased wealthy of the country
g. Inland navigation is enhanced
h. Increase in ground water storage
i. Overall development of the country (foreign currency, employment creation
and industries)

Ill-effects of irrigation
1. Salinisation of soil if there poor management
2. Disease outbreak of example malaria and bilharzias
3. Erosion and siltation of rivers
4. It creates unhealthy climates, humid and cold climates
5. Waterlogging may result lack of aeration and poor soil structure
6. Weed seed transportation from other places through water

21
IRRIGATION METHODS
Irrigation is concerned with the transferring of water from a conveyance
system of either channels or pipes into the soil within usable range of the plant
roots. Logical possibilities are:
 to run the water so that it infiltrates into the soil
 to pass water into the soil depth until capillary action raises it to the root
zone
 to cause water to fall to the ground in such a way that it does not
damage the plant

Factors to consider when selecting an irrigation method to use

 Water resources: quality, quantity and availability
 Soils and topography: structure of the soil, texture so as to determine the
water holding capacity
 Capital and labour: capital availability for the installation of the system.
Interest rates are also included
 Climate and crops: this helps in the selection of crop patterns
 Energy: electricity needed for pumping the water from the source to the
field
 Social aspects: the intended beneficiary need to be consulted on the
preferable system since any scheme will likely change the behaviour and
norms of the community
 Environment aspects: the likely health hazards and pollution to be
brought about by the scheme are to be considered for example salinity

Types of irrigation
1. Flood irrigation: This is suitable for flatter areas of the country such as
the Lowveld and certain part of the Midlands and Matabeleland. Efficiency is
about 50 - 70%. If well drained and managed properly efficiency can be as high
as 85%. Area under irrigation is 15% of the total area under irrigation.

2. Sprinkler irrigation: Better suited for more undulation and broken

terrain found in Zimbabwe. Efficiency is 70 -80% about 65% of total irrigated
land is under this system. Types of sprinkler irrigation systems are:
Portable system: the pump main line and lateral are portable and the system is
mainly used in tobacco irrigation where there is a lot of rotation. It is suitable
for large area irrigation, establishment of seedbed as for supplementary
irrigation. It is labour intensive
Semi-portable system; plumbing unit is fixed and all some parts of the delivery
or main line are fixed .The system can command upto 4 times the design area
and can be used for supplementary irrigation
Permanent system or solid set: consists of a fixed pumping point and buried or
fixed delivery and main lines. The only movable parts are the risen and the
sprinklers. High initial cost and electricity are desirous as they are a power
source

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3. Drip /trickle irrigation
This is the slow frequent system generally precise application of water directly
to the plant through devices known as emitters drippers

Advantages:
 It is water saving. Only small areas around the plant are watered with
precise water amounts. Water is saved by decreasing evaporation, runoff
and deep percolation
 There is decreased weed growth because of the limited wetted area
 Fertility control –precise water control and limited area allows the
injection of fertilisers and chemicals directly into the irrigation water.
 There are no surface flows and as a result there is limited surface erosion
 There is salinity control –with frequent irrigation more salts are driven
to the perimeter of the wetted pattern and salinity levels are reduced
 It is labour saving and generally gives rise to higher yields
 Fertigation is possible

Disadvantages:
 Maintenance requirements are relatively high. There is need of proper
design , installation and operation of the systems
 Emitters can be clogged by particles in water
 High initial costs- there is high initial costs of installation and as a result
high value crops are only recommended

Basic components of a drip system

 Pump: forces water to enter the systems. The pump consists of an
impeller, inlet and an outlet
 Main lines: delivers water to the sub-main. Material for the main line is
usually PVC
 Sub-main: delivers water to the laterals .the material can be PVC,
asbestos or aluminum
 Irrigation valve: these are put in each plot and are opened when one
wants to irrigate
 Filters: there are 3 types of filters - sand or gravel filters
-screen filters
-disc filters
Sand filters used whenever the water contains silt, suspended solids or
algae. Screen and disc filters are used for dirty water
 Laterals: deliver water to the emitters and are usually placed along plant
rows
 Emitters/dippers: placed in laterals and spaced per crop to be irrigated.
There are 3 types of emitters;
o Water seeps continuously along the lateral
o Water drips or sprays from along the lateral
o Water drips or sprays from holes along the laterals

Emitters can vary in design:

 simple orifices
23
  long flow paths
 pressure compensating emitters. The emitter discharges remains almost
constant over a range of operating pressure
 non-pressure compensating emitters

Water treatment for drip irrigation

The most discouraging factor arising from drip irrigation is clogging of
emitters. Emitters have small orifice so clean water is always required if the
emitters are to continue operating.. Water should therefore be treated to
remove impurities.

Causes of clogging
Emitter clogging is attributed to:
Physical impurities include sand, silt, plastic chips and metal flakes
Chemical causes include precipitation of iron and other salts such as calcium
carbonates
Biological impurities include growth of algae, bacteria and bacterial
precipitation of sulphur and iron

Prevention of clogging
This can be done through:
 use of settling basins and flotation
 use of screen filters to remove suspended substances
 use of sand filters to remove particles that escape screen filters
 chemical sedimentation of iron in the water before the water enters the
system

EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION AND CONSUMPTIVE USE

These are important factors that are used to estimate irrigation requirement
and planning of irrigation systems.
 Evaporation: Process during which liquid changes into a gas. This is one
of the fundamental components of the hydrological cycle by which
water changes to vapor through the absorption of heat energy.
 Transpiration: Process by which water vapor leaves the living plant
body and enters the atmosphere.
 Evapotranspiration: Denotes the quantity of water lost by plants during
their growth plus the moisture evaporated from the surface of the soil
and vegetation.
 Potential evapotranspiration: Defined as evapotranspiration from a large
vegetation covered land surface with adequate moisture at all times or
this can be evapotranspiration from actively growing short green
vegetation completely shading the ground and never short of moisture
availability
 Seasonal consumptive use: This is the total amount of water used in
evapotranspiration by a cropped area during the entire growing season.
Seasonal consumptive use values are required to evaluate and determine
the seasonal irrigation water supplies.

24
  Peak period consumptive use: Is the average daily water use during the
few days of highest consumptive use of the season. This is the design
rate to be used in planning an irrigation system.

EVAPORATION MEASUREMENT
Evaporation is measured by an instrument called evaporometer. Example of
an evaporometer is the Standard US class A Pan

Standard US class A pan

This is the mostly used evaporometer because the rate at which it permits
evaporation closely relates to that of a large open water surface such as a lake.
Measurements of the rate of evaporation from the pan must be representative
of the evaporative conditions in the cropped area to which scheduling is
required.

Construction of the pan

The class pan consists of a circular open topped tank with an outside diameter
of 1,207m and a depth of 0,254m inner and outer surfaces are painted black and
aluminum respectively it is mounted on 2 courses of concrete or timber blocks
which are called slates to allow air movement beneath the pan. The pan is
covered by a wire gauze to prevent birds and other animals from drinking the
water.

Sitting the pan

The evaporation pan should be positioned where:
 conditions are similar in terms of air movement
 it should be away from tall buildings and trees
 the grass around it should be short

Maintenance of the pan

 cut the grass around the pan to a radius of about 15 m
 clear out cut grass and dirty from under the slab slates to allow free air
movement
 birds and animals should not be allowed to drink from the pan.
 keep the screen over the pan at all times
 the pan should be emptied, thoroughly cleaned and refilled at monthly
intervals.
 the pan should be painted silver (or aluminum) outside and bituminous
black paint on the inside including the floor.
 water level should be maintained between 50 and 75 cm from the top of
the pan.
 frogs, algae and leaves should be removed from the pan.

Basic principles of the evaporation pan

When an open surface of water is exposed to the weather elements a certain
amount of water evaporates each day. The amount is not constant but varies
from day to day according to the conditions prevailing at that particular day.
Transpiration from the stoma of the leaves in many respects are similar to

25
water which evaporates from an open space. It is certainly subject to similar
effects of the prevailing weather conditions. Therefore the daily rate of
evaporation measured in a place has some core relation to the water used or
transpired by the crop. To establish evapotranspiration in the early stages of
plant growth approximately ¼ to 1/3 evaporation from a pan. As the plant
develops, leaf area increases and the transpiration rate increases. After this
peak the evapotranspiration rate decreases. The ET/EO is expressed as a
decimal; therefore a crop factor of 0.5 indicates that at this stage of plant
growth the crop is using half the daily evaporation measured from the open
surface. By multiplying the daily evaporation by the relevant crop factor one
will get the moisture lost by the crop on that day.

Daily evaporation x crop factor =crop water use

Operating the evaporation pan

The pan should operate with the reading ranging approximately between 50
and 75. When the day‘s rainfall exceeds evaporation the pan level would rise .
If it exceeds the 45 mm mask water must be removed from the pan and water
level reset at about 50 mm. This is important because the rate of evaporation is
affected if the water level is very high it is 45 mm and below.

Water level adjustments in the pan

If the water level gets to 75 mm or less than 45 mm it becomes necessary to add
water or remove water from the pan during evaporation observation. Take the
readings before and after adding or removing water to the pan. This referred to
as r1 reading. Another reading should be taken after adding and removing
water. This should be referred to as i2 reading.

Crop water requirements

Crop water requirements are needed for planning, designing and operation of
irrigation projects.
Definition: The depth of water required to meet the water loss through
evaporation of a disease free crop growing in a large field under unrestricted
soil conditions including soil water and fertility and achieving full production
potential under given growing environment

In calculating crop water requirements a 3-stage procedure is considered:

 Effect of climate on crop water requirements
 Effect of crop characteristics on crop water requirements
 Effect of local conditions on crop water requirements

Effect of climate on crop water requirements

This is given by the reference to evapotranspiration. For design purposes take
the 1/5 driest year in 20 years. To ensure that the design will not work only
once.

26
Effect of crop characteristics on crop water requirements
This is given by the crop coefficient (kc). The kc varies with the stage of crop
growth and the growing season. The correlation between open pan (Oe) and
evapotranspiration (ET) for different crops follows a regular pattern which is
generalised curve of Et/Eo ratio relate to plan growth.

Effect of local conditions and agricultural practices

These include local effects of variation in climate altitude and size of fields.
Accuracy and reliability of crop water requirements result depends on accuracy
and reliability of method used.

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING USING CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

This method is a guide to irrigation scheduling

How much to apply

Net depth of application = root zone x total moisture available x % depletion

Gross depth of application= net depth of application/ efficiency

When to apply
Frequency (days) = net depth of application
Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is the daily evaporation in mm/day and this given by Eto x

kc

Example: Calculation of the frequency of irrigation and amount of water to apply

A farmer wishes to arrive at a suitable frequency and depth of irrigation for a wheat
crop at booting stage grown in a coarse sandy loam soil.
Total available moisture= 13% of rooting zone
Rooting zone = 6000mm
Depletion% =50%
Crop factor = 0.5
Daily evaporation =5mm

Answer:
Total available moisture =13/100.6000mm =78mm
Irrigate when moisture is at 50% depletion =50/100 x 78mm =39mm
Daily water use by the crop =crop factor .daily evaporation
=0,5 x 5mm
=2,5mm
Days allowed for the crop to deplete 39mm water=39/2,5 =16 days
The crop therefore requires an application of 39mm of water on the 16th day. The cycle
or frequency is 16 days. 39 mm is the net figure an allowance must be made for
efficiency. The efficiency for sprinkler is 80%
So the depth of application = 39 x 100
80
=48,75mm

27
Therefore, from the above information we are supposed to irrigate 49mm at every 16th
day from the previous irrigation

PAN CORRECTION AT DIFFERENT GROWTH STAGES

Emergence to early growth 0,3 to 0,5
During vegetation growth 0,5 to 0,8
During flowering 1,0 to 0,8
During wet fruit stage 0,8 to 0,6
During dry fruit stage 0,6 to 0,0

ESTIMATED AVAILABLE MOISTURE ACCORDING TO SOIL TEXTURE

Textural class available moisture expressed as a % of soil depth
Coarse sand 4-7
Fine sand
Coarse loamy sand

Fine loamy sand 10-13

Fine sandy clay loam 15-20

Clay loam

Sandy clay loam 12-17

Sandy clay
Clay

Heavy clay 17-23

MOISTURE EXTRACTION DEPTHS

Crop Moisture extraction depth
Vegetables 300
Potatoes 500-600
Maize 600-800
Sorghum 600-800
Soyabeans 600-800
Fruit trees 800
Tobacco 900
Cotton 900
Groundnuts 900
Lucerne 1200

Example 2
Crop to be irrigated is soyabeans at the UZ farm. Assuming that the root depth is
700mm and that is at a flowering stage. The crop is established on a clay loam. The
irrigation efficiency is 75%
Calculate the irrigation schedule.
1 soil water available in the root zone =15/100 x 700 =105mm
2 net amount of water required by cycle = % depletion x Dnet
=105 x 50/100 = 52,2 mm
3 daily water requirements of the crop in mm= crop factor x daily evaporation
=1,0 x 5,1 =5,1mm
4 length of irrigation cycle in days =52,5/5,1=10,29
=10 days

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UNIT 7: FINANCING OF AGRICULTURE IN ZIMBABWE

Agriculture contributes over 30% of Zimbabwe‘s GDP. The bulk of this comes
from farming activities by commercial farmers. Traditionally, farmers have
depended on financial institutions to get financing for their farming operations.
This, however, changed with the advent of the land reform and the economic
challenges that ensued afterwards.

Brief history of Agribank, THE LAND BANK

AGRIBANK is the successor of the Agricultural Finance Co-operation (AFC).
The AFC was established in 1924 by an act of parliament to provide finance to
the large-scale agricultural sector. In 1978 the AFC service was extended to the
small scale-farming sector on a test basis through the provision of the
Smallscale Credit Statutory Instrument. The same Instrument was used to
extend the AFC service to the communal areas in 1979. At independence the
AFC expanded its services to the communal areas and resettlement areas with
government acting as guarantee. In 2000 the AFC was transformed to a
commercial bank (AGRIBANK). The transformation into a bank saw the
organization shedding its smallholder finance portfolio to the Agricultural
Development Assistance Fund (ADAF). Currently the bank is undergoing
transformation to turn it into a land bank

Lending Policy
The bank‘s policy is to provide banking services to the general public, farmers,
industry and commerce. Application forms are available from all AGRIBANK
offices. No application fees are charged but the applicant must be an account
holder with AGRIBANK. AGRIBANK has offices in all the major centers.
Normally the loan is granted or denied within three weeks of submitting the
application form.

Types of Loans
The Land Bank operated a variety of loans mainly funded by the Government
to buttress the land reform. In 2004 the Government unveiled about 3 billion
worth of loans to farmers through the bank at an interest rate of first 20%
(compared to the then prevailing commercial interest rates of over 250%). In
2005 the Government is providing loans of about $7 trillion at interests of 5%
and 20%. The loans are crop specific - covering tobacco, maize, wheat and
cotton. Loans are also available for structural developments - mainly irrigation.
The farmers have to apply giving detailed gross margins and cash flows.
Below are the same of the loans categories available:
 A1 Farmers are given a minimum of $2 million at 20% interest rate for a
1 year loan and the total amount s due a year later from the date of the
loan grant.
 A2 farmers a detailed project proposal and the farmer is required to
have some form of collateral. The loan application is only approved after
a farm visit when the bank has assessed the project‘s ability to repay the
loan. The loan attracts 20% interest rate and needs to be repaid after a
year.

29
  Commercial farmers security/ collateral is a requirement and the
interest rate charged are market related (RBZ minimum lending rate
plus a margin). Currently this is over 200%. The farmer has to have an
account with the bank and the loan is approved after submission of
project proposal

Loan criteria for Farmers

Applicant must have access to land
 Applicant must be an adult i.e. over 18 years of age, as anyone below
cannot enter legal contract
 The project must be viable and show capacity to repay the loan
 The project should suit the ecological region
 The applicant should have relevant experience or experienced employee
to run the project
 The applicant should have some form of equity e.g. equipment, money
 The applicant ideally should have a track record
 Credit searches should yield positive report about applicant
 Normally a citizen of Zimbabwe or ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe

Loan Repayment Problems

 Farmers who fail to repay loans because of the following:
 Poor planning resulting in large discrepancies between projected income
and income with actual expenditure and income especially in hyper
inflationary environment
 Management related problems e.g. lack of commitment or loss of
qualified staff
 Problematic circumstances e.g. drought, problems in timely sourcing of
inputs, fuel shortages
 Willful defaulters e.g. those who use income for other purposes before
repaying the loan
Bank’s recourse
 The bank will refuse to offer further credit to the defaulter
 The bank will ask for credit repayment proposals that are acceptable to it
 Bank will engage someone to conduct liquidation of assets through
public auction as last result

The Agricultural Development Assistance Fund (ADAF)

ADAF is a fund set up by the government under the Audit and Exchequer Act
(Chap.22.03) to administer agricultural credit to smallholder farmers. Whether
ADAF is still very functional is debatable, owing to its functions being
swallowed by mainline AGRIBANK. It operates three types of schemes:
 Individual Lending-Individuals with viable agricultural proposals in the
small scale sector are assisted with loans to start farming projects or
expand existing ones to increase production.
 Group Lending-Groups comprising of 5 to 15 smallholder farmers living
in the same locality, bound by a group constitution, operating a group
saving account and with similar project interests can be given a loan to

30
 carry out projects of their choice. The group will have joint liability on
the group loan granted
 Linkage Programme-Under this scheme ADAF lends money to NGOs or
Micro-finance Institution (MFI) for on lending to farmers or groups
identified by the NGOs or MFI. The NGO or MFI will be the ADAF
client and will act as a financial intermediary for the groups, monitoring
their activities and collecting loan repayments from them. The NGO/
MFI gets a negotiable interest rate margin from ADAF but has to
provide a bank guarantee or surety ship.

Other Schemes:
 National Farmer Irrigation Schemes- This facility is for the development
of irrigation schemes in the smallholder sector. It funds the drilling of
boreholes, pump and pipe purchases and other items related to
irrigation in-field works. The loans are given for a period of 2-10 years
and 20 years for dam construction. Interest rates are usually very low.
 Rural Input Supply Scheme- This scheme enables rural enterprises to
establish rural outlets for stocking of agric. Inputs such as seed,
fertilizers, chemicals etc for sale to farmers. Such outlets should be
established at rural service centers
 Rural Small Scale Agro-Industrial Scheme- Provides finance for the
establishment of rural agric. Enterprises that include rural-based agro-
industries such as oil expression, grinding mills, manufacturing and
repair of agric. Equipment e.g. ploughs

Types of Loans:
 Short Term- Repayable over a maximum term of one and half years for
farm inputs for the production of crops and livestock
 Medium Term- Repayable over a period of two to five years for
purchase of livestock, agricultural machinery and equipment, tractors
etc

Other players in Agricultural financing

1. Banks
Other banks such as ZIMBANK Jewel Bank, Barclays, Trust Bank etc also have
agribusiness units that finance farmers but the rates charged are the
commercial rates
2. Input Suppliers by Commodity Buyers and Forward Contractors
COTTCO, GMB, Paprika Zimbabwe, Tobacco Growers Trust etc will supply
the farmer with finance in the form of inputs and in return the farmer is
expected to sale the commodity to the commodity buyer who will then recover
the cost of inputs. Many of these have targeted the small-scale sector, which has
led to growth e.g. produces 60% maize and 70% cotton. This has not been a
popular sector to finance for a number of reasons.
3. Non-Governmental Organization – these mainly support the vulnerable
groups in communal and smallholder communities. Financing comes in the
form of humanitarian assistance.

31
Strategies for sustainable credit provision in the smallholder sector:
 Link credit to productivity (3 yr average)
 Disburse credit in trunches
 Advance credit in the form of inputs
 Involve all stakeholders in the community e.g. chiefs, headman,
businessmen, councilors, ZFU, ZCFU, AREX etc
 Closely monitor and provide extension as often as possible
 Ensure that recipients are not producing at subsistence levels or will be
unable to repay
 Encourage group lending and provide incentives to group leaders.

Calculation of loan repayment rate

F=P (1+r)n where

F is the amount that is to be repaid

P is the principal borrowed
r is the interest rate
n is the numbers of years over which the loan is to be repaid

32
UNIT 8: TOBACCO PRODUCTION

Introduction
Zimbabwe used to be the largest producer of Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacuum)
but it is now second to Brazil. Zimbabwe produce stop quality flue cured
tobacco. Best quality tobacco is produced in low attitudes with rainfall between
500-700mm per annum.

Soils ideal for tobacco

Most suitable soils for flue-cured tobacco are the light textured sands to sandy
loams which are deep and permeable and also have a good surface drainage.
The crop do on a wider range of soils provided the limitations of those soils are
known and appropriate measures are taken to overcome them. Heavy textured
soils may have excessive amounts of water in some seasons and when dry they
require much more water than the lighter soils for water planting. The crop is
also sensitive to water logging thus poorly drained soils should be avoided, for
example vleis.

Land preparation
Early land preparation and late land preparation can both be done. Early
ploughing can be done in February-March and late ploughing can be done
soon after first rains in July-October. Soil texture is an important factor in
determining whether early or late land preparation can be done. As a general
guide, more fertile soils and heavier textured soils are best ploughed late. This
is because they contain excessive amounts of nitrogen. Early ploughing:-before
the end of the rains (February- March) when the soil is still moist should be
practised whenever possible usually on high –textured soils. Early ploughing
has the following advantages:
(a) Lower costs of draught power, reduced wear and tear, low maintenance and
repair costs.
(b) There is greater uniformity of land preparation.
(c) There is greater moisture conservation.
(d) Early and uniform decomposition of organic matter, therefore readily
available nitrogen at planting.
Late ploughing:-when ploughing is done from July onwards. This is
recommended for more fertile and heavier soils because early ploughing in
these soils will promote early release of nitrogen late ploughing when the soil is
dry allows little decomposition of organic matter before the following seasons
less nitrogen is therefore available at planting.

Seedlings production
The production of healthy tobacco seedlings is one of the main foundations for
successful crop. The purpose of seedbed work is to grow sufficient seedlings of
a required size and quality in order to fulfill the planting out programme. The
tobacco seedlings are produced in seedbeds for about 3 months. The seedbeds
facilitate easy detection of diseases and pests and their subsequent control. It
also facilitates weed control through seedbed fumigation.

33
Note: Seedbed float systems are being used also these days which have
advantages in that they require less labour, less land area and also less costs.

Seedbed hygiene
Certain precautions must be taken against spreading diseases in the seedbed.
These include:
1. Before entering the seedbed all personnel must wash the hands in soap and
running water.
2. All tools must be immensed in 1:25 solution formalin at the start of the
season and thereafter kept at the seedbed site.
3. No smoking, taking snuff or chewing tobacco should be allowed in the
seedbed sites. Most preferable is to take seedbed workers who do not partake
any of these.
4. Workers should be provided with overalls devoid of pockets.
5. Seedlings should be handled with care, as little as possible.
6. The gates to the seedbed site should be kept locked at all times and no
unauthorised person admitted.
7. A footbath should be provided at the entry point.
8. Seedbed area should be away from tobacco bushes.

SEEDBED AREA
This should be 75-90m2 and this is enough for 1 ha. Each bed is 1x 30 m, so
there are 3 beds per hectare.

IDEAL SEEDLING CHARACTERISTICS

 It should have a stem length of 15-17 cm (from root to bud)
 It should be 6-10 mm thick (pencil thickness)
 It should have 8-10 leaves. More than this will result in flowering.
 It should be disease-free and also free from insect damage.
 It must have a strong vigorous root system that has been carefully
removed from the seedbed and protected from desiccation -It should
have no damaged growing points.
 It should be well hardened. The seedling should not break when rolled
round one‘s finger.
 Uniform seedlings must be selected.

FUMIGATIONS
The purposes of fumigating the seedbed are to control nematodes and to kill
soil pests and weeds that may be in the seedbed. It is recommended to irrigate
to a depth of 60 cm or more a week before fumigation so as to activate dormant
weed seed and pathogenic organisms.

Soil fumigants usually used for control of nematodes are:

a. Methyl Bromide-this controls broad-leaved weeds, grasses, nematodes, soil
insects and several soil fungi including Anthracnose. It is now being phased
out because it has been found to travel in the soil. Methyl Bromide can be
applied from sealed canister from large cylinders or from the hot gas method.

34
b. 1.3D + Nitac-controls nematodes, soil insects and some fungi. It greatly
reduces the number of broad leaved weeds and grass. This is used with the
injector gun.
c. Ethylene Dibromide- controls nematodes.

FERTILIZER APPLICATION IN SEEDBED

As a guideline apply compound S or tobacco fertilizer at the rate of 1 kg per 7-
11 m2. Broadcast the fertilizer and incorporate it into top 5 cm by use of a rake.
Top dress:-when seedlings are 1-2 cm in diameter apply 10-20g/m2 Nitrate of
soda Calcium. Nitrate can also be used.

ROTATIONS
An ideal rotation should:-
 maintain and improve fertility.
 minimise soil erosion.
 suppress harmful nematodes .Most important in Zimbabwe is
Meloidogyne javanica.
Tobacco should not be grown in the same piece of land for more than once in 4
years.
Examples of rotations are:
- Tobacco/grass /grass /grass.
- Tobacco /maize /maize /maize.
- Tobacco /maize /maize /maize /grass.

PLANT POPULATION AND YIELDS

Plant population of tobacco is determined by the spacing between ridges and
on the ridge. The different plant populations also induce worked charges in the
quality of tobacco produced. Very close spacing will reduce the size of plants
and individual leaves. The tobacco will be thinner, paler in colour, lighter
bodied and will have lower nicotine content than where wider spacing are
used. The recommended ridge spacing is 1.2m.
- The spacing between plants on the same ridge is 54-60 cm
- The plant population therefore will be 14 500 plants per hectare and these will
give yields of 2 700-3 300 kg/ha.

GRADING
The purpose of grading is to separate the leaves into individual leaves. The leaf
is graded according to position, colour, quality, size and length. Grading starts
before the crop is planted and any factor which contributes to the style and
quality of the leaves before they arrive at the grading table will affect grading.
Grading is affected by:
 Land selection – (soil type) Different soil types will give different leaf
types. So reapings are done according to soil types.
 Land preparation –A uniform ploughing tilth. Poor land preparation
may complicate the leaf grades.
 Even seedlings ---Select even seedlings at transplanting and also ensure
that they are raised evenly in the seedbed.

35
  Fumigation –Uniform applications, correct placing of fertilizer at
uniform depth will ensure that grades are maintained.
 Weed control –This must be good and uniform to ensure good grades.
 Topping and sucker control – Must be good and timely. Stick to
recommendations for the different varieties and use of chemicals.
 Reaping – The reaping should be even and ensure that ripe leaves are
harvested.
 Curing – Aim to achieve a uniform cure to reduce a number of grades by
correctly following the curing procedure.

HARVESTING AND CURING

There are several points you should keep in mind for a quality cured leaf. First,
the decision must be made whether to cleanup primings or leave them in the
field. If you elect to harvest primings, harvest when the leaves appear greenish-
yellow in colour. Lower stalk tobacco contains more moisture on a percentage
basis than the upper stalk tobacco. Therefore, the primings should be harvested
when the leaf is dry. One way to ensure an acceptable leaf for sale is to hand-
harvest the lower leaves. Hand harvesting causes less damage to the tobacco
and there is less foreign material (such as sand and sucker) in the cured
tobacco. Properly hand-harvested tobacco may require very little market
preparation labour compared with machine-harvested primings that often
contain so much sand, that shaking and removal of the foreign matter are
required before you can get a reasonable price.

When to Harvest
Care should be taken when harvesting drought stressed tobacco. The middle
and butts of the tobacco leaf will appear to be ripe according to colour. But
actually, the leaf has not fully matured. Let the leaves stay in the field rather
than trying to colour them in the barn. But if this type of tobacco is harvested
remember to maintain moisture levels in the curing barn high and keep dry
bulb temperatures just above (3-5 degrees F) outside temperatures. Once the
leaf has yellowed then raise temperature fast enough to fix colour and start
drying the leaf.

Container Loading
Since the introduction of the bulk curing barns, there have been problems with
properly loading the bulk containers. It is difficult to get labour to load
containers uniformly. When packing containers, make sure there are no air
tunnels or packed lumps of tobacco. Spread tobacco evenly over the entire
container as it is being filled. Lumps or wads of tobacco cause tight spots and
the tobacco will not cure properly. Fill the corners and edges of bulk containers
first and pack slightly more then the center. Unless there is uniform airflow to
all leaves in the container, there will be leaves or pockets of leaves that do not
cure.

The type and condition of the tobacco determines to a large extent how tight
the tobacco can be packed in bulk containers. Primings and lugs, if harvested,
should not be packed at all. Just enough tobacco to fill the containers will result

36
in the best cures. Good quality, upper stalk, dry tobacco can be packed to a
density of 15 lb/cu. ft. and get good results. Remember that the density of
tobacco may increase from morning to afternoon. Tobacco is usually turgid
(swollen with moisture) in the morning, but it may be completely wilted in the
afternoon. Do not pack wilted tobacco as tightly as turgid tobacco. Containers
should fit snugly together so air does not pass between them. A board or other
materials should be used to block air movement between the doors and the
outside container.

Guide for Bulk Curing

Curing develops and preserves the potential quality, flavor and aroma of
tobacco. Once the tobacco is in the curing barn, a concerted effort to bring the
tobacco to a brilliant colour (lemon orange) should be made. Once the desired
colour is achieved, dry out the leaf to preserve that colour. Colour is important.
It indicates the degree of chemical changes that have taken place, and is used as
an index of leaf quality. It is estimated that 75 percent of the market value of
the leaf is based on the colour. Closely monitor tobacco throughout the curing
process to check on temperature, humidity, and condition of tobacco. Look
through observation ports at periodic intervals to check the wet-bulb, dry-bulb
thermometer and the colour changes taking place. Place the wet-bulb, dry-bulb
thermometer under the tobacco near an observation port so it will not be
necessary to open the doors.

Firing Up:
Close air intake dampers before heater is turned on. Turn heater on and raise
temperature to yellowing range gradually. Temperature should not be raised
more than 5 degrees F at any one jump. Allow about 30 minutes between
temperature rises to provide time for curing air to become humid.

Yellowing:
Yellow at a dry-bulb temperature of 95 degrees to 105 degrees F and wet-bulb
of 93 degrees to 97 degrees F. To maintain high humidity and prevent colour
setting before it is desired, dampers should be almost closed. Maximum drying
short of colour setting is desirable; however, for fuel economy and for the best
cure. Dampers should, therefore be "cracked" open to the maximum extent
short of colour setting, especially when using boxes. Venting or moisture
removal during yellowing will aid air movement through the boxes during leaf
drying. Tobacco that is sappy or high in moisture requires considerably more
moisture removal before colour setting than does droughty or low moisture
tobacco.

Leaf Drying:
Raise dry bulb temperature slowly, 1 degree per hour to 118 degrees F then 2
degrees per hour to 135 degrees F. Leaf drying is the most critical period of the
cure. Time is required for moisture removal to keep up with temperature
increases. If tobacco gets too hot, water scalding or sweating will occur.
Ventilation of outside air into the barn should increase during this stage of
curing to maintain proper wet-bulb temperature. When the curing temperature
is raised above 118 degrees F, the dampers should be open enough to hold wet-
37
bulb down to 100 degrees F. The more the dampers are opened, the lower will
be the wet-bulb temperature. Keep dampers open enough to hold wet-bulb
temperature of 100 degrees to 105 degrees F throughout leaf drying (100
degrees F for the first 24 hours and 105 degrees F for the final stages). For
diseased or extra thin tobacco, a lower wet bulb (90 degrees to 100 degrees F)
may produce a brighter cure.
Wet-bulb temperature is the same as the leaf temperature until the leaf has
dried. The leaf cell breaks down and browning or scalding occurs at a leaf
temperature of 113 degrees F. Thus, the wet-bulb temperature should never be
allowed to exceed 110oF until the leaf lamina is completely dry.

Stem Drying:
Raise temperature gradually for stem drying. After leaf is essentially dry,
temperature should be raised gradually (2 degrees to 3 degrees F per hour) to
165 degrees F for stem drying without sponging or scalding.
Close dampers gradually during stem drying. Maintain damper opening
sufficient to hold wet-bulb temperature down to 110 degrees F during the first
12 to 18 hours of stem drying. Dampers are usually closed completely about the
time the leaf is completely dry and the temperature has reached 165 degrees F.
Do not exceed 165 degrees F during stem drying. Sugars caramelize and leaves
turn red at excessively high temperatures. The following temperature schedule
(dry-bulb, wet-bulb) should prove effective with normal, good quality tobacco.
The time can change according to the condition of the tobacco when it begins
the cure. Factors which affect time required for curing in certain phases are
maturity of tobacco, stalk position of the leaf, the use of ripening agents and
weather condition at harvest.

38
UNIT 9: PRINCIPLES OF GRAZING AND VELD MANAGEMENT

Overview
The principles of veld management can be divided between those that relate to
animals and those that relate to vegetation. The principles that relate to animals
include:
 Stocking at a rate to balance the productivity capacity of the land so that
neither the herbage is wasted nor the rangeland is destroyed;
 Controlling the kinds of animals using the range as they have varying
feeding habits and influences on their habitat and different values for
man.
 Distributing animals over the range for proper range utilisation as heavy
concentrations in localised areas can cause overgrazing ,deterioration of
the vegetation and soil erosion
 Moving animals according to the seasonal production of herbage plants
and their capability to withstand grazing so as to allow regeneration of
plant growth and reseeding.
The principles that relate to vegetation include:
 Eliminating or suppressing undesirable plant species by proper grazing
management and bush control particularly with the judicious use of fire
 Seeding improved forage species to supplement those existing in natural
vegetation
 Fertilising to correct soil deficiencies
 Practising soil conservation and to control water and erosion
 Grazing management refers to the care and handling of livestock on the
range. It is mainly concerned with the selection of livestock and their
distribution so as to utilise the forage in a particular area effectively.

ANIMAL FEEDING PREFERENCES

We can divide animals into different groups depending on their feeding
preferences for grazing or browse. We refer to them as ;
 Grazers (those that predominantly graze on the grass and forbs in the
herbaceous ground layer.
 Browsers (those that predominantly browse on the shoots and twigs of
woody plants)
 Mixed feeders (those that feed on both grazing and browsing material)
Under stress the animals may be forced to look at alternative sources of feed to
their preferred grazing or browsing.
Depending on their selectivity and the amount they eat we can also
differentiate between:
 Area selective feeding
 Species selective feeding
 Baulk feeders
 Mixed feeders(generally showing only a certain amount of selective
feeding)
 Concentrate feeders (those that generally require high quality diets but
relatively small in amounts)

39
In addition to area selection the animals may or may not be not be highly
selective to the species of plants or the plant parts they feed on and this may
vary at different times of the year. This can enable the animals the quality of the
grass they wish to consume.

FEEDING TIMES
The times animals spent feeding and resting or ruminating may vary
considerably depending on the condition in which they find themselves – in
hot weather, animals may be more inclined to feeding during the cooler times
of the day and night and in times of food shortage or in poor quality they may
spend much longer looking for food and feeding than when there is plenty or
high quality foods.

Access to water and feeding grass may have an effect on the time animals have
for foraging. If water is far away, animals may go up to three days between
each watering, but performance suffers due to the need to walk between water
and feeding area. Sheep and goats can cope better with water being available
less often than cattle –nonetheless if water is not readily available animal
performance suffers.

PRINCIPLES OF GRAZING MANAGEMENT

Stocking Rate
The single most important factor affecting sustained productivity in an area is
stocking rate as it affects productivity and stability of the veld ,the closeness
and frequency of grazing as well as the amount of feed available to each and
therefore also animal performance. Stocking rate is defined as the number of
animals that the farmer has allocated to a grazing area for the entire grazing
season. In general terms the higher the stocking rate the lower the individual
animal performance. However, up to certain level of productivity per hectare
production may increase first before declining.

It has been found that over a range of stocking rates that their is a linear
response in terms of individual animal performance to stocking rate over the
grazing season- as the stocking rate increases individual animal performance
declines. With respect to productivity per hectare, for corresponding increases
in stocking rates, there is an initial increase in productivity per hectare which
reaches a peak and then declines.
At light stocking rates, often animal performance reaches a plateau –the reason
for this is that there is abundance of grass which can become rank and of
poorer quality thereby affecting individual animal performance. At heavier
stocking rates, individual animal performance is affected by a shortage in
quantity of feed rather than the quality and this affects animal performance.

At low stocking pressure, feed availability is limiting but quality is not at high
stocking pressure feed availability is not limiting but quality.
Generally, maximum individual animal performance is achieved at a fairly
light stocking rate whilst maximum productivity per hectare is achieved at a
relatively higher stocking rate. This economic optimum, however, occurs

40
somewhere between these two extremes. For a given situation the three points
will vary between seasons depending on rainfall, prices and out put costs.

The achievement of the appropriate stocking rate ensures that the grazing
capacity for any type of veld is not exceeded. Remember: the grazing capacity
is the area of a particular veld type required to carry out one livestock for the
full grazing season without deterioration of the veld and with sustainable
optimum animal production under good management. As a rough guide a
farmer should stock at a stocking rate which will lead to the achievement of
maximum individual livestock gains- this is close to maximum gross margin
per hectare and does not lead to overgrazing through overstocking.

NB stocking rate should not be confused with stocking density which is the
instantaneous stocking rate in a grazing area at a particular instant in time.
Similarly, with stocking intensity which is the degree of utilisation that a sward
receives over a relatively short period of time.
It is critical that the setting of a stocking rate is within the grazing capacity of
the veld type in its present condition – if it is above, we run the risk of
overgrazing and if below of undergrazing and if below of undergrazing .
Remember, that the stocking rate is a function of management whilst grazing
capacity is function of sward.
Land capability will help to determine grazing capacity. In Zimbabwe, there
are defined eight land use capability classes.
The broadly recommended range of potential grazing capacities of the different
natural regions and land use capability classes is shown. At each of the sites the
factors influencing grazing capacity include:
 Dominant grass species (affects inherent productivity)
 Dominant tree species (affects inherent productivity and browse value)
 Degree of coppicing and bush encroachment (affects growth at ground
level.
 Climate (rainfall especially determine potential level of productivity)
 Soil characteristics (texture, structure, fertility, wetness, depth)
 Slope (determines erosion hazard)
 Aspect determines plant orientation to the sun)
 Rockiness (affects space for plant growth)
 Poisonous plants determine when and where animals may graze at
different times of the year
 Wildlife, insects, harvester termites etc
 Fire which affects crop growth
 Method of utilisation and pad docking system (affects regrowth
potential)
 Present condition
Remember the stocking rate chosen should always be within the current
grazing capacity of the veld to avoid overgrazing.

TOP HAMPER CONTROL

In order for plants to grow most efficiently their leaves, tillers ,buds and
seedlings should not be shaded out by old and morbid material which would
41
cause the death of the plants. The accumulation is not only due to the use of
inappropriate stocking intensities but also to the natural selectivity of grazing
animals .This is more critical with taller tufted plants than shorter or
stoloniferous (runner) plants and with perennial rather than veld species
.However, it is undesirable to allow low quality top hamper (excessive canopy
cover impeding sunlight and resulting in shading of lower parts of the plants)
to build up at the expense of growth of higher quality material. It should be
remembered that low quality material affects forage intake especially when
protein levels drop below a certain level. When discussing the removal of top
hamper , the term proportional is used instead of equal utilisation because ,
depending on the seasonal effect and the situation of the of the main growth
reserves in the plant, grass species will respond to defoliation differently . What
we want is greater removal of the foliage from larger more vigorous plants and
less from the smaller less vigorous plants rather than equal from each plant.
Possibly the best balance between forage accumulation and forage intake is that
at which animals just maximise intake during the growing season, the poorer
quality material being supplemented if necessary in the dry season.

If proportional utilisation can be achieved the removal of top hamper is

facilitated ; unfortunately this is seldom the case as grasses of different species
are usually of different palatability or preference to livestock and even the same
species grown in different situation may be of different palatability and
preference. The uneven utilisation tends to develop over time. This
development of top hamper can be controlled in the following ways:
During veld management planning , plan to fence in similar veld types as far as
possible (this allows for managing grazing types according to their
requirements). Through the use of appropriate stocking stocking intensities
(stock densities and periods of use) at different times of the year
Through the use of artificially high stocking densities in localised areas for very
short spaces of time e.g. by moving salt licks in the moribund areas
Through the use an occasional cool (late afternoon /evening) fire before the
first rains and resting. If fire is used the whole paddock should be burnt to
avoid area selective grazing of burnt areas.
The detrimental effect of top hamper can sometimes be put to good use by
purposefully undergrazing or over resting undesirable grasses thereby
assisting them to become moribund and die. Then, through good management
practices encourage the growth of more desirable or palatable species. This has
been used to good effect where there is an abundance of increaser species;
however, this is unlikely to work with species like Sporobolus pyramids for
which there might be the requirement of fire as well.

42
UNIT 10: SOIL CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION

The soil profile

Soil Profile refers to the layers of soil; horizon A, B, and C. If you're wondering
what horizon A is, here's your answer: horizon A refers to the upper layer of
soil, nearest the surface. It is commonly known as topsoil. In the woods or other
areas that have not been plowed or tilled, this layer would probably include
organic litter, such as fallen leaves and twigs . The litter helps prevent erosion,
holds moisture, and decays to form a very rich soil known as humus. Horizon
A provides plants with nutrients they need for a great life. The layer below
horizon A, of course, has to be horizon B. Litter is not present in horizon B and
therefore there is much less humus. Horizon B does contain some elements
from horizon A because of the process of leaching. Leaching resembles what
happens in a coffee pot as the water drips through the coffee grounds. Leaching
may also bring some minerals from horizon B down to horizon C. If horizon B
is below horizon A, then horizon C must be below horizon B. Horizon C
consists mostly of weatherized big rocks. This solid rock gave rise to the
horizons above it. Soil profiles look different in different areas of the world.
They are affected by climate and other things.

Land Capability Classification

There are several different methods of assessing land capability, each one being
developed with a particular country of region in mind. The British method of
land capability mapping is an adaptation of the US Department of Agriculture
method. It is an assessment of the capability of the land from known
relationships between crop production and management and the physical
factors of soil, topography and climate. It is essentially a negative approach in
which land is graded according to mixed qualitative and quantitative measures
of limitations to land capability. There are seven land capability classes in the
British method. Class 1 has a wide range of uses with few (if any) limitations,
while the remaining six classes suffer from increasingly severe limitations and
are progressively less flexible in the range of their potential land uses. Land
capability subclasses are defined on the basis of one of more permanent or
semi-permanent physical factors that limit production. Each of these subclasses
is denoted by a letter (w, s, g, e, c) attached to the relevant class number (e.g.
2w or 6gs). These are outlined below:

43
Class Description Suitable uses
1 Land with very minor or no physical limitations to use Any, esp. arable
2 Land with minor limitations that reduce the choice of crops and interfere
with cultivations Any, esp. arable
3 Land with moderate limitations that restrict the choice of crops and/or
demand careful management Arable/pasture
4 Land with moderately severe limitations that restrict the choice of crops
and/or require very careful management practices Pasture/arable
5 Land with severe limitations that restrict its use to pasture, forestry and
recreation Pasture/forestry
6 Land with very severe limitations that restrict use to rough grazing,
forestry and Rough pasture/recreation/forestry/rec.
7 Land with extremely severe limitations that cannot be rectified
Recreation only

Subclass limitations:
Wetness (w)
This includes interactions between soil properties, relief and climate resulting
in wet soils which cause problems of delayed spring growth, compaction and
puddling by farm machinery, poor root development, asphyxiation,
denitrification, etc.

Wetness may result from:

1. low permeability (especially in fine textured soils such as clays);
2. impermeable layers (e.g. indurated layers and ironpans);
3. high groundwater table;
4. flushing by springs;
5. flooding from streams and rivers; and
6. high rainfall.

Soil limitations (s)

These include shallowness, stoniness, poor soil texture and structure or
inherent low fertility. Shallow soils can have low available water capacities and
restrict rooting and adequate nutrient uptake. Ploughing may be impractical if
the bedrock is too near the surface. Stony soils affect plant growth and farm
operations depending on the size and number of stones. Stones hinder growth
and machanised harvesting of root crops whilst reducing water capacity and
nutrient uptake depending on their geology. Soil texture and structure affect
drainage and permeability. Water capacity is determined largely by soil texture
(i.e. clay = high and sandy = low). Naturally low soil fertility can be difficult to
correct by management and so is included as a physical limitation.

44
Gradient and soil pattern limitations (g)
Gradient (or slope) has a marked effect on mechanised farming as follows:
Gradient gClass Problems
0-3 Gently sloping (1) None
3-7 Moderately sloping (2) Difficulties with weeders, precision
seeders and some mechanised root crop harvesters
7-11 Strongly sloping (3) Use of combine harvester resiricted
11-15 Moderately steep (4) Limit of use of combine harvester and
of two way ploughing (depending of field configuration)
15-25 Steep (5) Not suitable for arable crops, with
slopes
over 20 being difficult to plough, lime or fertilise
>25 Very steep (6) Mass movement occurs, animal tracks
across slope appear and mechanisation impossible without specialised
equipment

Soil pattern can affect capability in that small and intricate variations can mean
that a mixture of land of poor capability prevents the cultivation or land of
good capability (e.g. variation in soil depth can be marked).

Liability to erosion (e)

Two major forms of erosion are recognised: wind and water. Wind erosion is
prevalent on sandy or light peat soils in exposed conditions, especially when
the vegetation cover is removed. Water erosion includes coastal erosion, sheet,
rill and gully erosion on steep bare slopes (or even gentle slopes after very
heavy rainfall) and river bank erosion.

Climatic limitations (c)

Differences in macroclimate influence land capability. Emphasis is placed on
water balance and temperature during the main part of the growing season (i.e.
April - September) to delinated three climatic groupings defined as:

Group Definition
I R-PT < 100mm and T(x) > 15C
No or only slight climatic limitations imposed on crop growth
II R-PT < 300mm and T(x) > 14C
Moderately unfavourable climate which restricts choice of crops
III R-PT > 300mm or T(x) < 14C
Moderately severe to extremely severe climatic which further
limits the range of crops

where R = average rainfall (mm)

PT = average potential transpiration (mm)
T(x) = long term average of mean daily maximum temperature

45
Assumptions:
The object of the classification is to present the results of soil surveys and
limitations data in a form which is of use to farmers, agricultural advisors,
planners and other land users. There are a number of important assumptions
associated with this method. These are:

1. the classification is primarily for agricultural purposes;

2. land is assessed on its capability under a moderately high level of
management and not necessarily under its present use;
3. land which suffers from limitations that can be removed or reduced at
acceptable cost is graded on the basis of the remaining limitations;
4. the capability classification may be changed by major reclamation
projects which permanently alter previous limitations;
5. within classes soils may differ in their management and fertiliser
requirements but are grouped together because they possess similar limitating
factors (i.e. the classification is not affected by profitability);
6. within specific subclasses are soils with different management
requirements (e.g. in an area classified as 3w the wetness may result from
either slow infiltration or a high water table; each of which require different
management);
7. the system is based on permanent or semi-permanent physical
limitations but where a severe chemical limitation is present this may be
recognised as a soil limitation;
8. distance to markets, road access and farm structure are not considered
although they will affect decisions about land use;
9. the interpretive nature of the system means that new data and/or
knowledge is acquired then the classification may change; and
10. the system is not a soil suitability classification for specific crops (e.g. for
diary farming or forestry) further interpretations of soil maps are required for
such purposes.

Guidelines for the recognition of capability classes:

Class 1 Land with very minor or no physical limitations to use.
Soils are usually well drained, deep (more than 75cm) loams, sandy loams or
silty loams, related humic variants or peat, with good reserves of moisture or
with suitable access for roots to moisture; they are either well supplied with
nutrients or responsive to application of fertilisers. The land is level or gently
sloping (usually less than 3) and climate favourable; altitude below 150m.
Comment: A wide range of crops can be grown and yields are good with
moderate inputs of fertiliser.

Class 2 Land with minor limitations that reduce the choice of crops and
interfere with cultivation.
Subclass Limitations may include, singly or in combination, the effects of:
w moderate or imperfect drainage
s less than ideal rooting depth (not less than 50cm) and/or slightly
unfavourable soil structure and texture
g moderate slopes (not greater than 7)

46
e slight erosion
c slightly unfavourable climate (altitude usually below 230m)
Comment: A wide range of crops can be grown though some root crops and
winter harvested crops may not be ideal choices because of harvesting
difficulties.

Class 3 Land with moderate limitations that restrict the choice of crops
and/or demand careful management.
Subclass Limitations may result from the effects of one or more of the
following:
w imperfect or poor drainage
s restriction in rooting depth (not less than 25cm) and/or unfavourable
structure and texture
g strongly sloping ground (not greater than 11)
e slight erosion
c moderately unfavourable to moderately severe climate (more than
1000mm annual rainfall and altitudes usually below 380m)
Comment: The limitations affect the timing of cultivation and range of crops
which are restricted mainly to grass, cereal and forage crops. Whilst good
yields are possible, limitations are more difficult to correct.

Class 4 Land with moderately severe limitations that restrict the choice of
crops and/or require very careful management practices.
Subclass Limitations are due to the effects of one or more of the following:
w poor drainage difficult to remedy and/or occasionally damaging floods
s shallow and/or very stony soils but capavle of being ploughed
g moderately steep gradients (not greater than 15)
e slight erosion, especially loose or sandy soils in exposed areas
c moderately severe climate (more than 1270mm annual rainfall and
altitudes usually below 460m)
Comment: Climatic disadvantages combine with other limitations to restrict
the choice and yield of crops and increase risks. The main crop is grass, with
cereals and forage crops as possible alternatives where the increased hazards
can be accepted.

Class 5 Land with severe limitations that restrict its use to pasture,
forestry and recreation.
Subclass Limitations are due to one or more of the following defects which
cannot be corrected:
w poor or very poor drainage and/or frequent damaging floods
s soils too shallow or stony to plough satisfactorily
g steep slopes (not greater than 25 and usually less than 20)
e severe risk of erosion
c severe climate (altitude usually below 530m)
Comment: High rainfall, exposure and a restricted growing season prohibit
arable cropping although mechanised pasture improvements are feasible. The
land has a wide range of capability for forestry and recreation.

47
Class 6 Land with very severe limitations that restrict use to rough
grazing, forestry and recreation.
Subclass Of the following limitations one or more cannot be corrected:
w very poor drainage and/or liable to frequent damaging floods
s shallow soil, extremely stony or boulder strewn
g very steep slopes (greater than 20)
e severe erosion
c very severe climate (usually below 610m)
Comment: The land has limitations which are sufficiently severe to prevent
the use of machinery for pasture improvement. Very steep ground which has
some sustained grazing value is included. On level or gently sloping upland
sites wetness is closely correlated with peat or humus flush soils.

Class 7 Land with extremely severe limitations that cannot be rectified.

Subclass Limitations result from one of more of the following defects:
w very poor drainage; boggy soils
s extremely stony, rocky or boulder strewn soils, bare rock, screen or
beach sands and gravels; untreated waste tips
g very steep gradients (generally greater than 25)
e severe erosion
c extremely severe climate (altitude over 610m)
Comment: Exposed situations, protracted snow cover and a short growing
season preclude forestry though a poor type of rough grazing may be available
for a few months.

48
UNIT 11: SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

1 OBJECTIVES:
1.1 To be able to distinguish the characteristics of the common sheep and goat
breeds found in Zimbabwe
1.2 To be able to describe housing and handling structures that are ideal for
the rearing of sheep and goats.
1.3 To be able to describe the nutritional requirements of sheep and goats of
different age groups and to select appropriate feeding regimes.
1.4 To be able design a breeding management programme taking into the
local environment
1.5 To be able to describe and apply relevant health regulations.
1.6 To be able to identify and suggest marketing strategies for the different
product.
1.7 To be able to demonstrate how sheep and goats can be integrated into the
ecological land use

2 INTRODUCTION
Sheep was domesticated about 12 000 years ago and they can be found in all
types of environments. They are found in many parts of the world form the hot
arid regions to the cold temperate climates.
Early sheep had the following features:
- Hairy and pigmented coat
- Grew very slowly
- Produced single lamb

3 SHEEP BREEDS
These are the main breeds of sheep found in Zimbabwe and there are either dual
purpose, mutton or wool breeds.
 Sabi
 The Blackhead Persian
 Dorper
 Wiltiper
 Corriedale
 South African Mutton Merino
 Suffolk

SHEEP BREEDING AND SELECTION

The breeds of sheep found in Zimbabwe represent a broad spectrum of genetic
diversity. The two most important traits that are considered in genetic
improvement and breed selection are:
 Adaptability

49
  Reproductive efficiency (which is the number of lambs weaned per ewe in
the breed flock).
 Rate and composition of lamb growth.
 Wool production.

The most economic important traits in sheep production are influenced by

numerous genes so to increase the frequency of these ―favourable‖ genes some
selection has to be carried out and that will improve the breeding value and
performance of the sheep. Selection is simply the practice of determining with
individuals will be allowed to mate and produce the next generation but it does
not create new genes. The opposite of selection is culling which is removing
those animals that are no longer suitable from the breeding herd. In this way the
concentration of desirable genes is increased and productivity improves. This,
however, has to be combined with suitable levels of feeding and management.

Management
Sheep management is using various to manipulate the various factors that affect
productivity. An integrated management approach is the key to an efficient and
profitable sheep production unit. This includes knowledge of
 Nutrition
 Health
 Reproduction
 Economics and marketing.

Nutrition
Sheep are ruminants and are best fed on grass. The natural veld can provide
adequate nutrition to meet needs for both maintenance and other functions like
growth, lactation etc during the rainy season but during the dry season it may be
necessary to provide supplements. Many sheep farmers have established planted
pastures so that sheep can be finished off grass. The sheep can be given extra
feed or pen fattened to finish off lambs for slaughter. Sheep do not like tall grass
so they can be grazed after cattle or with cattle in order to effectively utilise all
the grass. In planted pastures some farmers mow and make hay before letting in
the sheep to graze. The hay can then be fed in winter. It may be necessary to
flush ewes before mating so as to increase ovulation. The ewes will have lost
condition during lactation so their condition is improved by feeding concentrate
feed. This also results in release of many ova increasing the chances of twinning.
Flushing only works for those ewes in poor condition.

Reproduction
Ewes:
Ewes will reach puberty at 4 to 5 moths in hairy breeds and 6 to 7 months in
wool breeds. It is best to mate for the first time at 12 months when the ewes

50
weigh 30kg and over. The length of the oestrus cycle is 16-17 days. Most sheep
will cycle so that the lambs are born at the most favourable time of the year.
Breeds that originated from the northern hemisphere tend to have a restricted
breeding season that is associated with declining day length. The Sabi have no
defined breeding season but the ewes will not come into heat until they have
been on an adequate plane of nutrition. The gestation period in sheep is 5
months and most ewes will lamb only once a year.

Rams:
A ram will reach puberty at 6-7 months of age but is best used once it has
reached 12 months. High ambient temperatures of over 35ºC can reduce the
fertility of rams and poor nutrition will reduce quantity and quality of the sperm.
To get the best results do not over use rams. The ideal ram: ewe ratio is 1: 50-60.
This ratio may be increased depending on the terrain of the mating paddock.

Lambing Season
The farmer can manipulate his herd and decide whether he wants an autumn or
spring lambing. The lambs are born in March- April for the autumn lambing and
September to November for the spring lambing. The choice depends n the
following:
Nutritional Conditions: Where no supplementary feeding is done the improved
condition of the veld has a flushing effect so ewes will mate between November
and January. The lambs born in spring are able to take advantage of the high
milk production from the ewes on a rising plane of nutrition.
Natural oestrus peaks: Those breeds that originated from the North will respond
to declining day length in April to June and high conception rates can be
achieved.
Climate: cold wet weather is not the best weather for lambing, as lambs are prone
to pneumonia. Alternatively the hot dry months are not the best for mating.
Natural oestrus peaks are also lower in summer.
Parasites: Internal parasites are more prevalent in the hot wet months when
spring lambs are most vulnerable to infection.
Grass seeds: In the highveld spear grass seeds can pierce the skin of lambs and
cause serious growth set backs. In order to avoid these autumn lambing the
lambs will be born after the grass has seeded in February- March.

Lambing
It is best t separate lambing ewes from the rest of the flock so that they are not
stressed. Provide shelter if the weather is cold and wet. Make sure that the lamb
has bonded with the ewe and it has taken colostrums.

51
Weaning
This is done at 4 to 5 months. The ewes may also dry up by the 5th month.
Provide the newly weaned lambs with the best grazing. The lambs can also be
pen fattened and slaughtered.

GOAT PRODUCTION
Goats are found everywhere in the world. In Africa goats make up 33 % of world
population (29.1 % of grazing ruminants) and in Asia and Pacific has 56 % of
world population. Developing countries have 94.2 % of goat population and thus
make a significant economic contribution. Goats are kept for meat, milk, fresh
skins and mohair. In Zimbabwe goat milk is mainly consumed in the southern
parts of the country.

Goat Breeds in Zimbabwe

The local goat breeds are mainly found in the communal areas and the exotic
breeds in the commercial areas. Distribution is low in numbers in region 1 and 2
and an increase in 3 and 4 high in Region 5.
 Mashona Goat
 Matebele Goat
 Boer Goat
 Angora Goat
 Saanan Goat
 Alpine

Constraints to Goat Production

 High mortality rates
High mortality rates particularly during the wet season has been identified as the
major constraints to goat production in communal areas.
 High incidence of diseases and parasites
It has been found in some studies that deaths from diseases can account for 39 %
of the animals leaving with flock and predation accounts for a further 10 %. The
most common diseases affecting goats in communal areas include diarrhoea,
pneumonia, foot rot & abortions.
 Low levels of management
Many animals go missing or die due to unknown diseases during the ages of 30
days and 150 days. Possible causes of death being starvation or a weak immune
system. Most perinatal losses are often due to the absence of the stockmen during
parturition and no one ensures that the kid has taken colostrum. Predators kill
many kids while they are still weak.

52
Nutrition
 There is seasonal variation in quantity and quality of feeds in all the
natural regions of the country because of the variability in rainfall. When
the plain of nutrition is low the following effects occur in the productivity
of goats.
 Kids are born with low birth weights resulting in low survival rates
 The kidding intervals become longer as plain of nutrition affects the
oestrus cycle
 The females will reach 1st parturition at an older age
 The fertility rates of both males and females are low and they will only
mate when there is sufficient food.
 The goats take a longer time to reach market weight because of poor
growth rates
 The immune system is weakened by low levels of nutrition resulting in
high mortality.

To improve nutrition so as to increase productivity it may be necessary to flush

goats before mating. The growing of special fodder banks using legume species
used in agro-forestry would be one way to do it. One could also provide
supplementary feeding using crop residues.

The goats are selective feeders and can move long distances in a short period.
The will also spend a good part of the time browsing rather than grazing. They
have often been accused of being responsible for degradation that is seen in
grazing lands. This is a false accusation as they are better able to utilise species
that cattle and sheep do not use. They can also be used to control bush
encroachment. It has been shown that if well-managed goats have the advantage
of being hardy, are able to graze and browse and to produce under most
conditions.
Goats that are kept for milk production have to be fed extra concentrate feeds if
milk production is to be maintained and to get the ewe to reproduce every year.
Similar feeds fed to dairy cows can be fed to these goats.

Housing
Goats need to be provided with housing to protect them from inclement weather.
Lack housing predisposes goats to diseases and parasites and increases kid
mortality. Goats hosed in houses with railed floors result in low levels of
mortality when compared to other types of houses.

Marketing for Sheep and Goats

The main markets for sheep are
 The CSC (Cold Storage Company). Sheep carcasses have been exported to
the Far East through the CSC. Payment is based on cold dressed mass.

53
  Sale to butchers and private abattoirs. The payment can be based on live
mass or dressed mass and grade.
The grading system for sheep is based on age with the youngest class being 0
where the animal has no permanent incisors to class FM that is full mouth. The
sheep has all 8 incisors and some show a degree of wear. Fleshing with grades A
representing well-fleshed carcass and D a poorly fleshed carcass. Fat cover
grades 1, 2 and 9 where 9 is overfat. The marketing of wool and mohair is mainly
to small cottage industries that produce wool for hand made rugs, seat covers for
cars and homespun jerseys. This is an area that has been untapped by communal
areas and could be used for income generation in such communities as goats and
sheep take up small areas of land. There is no organized marketing system for
goats in communal areas in Zimbabwe. The potential for a strong goat market is
there but there has been low commercial off take in communal areas because of
the small size of the indigenous breeds and Cold Storage Company preferred to
slaughter large animals.

Health Management for Sheep and Goats

Diseases
Goats are hardier than sheep and are less susceptible to diseases than sheep if
kept under good management. Young goats at very susceptible to cold wet
weather which predisposes the kids to pneumonia. In sheep there are a number
of diseases that affect sheep but only a few will be mentioned here.
Blue Tongue: This is a viral disease that is transmitted by midges. The animal
starts with a fever that can last up to five days. About two days after the rise in
temperature the gums, lips and tongue become very red and frothy saliva is seen
at the lips. The tongue, cheeks and ears are swollen and ulcers appear in the
mouth. The dead tissue produces an offensive smell. It may also affect the feet.
Death will occur in severely affected animals. There is no treatment for this
disease but antibiotics and good nursing do help. Vaccinating annually can
control it.
Pulpy Kidney Enterotoxaemia: This disease is caused by a bacterium Clostridium
welchii that is normally present in the stomach of sheep. When there is a sudden
change in the bowel contents the bacteria multiply rapidly and produces a toxin
that kills the sheep almost instantly. There are no symptoms of the disease. The
wool of the dead animal can be easily plucked, the heart sac is filled with fluid
and the kidneys are soft in consistency. Vaccinating annually can control the
disease.
Pneumonia: This is common in both young goats and lambs especially those that
have been exposed to cold wet weather. The animal may be found dead in acute
cases but in less severe the animal has a high temperature and its respiration is
rapid. A cough and discharge from the nose can be seen. Providing housing or
protection against the weather and ensuring that young animals are in good
condition can prevent the disease. Antibiotics help to treat the disease.

54
Joint ill, Navel ill: It usually occurs in lambs that are under a month old. It is
caused by several bacteria that enter through the navel or a wound. The infection
then spreads to other parts of the body. It can cause swollen joints. There is no
treatment and is best prevented by treating any wounds and the navel cord.

Internal Parasites
A lot of production is lost annually through decreased performance of sheep and
goats as a result of internal parasites that feed off the host causing it to go short
of feed and perform poorly.
The main effects of internal parasitic infestations are:
 Increased susceptibility to illness
 Refusal to feed (anorexia) and weight loss
 Gastro-intestinal diseases with diarrhoea
 Bottle jaw/oedema
 Mucous discharge (from nasal worms)
 Death in severe cases

Types of internal parasites

There are three main groups of internal parasites that are of significance
1. Nematodes
Roundworms
These are blood- sucking worms. Their eggs are passed out in the dung of the
cattle. When eggs hatch under suitably moist and hot conditions, the larvae
climb up the stems of the grass and are ingested from there. The larvae can
survive a few months under favourable conditions but in hot summer weather
almost all of them will die within a month. If paddocks have no sheep and goats
for more than a month the life cycle of the worm swill be broken.
Wireworms
Found in the obamasum (4th stomach). They are red from the blood they suck;
they are as thin as a pin. They can suck a lot of blood per day up to 5 ml. Severe
infestations can result in death of the animal.
Hookworms
Found in the small intestines very often with their heads attached to they walls.
They are about 20mm long and as thick as a pin; light in colour but sometimes
the blood in them can be seen. Their bodies start with a hook at the head. They
consume twice as much blood as wireworm and they waste blood because they
secrete a substance on sites where they attach themselves, which prevents the
animal‘s blood from congealing. This blood can be seen in the dung.
Nodular worms
They are the same size as hookworms but white in colour. They attach
themselves to the walls of the large and small intestines but because of a toxic
effect the animal‘s immunity system causes abscesses to form where they bite,
like nodules. If there are many nodular worms the intestine‘s ability to absorb

55
nutrients can be reduced through reduction of functional surface area. They also
have an adverse effect on the performance of the animals.
Tapeworms (cestodes)
Tapeworms are long, narrow and flat. At the front end is the head armed with
suckers and often hooks as well which the worm uses to attach itself to the inside
of the intestine. A tapeworm‘s body consists of segments and as it has neither
mouth nor digestive organs it simply absorbs digested food in which it lies from
its whole body surface.

2. Flukes (trematodes)
All flukes require a snail as intermediate hosts for their development. Animals
can only be infected if they graze in moist places such as marshes, along dams,
pans and rivers.
Liver fluke
The fluke enters the host‘s mouth and works its way through the body tissues to
the liver where it settles and develops in the bile ducts. The flukes can do severe
damage to the liver by causing thickening of the walls of the ducts and
obstruction. If animals are undosed over the years the infestations can build up.
Livers can be condemned at slaughter if level of infestation is high.
Conical fluke
These are red conical-shaped organisms about 0.5mm long that are found in and
attached to the walls of the rumen. Very heavy infestations can cause an
outbreak of severe diarrhoea.

Control
The goal of worm control should not be to eliminate all the parasites but to keep
them at levels, which do not compromise the animal‘s performance. Control
should aim at reducing the burden in young animals while at the same time
encouraging the acquisition and maintenance of resistance to later infections.
This is done through
1. Drug control
These drugs are known as antihelminths. None of these drugs can completely
remove all parasites so the objective should be to minimize the worm burden in
animals and to reduce the infestations of pasture with free-living larvae. There
are a number of dewormers available on the market so choice will depend on
cost, the targeted parasite, level of efficacy, level of parasitism to be treated,
availability and formulation.
2. Grazing Management
Sheep graze close to ground and will pick up more parasites than goats that
graze. It is important to rotate and rest paddocks in order to starve the parasites.
Young animals are more susceptible then older animals.

56
External Parasites
In most places there are no suitable dip tanks for sheep and goats and they are
usually dipped in cattle dips. It is important to control external parasites as they
can transmit disease and affect the animal to such an extent that the animal does
not feed well because of the irritation caused by some external parasites. The
three common parasites are lice, ticks and scab. Goats are less affected by
external parasites than sheep but in some areas scab can be serious problem.

57
Common External Parasites Found in Sheep and Goats
Parasite Area most Diseases or effect Control of
species affected caused Parasite
Red-legged Around anus Tick paralysis in Dip regularly
Ticks and lower parts lambs. Causes and give
of the limbs. The infection in the outer antibiotics to
larval stage can ear. The lamb will control ear
be found deep stop suckling and infection
starve to death.
Bont-legged Hairy or wooled Irritation on site of Dip regularly
ticks parts especially attachment causing
(Hyalomma spp) the chest and animal not to feed
back well
Brown tick Lower parts of Dip regularly
(Rhicephalus the legs
appendicultus)
Bont ticks Transmits Heartwater Dip regularly
(Amblyomma & often serious
hebraeum) physical damage
Scab All parts of the Lesions on body, local Dip regularly
(Psoroptus body but more inflammation and
communis) common on the itchiness. Scabs form
sides over large areas
leaving bare skin.
Nasal worm Larvae of the In nostrils. The flies Dose with
(Oestrus ovis) nasal fly disturb the animal as suitable
they try to deposit the chemical. A
larvae. The crawling few free-run
larvae irritate and chickens in
result in the secretion sheep pen help
of thick mucus and to eat surviving
sneezing larvae
Lice Close to the skin Cause intense Dip regularly
Damalina ovis among wool irritation that makes
fibres animal pull out wool
and rub against posts

58
UNIT 12: CATTLE PEN FATTENING

Pen fattening involves feeding cattle on a high energy diet or ration for a period
of +/-100 days. Feeding is done under confinement (no grazing) to prevent loss
of energy through movement and this is also convenient for other daily
operations. Ration must be 12-14%cf. +/-10MJ/kg energy adequate c and P salt.

OBJECTIVES
 To increase the degree of fatness of animals as to achieve higher grades at
younger age and also to improve the fleshing capacity of the animal.
 To add extra mass to slaughter stock at a younger age and thereby
increase turnover.
 To take advantage of the seasonal high beef prices.
 To improve off-take or turnover of cattle.

CATTLE TYPES
When considering the types of animals to be fed; age, sex, size and breed must be
taken into account.
Age: Young stock convert feed more efficiently than older stock. Best types are
steers one and a half year olds. Full cows and old oxen are poor feed converters
and do not adapt well to high energy feeds. Extra roughage that is 30-35% of the
ratio should be considered when feeding old stock.
Size: the aim is to have a Cold Dress Mass of 200-250kg, thus higher masses at
slaughter should range from 400 kg onwards to 500kg LN. The minimum
starting weights before feeding shall be:
Weaners - 240kg
Yeashings - 250kg
2 yr olds - 275kg
3 yr olds - 300kg
Cull cows - 400-500kg
Bulls +/- 450kg

Target slaughter weight should be about 400kg for all young cattle so that CDW
is about 220kg for best slaughter grades.

Sex: Heifers eat less and finish off quicker and hence lower slaughter weight than
their steer counterparts. Their feed conversion efficiency is lower than that of
steers (because of female hormones which turn to put on more fat encouraging
obesity unlike their counterparts which have a good conversion efficiency
because of the growth hormones which positively work hand in hand with
Androgens and this increase FCE) Heifers tend to finish sooner and show a mass
of 10-15% lower than holes.

59
Breed and type: Breeds differ more in their daily voluntary feed intake than in
their inherent efficiency of feed conversion. A type of non-feeder is found within
all breeds which do not adapt to intensive feeding and such animals show more
development in the fore-quarters than in their hind quarters and tend to be slap
sided.

DIET
In the diet, the energy source, roughage source and protein source are
considered.

Energy sources:
The energy source of pen fattening ration is made up of cereals of maize,
molasses and silage. Maize is most commonly used as the energy source in most
diets. Snap corn is usually popular as it provides roughage together with energy.

Roughage sources:
Consists of snapped corn, maize stocks silage, cotton hulls, sunflower hulls,
milled grass and hay. The diet requires roughage to maintain ruminal activity. A
20% roughage content in maize based rations maintains ruminal activity and
functions and also high growth rate.

Protein source:
Addition of protein to grain based rations increases the animal‘s intake
palatability and animal‘s growth rate. A 12-14% cf level is the ideal because food
conversion efficiency is at it‘s best at this level. Natural protein concentrates used
in Zimbabwe – cotton seed meals, sunflower meal, groundnut meal, blood meal,
soyabean meal and fish meal.

BEFORE ENTRY OF CATTLE INTO FEEDING PENS

The following practices may improve the performance of the cattle in the pens:
 Dip all animals just prior to penning.
 Dose the animals against internal parasites (round worms, liver fluke, tape
worms)
 Weigh the animals before penning to determine the induction mass and
value.
 Inject with vitamin A, D, E, K
 Group animals according to sex, size and type.

FEEDING PROCEDURE
It is important to introduce new food gradually if it is a high energy diet. There
should be less meal or concentrate but plenty of good quality roughage should
supplied. Sudden introduction at high levels can lead to digestive upsets such as
acidosis and possible cattle deaths.

60
FEEDING LEVELS FOR THE FIRST 8 DAYS
DAY MEAL (kg)
AM PM
0-2 days 1 1
3-4 days 1.5 1.5
5-6 days 2 2
6 days 3 3
7 days onwards 4 4
- then increases until adlib.

MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE IN PENS

WATER: Clean water should be available at all times. Clean water troughs
everyday to prevent fouling. Check if there are no blockages to tapes. Give
animals at least 50 litres per day.
FEED: Should be dry and clean. The feed troughs should be covered with roofs
of corrugated sheeting attached to a wooden frame to prevent food from getting
wet during the rains. Remove rancid food from the feed troughs.
DISEASES: There should be no scouring or animals that off-feed. Any injuries
or cases of opthalmia should be treated.
WEIGHING: The animals should be weighed a fortnight. A good gain should
between 1-2kg/day.

SITE SELECTION OF PENS

 The pens should be near a reliable source of water.
 The pens should be near the bulk food storage.
 Well drained soils, preferably 2% slope to facilitate drainage.
 Provide shelter if feeding during the rain season.
 Shade in the form of trees can also be necessary.
 For easy of management site the feedlot near the homestead.
 Allow 12m2 per animal.

HAY RACKS
These should be big enough to hold more than a day‘s supply of hay or stover,
(13.5kg/animal). It should be filled everyday.

COMMON PROBLEMS IN FEED PENS

ACIDOSIS
A condition of low pH (4.0-4.8) in the rumen caused by over consumption of
grain or high energy diet during adaptation period. It causes loss of appetite,
scouring, and restlessness and may in extreme conditions worsen to paralysis,
coaza and death.

61
Treat affected animals with 50grams bicarbonate of soda or 100mls veterinary of
magnesia. Repeat treatment after 4 hours if no improvement is noticed. Increase
the roughage content of the diet.

RUMENSTASIS
When the rumen ceases to function due to lack of feed or roughage intake. The
animal stops ruminating, becomes constipated and do not eat. The animal
appears uncomfortable and is often observed when arching it is back. Drench the
animal with 750ml of a 50: 50 molasses mixture. Brown sugar may be used
instead of molasses. This usually sufficient to stimulate the rumen the
functioning of the digestive tract. Do not treat with vinegar if acidosis is
suspected; this could cause death.

LAMINITIS
This is the swelling of the dipital portious of hooves or lamina. If animals are
suffering from laminatis their laminae are swollen and cause intensive pain,
usually accompanied by inflammation of the skin tissue immediately adjoining
hoof. The symptom is tenderness of the hooves. It is caused by high energy
feeding, that is, diets high in energy (maize, soyabean). This feeding of diets high
in energy (E) leads to production of acids in the rumen; acidosis. This in turn
favours the growth of bacteria favouring low pH. The bacteria produce toxins
which enter the blood system. The toxins have a special predilection of the
laminal tissues of the hooves which are thereby infected.
Prevention: Give anti flaminatory drugs e.g. Tomanol. Give animals adequate
roughage in the diet. Laminitis is prevalent in indigenous cattle and they may
require 40% roughage (Exotic breeds about 30%).

BLOAT
It is swelling of the stomach (stomach) because the animal cannot emit the gas
formed in it. It can be caused by the gas accumulating in the rumen. Gas
formation in the rumen is a normal physiological activity of the rumen from
rumen fermentation and the animal cructets or belches the gas. But if the rate of
eructation is slower than the rate of gas formation, then the gas accumulates in
the rumen. Cause of this is when the gas is held within a froth which forms in the
stomach. Certain plants such as Lucerne can produce this froth; as well as lack of
long roughage in the diet.
Symptoms: are – ceasation of rumination, distended stomach, difficulty in
breathing, resistance in walking. The animal may stand with head held
horizontally and with front feet apart. If lying the animal is unable to stand up.
Death usually follows if untreated.
Treatment: Drench the animal with bloatex, linseed oil or oil of turpentine. In
severe cases the rumen is punctured using a trocar and cannula or if this is not
available, a sharp knife with a long blade such as a kitchen knife can be used.

62
Remove the trocar and leave the cannulla. If all gas has been emitted remove
cannula and treat animal with antibiotics to prevent infection of wound.

UREA POISONING
If animals are given urea, excessive urea can lead to toxicity. Signs of toxicity
include frothy salivation, grinding of the teeth, and signs of abdominal pains
(e.g. lucking of abdomen) and nervous distress. This is noted 20 - 30 minutes
upto 4 hours after feeding urea to animals.
Treatment:
(i) Give 5-10 gallons of cold water if no other remedy is available.
(ii)Vinegar 750ml drenched with equivalent amount of water and molasses to
eliminate burning test of vinegar.
Note: Urea is toxic at intake levels of above 0.3-0.5g/kg,body weight and lethal at
levels of 1-1.5g/kg bodyweight.

63
UNIT 13: MAIZE AND SOYABEAN HARVESTING

IMPORTANCE OF MAIZE HARVESTING

Maize harvesting: - Can be done either by hand or mechanically.

HAND HARVESTING
Bang board method
Is done by throwing cobs directly into the trailer which is fitted by a bang board.
The number of rows being harvested per time is usually limited to 6 on either
side of the trailer because workers become less accurate as the number of rows
increase and forward speed is also reduced. The cobs in the 2 rows straddled by
the tractor wheels are harvested first or can be reaped into a drum which can be
emptied in a trailer or placed in heaps in rows to their right or left and are picked
later.

Use of drums and trailers

This is done when the harvesting gangs are large. Each worker is issued with a
25 litre drum into which cobs may be reaped. Even when full the drums will be
easily handled. 2 workers may share large containers. Empty fertiliser bags can
also be used. For efficiency 2 tractors and 3 trailers will be ideal.

Use of sacks
Some farmers prefer reaping directly into sacks. This system is particularly
useful when shelling is done in the field. The cobs are reaped into the sacks by
reapers and they are emptied into tractor Sheller. The ratio of reapers to waiter is
2: 1. Reaping can be done directly into the Sheller

MECHANICAL HARVESTING
Combines are mostly used and they are fitted with maize pickers.
Advantages
 The farmer is independent of labour problems
 There is faster rate of harvesting than hand harvesting.
 The machine can chop up the stoves for ploughing down and planting.
 This method works well with bulk handling operations.
Disadvantages
 When there are problems with cob rots, there is no possibility of sorting
out the affected cobs.
 The combine cannot pick up cobs lying on the ground and as a result it
will not work efficiently on badly lodged crops.
 Steep slopes, small fields and moisture content affect the efficiency of the
machine.
 It cannot work well in densely weeded fields.

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FACTORS AFFECTING REAPING OUTPUT
Moisture content:-Dry cobs are easier to pick and dehusk. Normally accepted
moisture content is 12.5%. Harvesting when moisture content is higher may
necessitate artificial drying.
Spacing: Wide spacing within the row results in more walling by the reaper and
thereby reducing output.
Cob size: This varies with spacing and yield. Generally bigger cobs are easier to
pick and this results in higher outputs.
Shelling percentage: This is the amount of grain produced per given cob. Reaping
output in terms of bags of grain will be greater when shelling percentage is high.
In most cases the variety used and performance used will affect shelling
percentage.
Cob height: The ideal working height is just above the waist level; for the higher
the cob the greater there will be the reaper‘s fatigue as a result of the one who
will be working in a natural position.
Lodging: Generally it is more difficult to pick a fallen cob when reaping it into a
container or trailer. Ants and termites also destroy fallen cobs.
Knocking down plants: This is when a reaper first fells a plant and harvests later.
This reduces output by about 15% and also makes gleaning a more difficult tusk

SEED DRYING
Maize seed drying can be done in 2 ways:
 Natural drying
 Artificial drying
Natural drying :
The cobs are left on the plant to dry or the cobs are reaped and thrown in strips
on the land, keeping them off the land with chopped stoves. The cobs can also be
reaped and put in cribs where they are left until they dry to the required
moisture content. Alternatively, grain is dried in bags; but this tends to be a very
slow process. Normally natural drying is common in tropical conditions where it
is sunny.
Artificial drying:
The basic principle is force heated through the grain. The air then causes
moisture to evaporate. The rate of drying depends upon the temperature of
drying air, velocity of the air through the grain and the uniformity of its
distribution. Maximum temperature of drying air will depend upon the type of
crop to be dried, the use of the crop and the system of drying being employed.
The higher the temperature of drying being used the higher the rate of drying
but this will reduce the quality of crops. Maximum safe drying temperatures are
as follows:
 Artificial Feeding - 80%
 Seed - 43%
 Human consumption and processing - 55%

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Systems of air heating
Most recommended practical and source of heat energy are coal and solar. Coal
is normally used in 2 different systems; either an air heat exchanger or hot water
system. There low cost of solar drying if solar is used. The solar radiation can be
transferred into heat energy by means of 2 types of solar collector: roof type
collector and plastic tube.

TYPES OF DRIERS
(I) Batch drier (Stational batch)
In this drier; the grain is stationary during actual drying operation and has to be
moved into a separate compartment before the next batch is brought in. The
grain closest to the coming air will dry first. This results in uneven drying. In
order to achieve an average content the grain at the top of the drier is mixed with
grain at the bottom. The grain can also be stored for some time to allow the grain
to reach equilibrium moisture content. The drier is however cheaper.

(2) Continuous Flow Drier

The grain is in motion and there is a certain amount of the mixing of grain
although the grain passes through the machine a single time.

(3) Regulatory drier

Maize can be recirculated through the drying unit a number of times depending
on the amount of moisture to be removed. This mixes the grain throughout and
hence there uniform moisture content. This method is more expensive than the
batch drier.

MAIZE STORAGE
The storage facility must be suited to the method of delivery. If being sent to the
GMB it must be bulk storage. The facility must also be suited to the transport
system and the scale of maize enterprise on the farm; climatic conditions
prevailing and duration of storage.

METHOD OF STORAGE
Cob storage
The maize stored on the cobs allows it to be harvested easily at about 15%
moisture content and this allows for easy land preparation. It can be stored
temporarily in heaps in the open or in cribs. Crib capacity may be calculated by
allowing 0.35m2 per every 90kg grain equivalency. For drying purposes a pole
and wire crib with a raised floor can be constructed. It must be erected in such a
way that the length lies across the direction of prevailing wind to enhance
drying. A weather – proof roof with long caves is considered essential.

66
Bag storage of shelled grain
This is the traditional method which is no longer usually practiced in areas with
bulk depots. Bulk storages on the farm are used to store the grain.

Bulk storage
-There are many methods that can be used under the bulk storage. Examples are:
Above ground silos, bulk containers and bags stored in the open or in buildings.

Advantages of the bulk storage

 It is more economical than bag storage since the unity density of grain in
the loose farm is about 700kg/m2 compared to the larger space stored in
bags.
 There is less supervision required
 Labour requirements are reduced
 It is more hygienic than bag storage
Disadvantages
 It is costly in terms of capital requirements than handling in bags
 Artificial drying may be necessary when harvesting at more than 12.5%
moisture content.

REQUIREMENTS IF BULK STORAGE

 The maize must be dry; with less than 13.5% moisture content.
 The storage facility must be structurally sound and designed for loads
imposed by full capacity.
 It must be weather tight and dry and protection from ground moisture is
important.
 It must be thermally insulated especially from the sun‘s radiation.
 It must rodent and binds proof.
 It must be convenient to inspect, fumigate and clean
 It must be convenient to fill and empty

TREATMENT IN STORAGE
Maize in storage can be affected by many pests; inclusive of which are:
 Maize weevil (Sitrophilus spp)
 Indian meal month (Sitrotoga cereale)
 Flow beetle
 Saw toothed grain beetle
 Lesser grain beetle
 Rusty grain beetle
These can be controlled by:
 Use of phosphaine tablets applied silos and bagged grain.
 Pyrethrum 0.2 dust which is sprayed on bag surfaces.

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  Malathion 1% dust which is applied on bag surfaces or storage surfaces.
 Delmfin dust applied in bags or storage surfaces

MAIZE MARKETING IN ZIMBABWE

Maize produced in Zimbabwe is all sold on the open market. The Grain
Marketing Board also buys for the government‘s Strategic Grain Reserve.

SOYABEAN HARVESTING
Soyabeans should be harvested as soon as the plants have dried. Delaying the
harvesting of the crop will lead to the shattering of the pods and this leads to loss
of the seeds.

METHODS OF HARVESTING
Hand harvesting
This method of harvesting is suitable for small areas or where large labour force
is available. Hand harvesting is suitable for seed production since it has some
advantages of other types of harvesting. Losses are reduced to a minimum in
hand harvesting. Also soyabeans of a high quality are produced and the beans
normally have a high viability. Usually the harvesters are allowed to pull as
much plant material as they are able to thresh in a day. The labours use sickles to
cut the plants. Each labourer should be able to cut and thresh 50kg of clean beans
each day.

Mowing or cutting by hand and shelling

-A mower can be used to cut the plant material and a mechanical winnower is
used for the final cleaning. This method should enable an output of +/-150 kg (3
bags) per labour per day. Harvesting should start before the pods split. Also
allow sufficient moisture to be lost to prevent mould development in the locks or
stakes.

Swather plus combine

A swather is used to cut and wind –row the crop before the crop is combined. A
pick-up attachment is required to be fitted to the combine table to collect the
harvested and wind-rowed beans.

Combine harvesting
A combine harvester is used on large areas. When the combine is used losses are
inevitable. The degree of loss, however, depends on the efficiency of the machine
and operator, the evenness of the land, the height of the pods off the ground
(pod clearance), lodging and moisture content of the beans and weed control.

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UNIT 14: IRRIGATED WHEAT

In Zimbabwe wheat is mainly grown for bread and biscuits. It is a temperate

crop which does well in cool weather conditions for it is successful growth and
development. Breeding has helped to grow the crop in sub-tropical climate areas
and even in tropical regions of the world. There are some varieties for summer
production (such as Sahai bred by Seed-co), but generally diseases are a problem
and yields are low. Therefore winter is the best time for growing wheat. In
Zimbabwe wheat is grown under irrigation in Zimbabwe during the dry season
(May-September).

CHOICE OF VARIETIES
New varieties of wheat are continuously produced because of the threat of
diseases (especially Leaf Rust and Powdery Mildew) The varieties available in
Zimbabwe are ideal for bread making, short stature, disease resistant and well
adapted to winter production. When one chooses varieties to plant s/he has to
consider the variety‘s yield potential, disease resistance, lodging resistance,
resistance to sprouting in the ear, period to flowering and maturity. Baking and
milling quality is also important so as to aim for high market returns

LAND PREPARATION
The land needs to be ploughed first, disked then harrowed. There is need of
rolling the land if there are any clods in the field. Wheat seed is a poor
germinator and there should be fine tilth for successful germination to take place.

SOIL REQUIREMENTS
The crop is adapted to a wide range of soils but yields are better on a heavier soil
type (sandy loams to clay loams). The soils must be well drained. Avoid poorly
drained soils, badly aerated soils since wheat cannot stand wet feet. The pH of
the soil should be 5.0 -6.0.

PLANTING
The growing period for wheat is May – September. The optimum times of
planting are from 1 May – end of May depending on whether the farmer is in
Middleveld, Highveld or Lowveld. The crop takes 110 – 150 days to maturity. In
Zimbabwe there are suggested planting dates for wheat. They are as follows:
Highveld – Planting can be done any time during May, but where frost is a
regular problem in August planting should be delayed until 25 May, so as to
avoid flowering coinciding with the incidences of frost.
Middleveld – Early May, optimum dates are being from 7 - 15 May.
Lowveld – Late April to early May, so as to avoid sharp rising temperatures
during grain filling stage. The optimum dates are from 24 April to 10 May.

69
SEED RATES
The optimum plant population for wheat is 200 plants per m2. Higher plant
populations (greater than 300 plants) may result in undesirable lodging.
Recommended row spacing is 150 –250mm. Narrow row spacing has an
advantage in that there is a quicker canopy and this reduces weed pressure. Too
close spacing may give rise to more lodging. Seed rates of 100 –120kg/ha are
used when drilling. The seed rates of 120 –160kg/ha may be used when
broadcasting and these gives a target plant population of 200 plants per m2
.Increase the seed rate if the size is bigger; germination percentage is low and if
conditions are unfavourable.

WEED CONTROL
Most weeds prevalent in the wheat crop summer types. They do not grow
vigorously in winter. Their development characteristics may make them be
outgrown by the crop and eventually they may be smothered. This may not
relied upon since there may be more problematic weeds in the crop. Chemical
control is recommended in wheat because of the close spacing of the crop. Choice
of herbicides depends on the type of weeds to be controlled. The following
herbicides may be used:
- Banvel at the rate of 250/ha – applied 3 –4 weeks emergence as at 3 –5 leaf
stage.
- Ally at the rate of 10 – 12g/ha – applied as pre and post emergence herbicide.
- A Branvel and Alley mix has also been used at the rate of 10.5 –12g/ha.
Note:-Never apply herbicide to a stressed wheat crop.

PESTS AND DISEASES

The main diseases of wheat are stem rust, leaf rust, powdery mildew and loose
smut. Loose smut is usually controlled through seed dressing. Benlate 50% WP
or Vitavax 75 at a rate of 150g/100kg seed is recommended.
-Powdery mildew is not a problem except when humid conditions prevail. It
affects densely planted, water stressed and Nitrogen rich crops. Control can be
through good management
-Leaf rust can be a problem also. If it is prevalent the following is recommended:
(i)Plant several resistant and tolerant varieties.
(ii)Remove volunteer wheat plants early in the season.
(iii)Spray with fungicide (Ranch Xtra, Shevit or Dithane M-45) if severe infection
occurs before flowering.

PESTS
Quelea birds are most devastating and very difficult to control in wheat. In small
– scale scaring can be used to control the pests. In large – scale commercial
production, it is advisable to report colonies of the pest to the Problem Bird

70
Control Unity of the Department of Wild life and National Parks. Control of the
Quelea is the responsibility of the Government. Other important pests are :
Aphids –Can be serious if they attack the crop on early stages of development.
Control these by Dimethoate at a rate of 400m/ha .
Bollworm – Attack the crop from flowering onwards. It can be controlled by
appropriate pesticides like Caboryl 85 WP
Leaf –hoppers – These transmit streak virus. They are controlled by application
of Dimethoate 40 EC at the rate of 70ml/h

MARKETING OF WHEAT IN ZIMBABWE

The wheat that is produced in Zimbabwe is sold on the open market. The Grain
Marketing Board also buys for the country‘s Strategic Grain Reserve.

71
UNIT 15: CATTLE DIPPING

Introduction
Tick-borne diseases are a major constraint to livestock improvement throughout
the tropics. Most indigenous cattle in areas where tick-borne diseases occur
possess a natural resistance to these diseases. The association between the
parasites and cattle has produced states of endemic stability in which cattle are
immune and parasites are transmitted constantly between cattle and ticks.

Problems of present control methods

During the last 80 years the control of ticks and the diseases they transmit has
been largely through the application of acaricides in dips or sprays. The strict
short-interval application of acaricides prevents transmission of the parasites and
this method has been used very successfully throughout the region, in
conjunction with control on animal movement, quarantine and slaughter.
Introduced in 1902, the use of acaricides was used to eradicate ECF from South
Africa by 1954 and Swaziland by 1960. However, the development of resistance
in ticks to successive acaricide compounds has been a major problem. This has
been compounded by the increasing cost of acaricides, illegal cattle movement,
civil unrest, poor management and inadequate maintenance. The devastating
extent of the drought in Africa has made many dip-tanks non-operational due to
lack of water. Another complication associated with the use of acaricides is that
they are environmental pollutants and may also contaminate milk and meat.
Strict acaricide application results in highly susceptible cattle populations
because the cattle are not exposed to the parasites; when tick control breaks
down, enormous losses can occur. An extreme example was the breakdown of
dipping infrastructure during the war of independence in Zimbabwe, where a
compulsory dipping policy had been in force since 1914. Between 1974 and 1979
an estimated one million cattle died, mainly of tick-borne diseases.

Sustainable control methods

Strict tick control is difficult to maintain in many countries and more rigorous
methods for controlling ticks and tick-borne diseases are being investigated. The
broad approach has been to use integrated control measures which include the
natural exposure to Anaplasma, Babesia or Cowdria organisms while animals
are very young. Other means include immunising older animals with live
vaccines; immunisation against ECF by infection and treatment; chemotherapy;
and strategic acaricide application to control overwhelming tick infestation or
disease challenge. However, the most important element in this control package
is the use of breeds of cattle that are genetically resistant to tick infestations.
Resistant animals have a tendency towards light tick burdens and require less
dipping, making control relatively easy and cheaper. In addition, other biological
control methods could be used in support of control methods, e.g. anti-tick

72
grasses and application of aggregation-attachment pheromone-baited acaricide
to single sites on bovine hosts. These approaches require an understanding of the
parasites that exist in a particular environment and their epidemiology. It is also
necessary to have access to acaricides, vaccines and drugs and to be able to
monitor tick infestations and disease outbreaks.

Host-resistance to ticks
It has long been recognised that some animals, or whole breeds, consistently
carry fewer ticks than others kept in the same environment. Such differences are
caused by variation in the animals' abilities to respond immunologically to tick
infestation. The ability to develop resistance is heritable and the actual
manifestation is acquired. It is stable over longer periods, although stresses such
as lactation or sickness cause a drop in resistance. Different levels of resistance
occur in all breeds, but this is manifested more strongly in zebu cattle and their
crosses. The improved tick control following the use of tick-resistant cattle has
been demonstrated in various breeds of cattle and crossbreds Tick resistance of
zebu cattle should be utilised for tick control. Moreover, a cross between zebu
and taurine cattle was shown to carry fewer ticks and required less dipping than
temperate breeds of cattle on similar pastures. The criteria for the assessment and
quantification of resistance to ticks in cattle are given in many reviews. Resistant
animals consistently carry fewer ticks than susceptible animals. Female ticks
completing engorgement are fewer and smaller on resistant animals than on
susceptible animals.

Dip sampling
Why is it important?
Government invests billions of dollars annually in chemicals to control cattle tick.
This does not include time and labour costs so it is important that any treatment
must be cost effective.
Alarmingly, laboratory results consistently show that many cattle dips contain
chemical wash that is significantly above or below the recommended
concentration.
Understrength dips lead to an increased risk of developing resistant ticks,
inadequate tick control, increased costs through waste of chemical / labour and a
loss of production due to needless handling of stock.
Overstrength dips can cause increased costs through chemical waste, chemical
residues and toxicity problems. Chemical residues in the meat of slaughtered
animals will jeopardise both our domestic and overseas markets.
Regular analysis of dip concentration is the only way to monitor investment.

Problems
The results of cattle dip analysis are only as good as the samples submitted. If the
samples are not collected correctly, the analytical results will be meaningless.

73
As the chemicals used for controlling cattle ticks are not soluble in water, it can
be difficult to collect a dip sample that is truly representative of the fluid in the
dip. To help keep the chemicals in suspension in the dip, the manufacturer
usually adds emulsifiers to the concentrate. This means a freshly charged dip has
the chemical dispersed as very tiny droplets — hence the milky appearance.
During dipping, the chemicals tend to attach to the particles of soil and faeces
that enter the dip. When dipping is finished, these heavy particles sink to the
bottom. With some chemicals this happens very quickly. Samples collected at
this time may give grossly inaccurate results.

Collecting the sample

Stirring
A satisfactory sample for analysis can only be obtained from a dip after it is well
stirred. Stirring is best achieved by hand-stirring followed by dipping at least 20-
30 head of cattle. Hand-stirring by itself is not efficient.
For more accurate results a sample should be collected as the last animal is still
swimming in the dip. Then the dip is classed as ‗boiling‘ and the chemical will be
well distributed.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Where to take the sample?

The jump-in end of the dip is the most suitable area for collection of the sample.
If you take the sample from the walkout end, the fluid returning from the
draining pen will be collected in the sample. This fluid contains less chemical
than the dip and will give a false low result on analysis.

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UNIT 16: DAIRY MILKING AND CALF REARING

MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 1. CALF CARE FROM BIRTH TO WEANING
INTRODUCTION
Heifer calves are raised as replacements for lactating cows and are essential to
the successful future of the dairy. The greatest mortality and morbidity period
for dairy cattle is from birth to weaning. Management goals for the first 6 to 8
weeks of a calf's life should be to minimize disease and mortality by providing a
suitable environment, establishing a quality nutritional program, and
implementing a preventive health care plan.

FACILITIES
Health and survival of the newborn calf depend on its care and environment.
Designs for calf-rearing facilities range from complete barn enclosures to
minimum shelters. A wide range of acceptable housing facilities exists within
California. Calf housing should provide an environment that is clean and dry
and will minimize stress. Protection from heat, cold, wind, and rain is important.
Adequate space, animal comfort, and proper ventilation are important in
designing a facility. Facilities should be accessible for thorough cleaning and
disinfecting on a regular basis to reduce the number of pathogens. Placing the
facility upwind from corrals and cow traffic decreases dust problems. Housing
calves between hay stacks, barns, or other large structures that impede air
movement should be avoided. This is especially critical during the summer.
Facility features which are desirable but do not necessarily influence calf health
include: design for labor efficiency, conservation of space, esthetics, and location
for easy access by dairy personnel but not the public. Calf theft is common, and
easy public access enhances rustling potential. Storage facilities for supplies,
equipment, and sanitizing materials as well as access to refrigeration for milk
and health care products are also important considerations in calf housing
design. These features assist in developing and maintaining a successful calf
raising program.

FEEDING AND NUTRITION

Colostrum Management
Colostrum is the milk produced by the cow prior to and during the first few days
after calving. Colostrum obtained from the first milking after calving contains
more protein, particularly immunoglobulins, fat, minerals, and vitamins than
milk produced later. Immunoglobulins, or proteins produced by the cow's
immune system, are secreted into the colostrum around the time of calving. For
approximately 4-6 weeks after birth, calves depend on the immunoglobulins
absorbed from colostrum for protection from infectious agents in their
environment. Proper selection, collection, storage, and feeding of colostrum are

75
essential to a successful calf raising program. Colostrometers are used to select
the highest quality colostrum for storage and subsequent feeding.
Colostrometers are available to measure the specific gravity of colostrum, which
should be greater than 1.106. This helps to ensure that the calf receives
immunoglobulins. The ability of the calf's intestine to absorb immunoglobulins
declines within hours after birth. The newborn calf can absorb the large
immunoglobulins as intact proteins which impart passive immunity. However,
within 24 hours of birth, intestinal closure occurs and intact proteins cannot be
absorbed. Consequently, timing is important when feeding colostrum the first
time following birth to ensure absorption of intact immunoglobulins. Calves,
heifer and bull, should be fed 2 to 4 quarts of high quality colostrum by bottle or
esophageal tube within the first few hours after birth. Continued feeding of
colostrum from the first through the third or fourth day of life is important
because immunoglobulins in colostrum vary greatly in type, size, and
complexity. Each type reacts differently with the absorptive capacity of the
intestinal wall. Although most immunoglobulins are absorbed only in the first
few hours of the calf's life, others may be available for absorption up to 72 hours.
The immunoglobulins also may have beneficial local effects in the lumen of the
intestine. If there is an ample supply of colostrum, it should be mixed with whole
milk and fed during the first 3 to 4 days of the newborn's life. If a cow "leaks"
milk from her udder prior to first milking after calving, much of the colostrum
may be lost. Colostrum from cows that "leak" should not be used for the first
feeding of a calf. Specific immunoglobulins are produced in colostrum in
response to disease or other organisms prevalent in the herd. Cows are normally
vaccinated or immunized against specific diseases to produce a higher level of
specific immunoglobulins in their colostrum. Such programs are best established
with the assistance of a veterinarian. If colostrum is not fed immediately after
collection, it should be stored frozen or refrigerated for later use. Freezing does
not destroy immunoglobulins and other nutrients in the colostrum, but does
prevent bacterial growth and deterioration of the colostrum. Frozen colostrum
can be thawed slowly in warm water. The microwave can lead to uneven heating
and may effect immunoglobulin quality. Temperatures over 111oF can destroy
the immunoglobulins. If colostrum is allowed to stand in a container, it should be
gently stirred before feeding since the heavier and lighter particles may have
separated. Once thawed, this colostrum can be fed to the calf following birth as
an alternative to feeding the dam's colostrum.

Calf Nutrition
Colostrum feeding usually ends by the fourth day, after which fresh whole milk
or an excellent quality milk replacer should be fed. Milk replacers are powdered
products which contain predominately dry milk ingredients. These products are
mixed with water and are formulated to provide proper nutrition for the
growing calf. Milk replacers with protein derived from dairy products are the

76
most easily digested. Other protein sources (fish protein, cereal flours,
unprocessed soy, or meat protein) are not as easily digested. Some milk replacers
are being developed that contain vegetable protein with improved digestibility.
In addition to milk, dry concentrate feed (calf starter) and good quality hay (e.g.
alfalfa) can be offered free choice once the calf is a few days old. These feeds
should be palatable, easily digested, and high in digestible protein. Similar to
water provided, these feeds should be clean and fresh.

Water
Water is an essential nutrient. It is necessary for various metabolic activities, such
as digestion, hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins, excretion of waste
products, nutrient transport, lubrication of joints, electrolyte balance, body
temperature control, and development of rumen function. Dairy calves initially
receive most of their water from colostrum, milk, or milk replacer, and all calves
should have access to clean, fresh water. The water should be free of particulate
matter and low in salt and bacterial content. It should be free of pesticide
residues and other toxic substances. Water troughs and pails should be cleaned
thoroughly, and water should be changed when it becomes dirty. Changing the
water frequently during hot summer months provides the calf with cool, fresh
drinking water and promotes water intake and the intake of calf starter and hay
when fed. Consumption of starter is necessary for rumen development and
weaning of the calf. The amount of water consumed depends on the calf's age,
the amount and type of feed consumed, ambient temperature, amount of
exercise, and water cleanliness and temperature. Calves up to 6 months of age
drink 2 to 5 gallons per day.

HEALTH CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Disease affecting the pre-weaned calf may compromise her ability to mature and
produce milk. A calf treatment protocol should be established, and calf personnel
trained to recognize disease early and to promptly initiate treatment. Well
managed calf operations can keep death loss prior to weaning below 5%. Death
losses greater than 5% indicate management should be improved. Failure in any
of the following areas can contribute to increased calf illness and death:
colostrum management, facility, design, sanitation, disease recognition and
treatment, preventive health care, and quality nutritional programs.

Umbilical Cord
If the umbilical cord is not severed immediately after birth, it can be cut 2 to 3
inches from the calf's body. The belly area (including the cord) should be dipped
in a 2 to 7 percent tincture of iodine or other approved disinfectant. The tincture
of iodine will dry the cord and prevent pathogens from entering the calf's body
through the cord.

77
Sanitation
The calf should be born in a dry, clean environment regardless of the type of
housing or bedding used. Hospital pens for sick cows should not be used as
maternity pens. All sick animals should be isolated from the maternity and calf
areas. Pathogen exposure from accumulations of feces, urine, and spoiled feed
can cause digestive and respiratory diseases. Even calves that have been fed
ample colostrum may become ill if housed in an unsanitary environment.
Utensils used in feeding should be cleaned and sanitized after use.

Preventive Health Care Programs

Most health problems can be minimized with proper management, including
adequate nutrition, clean and dry housing, low-stress handling, prompt
treatment, and vaccination. The vaccination program depends on the disease
problems prevalent within a given area and herd. Common diseases of calves are
associated with the digestive and respiratory tracts. In most cases, vaccines are
an essential part of a total health maintenance program that should be developed
with the assistance of a veterinarian.
It is recommended that calves be vaccinated at least once prior to weaning for
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR), Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus
(BRSV), and Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD). Vaccines must be used according to
the manufacturer's specifications.

Extra Teat Removal

Extra teats (more than four) can interfere with milking and may leak, which
increases the possibility of mastitis. If desired, extra teat removal should be
performed as soon as possible after birth to ensure a quick recovery. Precaution
should be taken to avoid unnecessary pain or distress during the procedure and
recovery.

Dehorning
Animals are dehorned primarily to avoid injury to personnel or other animals,
reduce feeder space requirements, and increase handling ease. It is
recommended that dehorning be performed when calves are 2 to 10 weeks old.
Older calves are more difficult to restrain and handle, and risk of blood loss,
infection, and fly infestation increases. A hot dehorning iron is the simplest and
fastest way to kill the horn-producing cells. Caustic pastes and scoops are
alternative methods, but these generally cause the animal more prolonged
discomfort. A local anesthetic is recommended for animals older than 10 weeks.
Regardless of the dehorning method, a fly repellant should be sprayed on the
dehorned area during fly season. Newly dehorned calves should be isolated (e.g.
individual housing) from other calves to avoid licking, and be kept out of the
rain until the dehorned area is scabbed over and dry.

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Parasites
Some parasitic infections, such as coccidiosis, can cause serious health problems.
It is recommended that a regular parasite control program be developed with a
veterinarian's assistance. A clean environment is the best tool for combating
parasite infections. Coccidiostats may be included in calf starter to prevent
coccidiosis.

Identification
Animal identification is critical for making important management decisions,
such as feeding, selection, medicating, breeding, and culling; for official
production testing systems; and for registering animals with purebred cattle
organizations. Dairy cattle improvement depends on identifying and breeding
animals with superior phenotypic and genotypic traits. This requires accurate
records on each animal. Some breed associations require that each animal be
tattooed before leaving its pen or hutch. Animal identification may be either
temporary or permanent. Temporary identification methods include ear tags,
neckchains, neck straps, ankle straps, and marking crayons or paints. Permanent
identification methods include ear tattoos, hide brands (hot iron brands, freeze
brands, and liquid/chemical brands) computer chips implanted subcutaneously,
and photographs. The most popular type of animal identification is the plastic
ear tag which is easily applied by trained personnel. An additional identification
is the metal ear tag the veterinarian attaches following brucellosis vaccination.
More recently, electronic identification systems have been developed that use a
combination of "readers" or "decoders." Electronic identification systems may
involve neck collars or subcutaneous implants which interface with milking
parlor computers and are gaining popularity.

SECTION 2. HEIFER CARE FROM WEANING TO CALVING

INTRODUCTION
Weaning involves the transition from a milk replacer or milk-based diet to a
forage and/or concentrate diet. Calves should be offered a starter ration in
addition to milk or milk replacer, when they are approximately 1 week old.
Calves should be consuming about 2kg of starter ration per day at weaning time,
usually when they are 6 to 12 weeks old. The calf starter promotes rumen
development and provides nutrients to support growth and health. Generally,
calves should be weaned gradually. Often, it is preferable to wait a few days
after weaning before moving the newly weaned calf from the calf rearing facility
to a group pen of similarly aged calves. Birth and weaning are the two most
stressful periods in a calf's life. Management errors can often lead to increased
health problems and/or reduced growth. Successful weaning programs
minimize stress from crowding, competition with older calves, and weather.

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SECTION 3. CARE OF COWS AND CALVES DURING PERIPARTURIENT
PERIOD
INTRODUCTION
Proper care of the periparturient (around calving) cow and calf depends on
facility design, management, training of personnel, health care programs,
nutritional programs, and economics. Health and comfort of the cows and calves
should be the main consideration. Calving is a high risk event in terms of cow
health and is associated with most of the health problems requiring treatment.
Preparation and care during this period will minimize sickness and death of the
heifer, cow, and calf. Facilities should be designed to be safe, effective, and easily
cleaned.

FACILITIES
The main objectives of a calving facility are to minimize disease and stress to
both the cow and calf. Convenience and employee working conditions are
secondary considerations for these facilities. Properly managed sod pastures can
be ideal calving areas during the summer, but they are often muddy during the
winter. Additional time is required for frequent observation of cows calving on
pastures. Maternity and calving pens are an alternative to pasture calving. In
large herds where calving is concentrated in a small area, sanitation is extremely
important. Sanitary conditions will minimize disease and stress to both the cow
and calf. Pens should be designed for ease of cleaning. Well-grooved concrete
floors are preferable so the pen area can be thoroughly washed while allowing
for good traction and secure footing. Clean bedding should be provided in
sufficient amounts for cow comfort. The calving facility should have a roof to
provide shade in the summer and protection from rain in the winter and spring.
The calving facility should be located where animals can be easily and frequently
observed by the herd manager, milkers, and other dairy personnel. Calving
assistance should be provided when necessary. It is desirable to have a vacuum
line and stopcock located in each pen or nearby to facilitate milking the fresh cow
to obtain colostrum. Access lanes to and from the facility are important for ease
of cow movement and to segregate fresh cows from the rest of the milking herd.
A supply or utility room should be near the calving area to provide for safe and
convenient storage of calving equipment and refrigeration of health care
products and colostrum. A sink and running hot and cold water for cleaning
equipment and utensils are also recommended in a well-planned calving facility.

Close-up Cow (close to calving) Pens

Cows should be moved about two weeks prior to their expected calving to a
"close-up" pen where they can be frequently observed. Cow density in the close-
up pen should be about one-half of the density in lactating cow pens for hygienic
purposes and to allow cows in labor some space to move away from herdmates.
Calving in the close-up pen should be avoided. It is desirable to have cows calve

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in a special maternity area. Cows should be moved to the maternity area when
parturition is imminent.

Maternity Area
Cows naturally isolate themselves to give birth. The maternity area should
provide a secluded area for parturition. There should be one clean maternity pen
for each calving cow. The pens should provide at least 100 square feet per cow.
The maternity area should be well-ventilated but not drafty. Supplemental
lighting should be available. The area should be clean, well-bedded, and free of
unnecessary disturbances.

FEEDING AND NUTRITION

Cows within 10 to 16 days of calving are normally fed as a separate group from
other dry cows. A few pounds of a grain concentrate mix may be fed to these
"close-up" cows in addition to forages. This practice avoids a sudden shift from
an all-forage ration to a ration with a high proportion of concentrates which is
typical of that fed to cows in early lactation. Feeding grain also increases rumen
papillae length and reduces incidence of ketosis. A sudden shift in ration
ingredients and amounts following calving can cause gastrointestinal
disturbances and predispose cows to other metabolic problems. For a 1,500
pound close-up dry cow, 5 to 8 pounds daily of concentrate mix are
recommended, depending on the body condition of the cow and the quality of
the forage being fed. Cows with chronic mastitis, pendulous udders, a history of
calving difficulty, and obese cows should receive reduced levels of concentrate
before calving. Salt may be withheld from rations to reduce udder edema. Rapid
ration changes at calving should be avoided. If the postpartum cow is to be fed a
total mixed ration, it may be beneficial to feed about five pounds of long-
stemmed hay in the ration for at least 10 days after calving to stimulate feed
intake. This will help prevent cows from refusing feed after calving and the
associated digestive malady of a displaced abomasum. Large dairies may have a
fresh cow string where cows remain for 5 to 10 days post-calving. These diets are
formulated to promote feed intake and minimize the incidences of milk fever
and displaced abomasum.

HEALTH CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Calving Assistance
About 25 to 30 percent of the heifers require assistance at first calving. Second or
later lactation cows require assistance about half as often. Assistance should not
be given as long as the cow is making satisfactory calving progress. Heifers
should be bred to low birth weight or calving ease sires to decrease the incidence
of dystocia (calving difficulty). Knowing when to give assistance at calving
comes with experience, so managers should train maternity personnel. Personnel
responsible for assisting calving cows and heifers should be trained in proper

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obstetrical procedures. Hot and cold water and soap, for washing the cow and
obstetrician, and clean calving equipment should be readily available. Hygiene
and lubrication are critical to cow and calf health. The cow's perineal (around the
vulva) area should be washed thoroughly and the tail tied to the cow to keep it
out of the way. The obstetrician should avoid contamination of the reproductive
tract as much as possible by making sure that hands, arms, and instruments are
clean. If extra lubrication is required, a water soluble lubricant which is non-
irritating to the reproductive tract is preferred. Gentle traction applied to the calf
minimizes damage to both the calf and the cow. No traction should be applied
until the birth canal is open and the calf is in proper presentation for delivery.
The trained obstetrician applies traction when the cow is contracting and
maintains gentle pressure between contractions, allowing the cow to rest. The
person assisting should know his/her limits and call for veterinary assistance
when needed. If a Cesarean section is necessary, it is best to make the decision
early before the cow, calf, and obstetrician are exhausted. Under no
circumstances should motorized equipment be used to extract a calf.

Postpartum Care of the Cow and Calf

After a cow gives birth and before she is released from the calving area, she
should be examined to ascertain whether she has a second calf which has not yet
been born. Cows that have twins or require assistance are more likely to retain
the fetal membranes and/or develop a uterine infection. These cows should be
observed more closely than cows that had normal, unassisted calvings. Cows
normally expel the fetal membranes within 24 hours at calving.

SECTION 4. LACTATING DAIRY COW CARE

INTRODUCTION
The performance, health, and welfare of the lactating cow are reflections of the
quality of care received at every stage its life. Performance depends on
converting feed nutrients into milk. Over the last 20 years, milk production has
increased markedly due to improvements in genetics, nutrition, milking systems,
facility design, health programs, care, and management. The welfare and care of
the lactating cows are critical for the success of the dairy and providing the
consumer with a safe and wholesome dairy product.

FEEDING AND NUTRITION

Each cow should be offered a balanced ration that meets the nutrient
requirements. These nutrients include energy, protein, fiber, vitamins, and
minerals. Many digestive disorders can be prevented by not feeding more than
60 to 65 percent of the diet as concentrate ingredients. Careful management of
the body reserves of dairy cows is crucial to efficient production because body fat
is a necessary and important energy source for lactation in the first few weeks
after calving. However, excessive body fat before calving is associated with

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increased metabolic diseases, calving problems, and culling. Body condition of
cows and heifers should be evaluated regularly so feeding and management
practices can be appropriately altered.

HEALTH CARE AND MANAGEMENT

General
Dairy cow management can contribute to many of the common and
economically significant diseases. Common diseases include mastitis,
reproductive tract infection, foot disease, and gastrointestinal problems.
Prevention of disease requires a multi-disciplinary approach to management,
including facility design and operation, nutrition, waste management, animal
selection, and veterinary medicine.

Mastitis
Mastitis is the most common disease of the dairy cow. It results from a microbial
infection of the udder where bacteria gain entrance via the teat openings.
Subclinical mastitis is the most prevalent, and does not result in gross changes in
the milk or severe abnormalities in the animal. However, subclinical mastitis
may progress to clinical mastitis. Clinical mastitis results in reduced milk yield
and is a common reason the cow is culled prematurely. With clinical mastitis,
there are observable signs of dysfunction. These include swelling and/or redness
of the udder, discomfort, and abnormal milk secretions. In some cases of clinical
mastitis, systemic disease such as diarrhea, loss of appetite, dehydration, and
even death occurs. The emphasis on mastitis control should be prevention. The
keys are proper sanitation and management of non-infected and subclinically
infected animals. Wet, manure-laden areas in the lactating and dry cow pens and
bedding areas, and poor sanitation during the milking process increase the risk
of mastitis. Udders should be clean and dry when milked. Teats should be
sprayed or dipped with disinfectant after milking.

Foot Care
Healthy feet are important to the productive cow. Lameness will interfere with
movement to the milkingfacility, obtaining feed and water, exhibiting estrus, and
general health. Foot rot, laminitis, hairy foot warts, etc. can cause severe
discomfort for the dairy animal and be a source of economic loss to the dairy.
The first sign of foot rot is lameness that may involve one or more feet. In acute
cases, lameness is followed by swelling of the foot, spreading of the toes, and an
abscess above the hoof. If not corrected, the infection will spread deeper and
infect the joints, resulting in chronic arthritis.

Switch Trimming and Tail Docking

Tails of milking cows may be carriers of fecal matter, mud, and other
contaminants which become a nuisance in the milking parlor. It has been

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hypothesized that disease may be transmitted from pathogens carried on the tail
to the employees and equipment during routine milking procedures. Although
not documented, it is thought that udder health and milk quality may be
improved by minimizing contact with contaminated tails. To lessen the physical
contact between the cow's tail and the milker the trimming of the switch or
docking of the tail is sometimes utilized. The more common practice is switch
trimming which involves the periodic trimming of the long hairs growing at the
distal end of the tail. Tail docking is performed by placing an Elastrator band
(similar to a rubber band) on the tail for approximately seven days, then
removing the distal portion of the tail with a sharp, sanitized instrument. The
majority of the tail is usually removed; however, a portion remains to cover the
length of the vulva.

Machine Milking
Machines with a partial vacuum are used to remove milk from the udder.
Vacuum levels between 12 to 14 inches of Mercury are normal. Cows should
have clean, dry udders before the milking machine is attached. Pulsators,
regulators, air hoses, and liners require regular maintenance to function
properly.

HANDLING AND BEHAVIOR

Lactating cows are moved and handled several times daily. The manner in which
cattle are handled affects the safety and welfare of both the animal and the
personnel. Cows are gregarious and do not like to be isolated. They are also
creatures of habit and do not easily adapt to new situations. From an early age,
cattle should be handled quietly. Pain should not be used as a motivator.
Alarming sounds and force may be effective in the short term but can result in
cow behavior that is erratic, explosive, and unpredictable. Hydraulic systems
used for operating stalls and gates within the milking parlor should be fitted
with over-pressure relief valves to assure that the forces generated do not injure
the cattle.

SECTION 5. DRY COW CARE

INTRODUCTION
A "dry" cow is a cow that is not producing milk (lactating). Daily milking is
usually ceased abruptly after a dairy cow has been lactating for 10 to 12 months.
The dry period (non-lactating) ideally begins 40 to 60 days prior to the next
calving. The dry period allows for involution and regeneration of milk secretory
tissue in the udder. This process takes 3 to 4 weeks. Cows which are given a dry
period of less than 30 days will produce less milk in the subsequent lactation. A
minimum dry period of 55 to 60 days after the first lactation, and 50 to 55 days
after the second lactation is recommended. Older cows require a minimum dry
period of 40 to 50 days. A dry period of more than 70 days can contribute to

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obesity at calving. Obese cows are more likely to have calving difficulties and
metabolic disorders.

FEEDING AND NUTRITION

Nutrient and energy requirements for dry dairy cows are lower than for lactating
cows. The feeding program during the dry period will vary depending upon the
cow's calving date, but should be designed to adjust body condition, provide for
growth of the fetus, and prepare for lactation. The energy requirements of the
dry cow are lower than the lactating cow. Forages, such as hay, can be used as
the primary feedstuffs in dry cow rations and are usually the least expensive
source of required nutrients. These fibrous feeds help maintain the strength of
ruminal muscles and general rumen health. Cows entering the dry period in
proper body condition should be fed only roughages such as hay, pasture,
greenchop, and silage until about three weeks before calving. Mineral
supplementation may be necessary with some roughage sources. These dry cows
should gain 1 to 1.5 pounds per day to allow for the growth of the fetus. Thin
(condition score below 2.50) dry cows should be grouped separately and fed a
higher energy ration to allow them to regain optimal body condition. Obese cows
(condition score of 4.00 or above) will have more calving and health problems.
These cows should be grouped separately and fed low quality forages with
protein supplemented separately. All dry cows should be fed diets with crude
protein levels of at least 15% of dry matter intake.

HEALTH CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Cows recently dried off should be carefully monitored until their udders no
longer produce milk. Cows developing hard, swollen quarters should be milked
out. This will help remove the bacteria and toxins responsible for the
inflammation. Approximately half of all new mastitis infections occur in the
early dry period. Cows are also particularly susceptible to new infections when
milk is present in the udder. Therefore, it is important to keep dry cows in clean
corrals or pastures especially close to calving. Dry-cow therapy is an important
component of a mastitis control program because it reduces the number of
persistent udder infections and new dry period infections. Dry-cow therapy
consists of infusing at the end of a lactation each quarter of the udder with a
registered, Food and Drug Administration approved, long-lasting antibiotic. It is
most beneficial if all four quarters of all cows undergo treatment at the end of
each lactation. If the herd level of contagious mastitis is low, the producer and
the veterinarian may consider treating only cows that have a record of mastitis
infection or high somatic cell counts. Dry-cow therapy has several advantages
over treatment of mastitis during lactation. During the dry period, higher drug
dosages can be used safely since the antibiotics remain in the udder of the non-
lactating cow which increases the cure rate and reduces the risk of milk
contamination from drug residues compared to lactational therapy. A sterile,

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individual syringe should always be used to avoid introducing infectious
organisms into the udder. Other health treatments may be administered at this
time, depending upon local disease problems and specific herd problems. Any
necessary vaccinations should be scheduled well in advance of calving to allow
the production of desired immunoglobulins in the colostrum. Cows with
diagnosed parasite infections can also be treated during the dry period.
Directions should be carefully followed on all vaccines and medicines, as certain
modified live virus vaccines and some drugs can cause abortion.

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UNIT 17: POULTRY PRODUCTION

The moment one thinks of raising chickens commercially, the next point to click
in to the mind should be the available space plus the ability to raise such poultry
structures. Poultry includes the chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks and other birds.
Space available and size of poultry unit to be constructed directly governs your
number of poultry to purchase and raise. When resources are available, one can
go ahead constructing the poultry house(s). Alas! Consider the following when
siting and or constructing the poultry house:
 The house should be far away from other structures which restrict air
movement
 Be at least 20 m from other chicken houses
 The house design should allow adequate ventilation
 The site should be well drained
 Should be convenient to the caretaker
 Should not be built on top of decaying organic matter
 Water (clean) should be available all the time
 Consider putting a concrete floor with a smooth finish for easy of cleaning
 Should be bird and rodent proof
 Should have asbestos roof, it is water proof, and does not absorb heat,
grass thatch harbor parasites and diseases and also not cleanable
 Orientation of the room should be North-South facing (doors) such that
sun never shines into the room

Feed Review
Purchase feed in time. From the feed houses feed can be purchased as mash or
concentrate. Mash is feed that is ready for chick consumption. Concentrate has
high nutrient levels, which are toxic to your birds and need to be diluted by
maize meal (largely in Zimbabwe). For budgetary measures, allow:
 1.5 kg per bird broiler starter mash from day old to 3-4 weeks
 3.5 kg per bird broiler finisher mash from 3-4 weeks up to slaughter.
Please note that during the winter season, brooding goes to 4 weeks and
in summer, brooding takes usually 3 weeks.
 2 kg of chick mash per bird from day old to 8 weeks
 5 kg of layer growers mash per bird from 8 weeks –18 weeks
 135 g of layer production mash per bird per day from 19 weeks +
Feed availability dictates the number of birds you can raise up to end of
production. If the housing is there, feed available, one can order the chickens

Ordering
Chicks can be ordered from various chick breeders in Zimbabwe. These include
Ross Breeders, Crest Breeders, Irvines Day Old Chicks, Charles Stewart, etc. It is

87
imperative to order your chicks from reputable chick breeders, not by the
roadside! Reputable breeders do the vaccinations for you in the hatchery and can
replace stocks, which die of tran sovarian diseases, or diseases, which trace back
to the hatchery or breeder‘s shortfalls.

Preparation for chick arrival

When an order for chicks has been placed, prepare for their arrival.
 The house you will receive them (brooder) should have been vacant for at
least a week. Two weeks are enough to break the life cycle of most
microorganisms that cause disease to your chickens.
 Remove all equipment from the house – curtains, waterers, feederers, etc.
 Remove cobwebs, dust thoroughly, wash and scrub the walls and
equipment with detergent.
 Repair and service the equipment
 Disinfect the room with high pressure spray so that the spray is forced to
reach cracks and crevices if not patched up
 Let equipment dry
 Preferably, patch up crevices, pathogens and external parasites are
harbored in cracks
 Cover floor with absorbent type mould free and moist free litter to a depth
of 5-15 cm.
 Check ventilation system, if ammonia builds up to and above 25 ppm, the
condition becomes detrimental to your birds.
 Put heaters in place and switch them on 24 hours before the chick arrival
 Fill waterers several hours before the chicks‘ arrival so that water is at
environmental temperature as the chicks arrive.
 Put feed in the brooder several hours before the chick arrival. If you need
to withdraw food, make sure it is somewhere in the same house
 Put light in place and make sure the lights are working
 Round up corners so that chicks do not huddle at corners they suffocate
and die- hay bales, ceiling boards and galvanized metal sheeting can be
used
 Put a brooder guard in place
 Prepare for chick collection

Chick Quality.
When collecting your chicks, ensure that you are taking good quality chicks.
Good quality chicks are those, which are:
 Free of diseases
 Without deformed beaks
 Without cracked toes
 With perfectly healed navels

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  Without pasty vents
 Preferably hatched from eggs greater than or equal to 52g
 Of uniform size
 Active, alert and bright eyed
 Shank of leg appear bright and shiny

If the chicks are sound, then they can be collected and ferried to the rearing site.
Remember that the chicks have just been hatched they are delicate. Don‘t put
them on top of bus, on back of an open truck where they are subject to rain, heat
and wind draught. These factors stress your birds and result in high first week
mortality. Mortality should not exceed 5% for entire production period for
broilers and up to 16 weeks for layers. After 16 weeks, mortality should not
exceed 1% each month for laying birds.

Brooding phase
Remove chicks carefully from the delivery van. Chicks are put in a brooder
house. Feed chicks 6-12 hours after collection. If you have a breakdown during
transit, don‘t panic, they can survive up to 3 days without feed; they will be
nourished on the egg yolk. If you delay reaching point of rearing, as you arrive,
withdraw feed and give them 8% sugar solution. Withdraw feed for up to 2-3
hours such that there is only water with sugar of which they will be forced to
drink. Sugary (8%) water boosts the energy reserves for your chicks. Then give
them a vitamin supplement for a week to boost their immune systems.
Bottom line of brooding is to supplement heat. Remember that the chicks are
poorly feathered and lose heat generated by the body hence the need to put
external heating facilities. Heat sources can be:
 Infa red lamps – 1 lamp for 50 chicks
 Gas heater – one gas brooder can brood up to 1000 chicks
 Modro type – imitation of modro tobacco barns
 Charcoal burner – allow much ventilation to prevent build up of carbon
monoxide.
Brooding temperature for the first week should be 35oC. Thermometers are used
but the best thermometer is the chick. It shows temperature by its behaviour.
When chicks are cold they tend to huddle in corners or closer to the heat source
and they are very noisy. When they are too hot, they move far from the heat
source, are panting, they spread wings trying to accommodate much air and can
be noisy. Too much heat too, delays feathering. If the temperatures are ideal, the
chicks are freely moving, actively feeding and enjoying their life on earth.
Start keeping records which include the following: Type of birds e.g. broilers,
breed, source e.g. Ross breeders, delivery date (age), number received, daily
mortality, culls, vaccinations and medications, feed type, feed consumption,
weight gain, expenses, etc.

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During brooding, allow:
 About 50 chicks per 4 litre chick font for broilers
 About 25 chicks/m2 floor space for broilers
 Layers, allow 4m2 for 100 birds from 0-4 weeks + 1.5m trough space.
 5 cm feeding space/bird for layer birds up to 3-10 weeks
 3-12 weeks, 10 cm/layer bird as watering space
Place feed on egg trays or flat hard board. Lighting should be adequate for chicks
to see the feed. However, if infra red lamps are used, light is not necessary.
Provide 1 hour of darkness per every 24 hours with broilers so that they
experience darkness and are not stressed in cases of power failure. Provide 15
watts bulb at a height of 2.4m for every 20m2. 60 watts bulb is usually used per
20m2 for the first 14 days for chicks to see the feed and water. In 10-15 days,
gradually replace the feederers and waterers with adult sizes. Remove the heat
source after 18 days. During brooding, for layer chicks, allow 18 hours of light for
the first week to ensure a good start and 6 hours of darkness. From 2-8 weeks,
give the layer chicks 6 hours light and 18 hours darkness to delay sexual
maturity. Litter turning is very important so as litter removal. Water should not
be spilled on to the litter as much as possible. Wetting litter combined with poor
ventilation leads to diseases and build up of ammonia. High ammonia levels
decrease growth; reduce feed conversion ratio, cause breast blisters (this leads to
down grading), bad feathering and condemnation. Waterers should not be more
than 3m apart and the depth of water be 2.5cm.

Causes of bad feathering, cannibalism and feather picking

 Too hot under the brooder
 Overcrowding
 Poor ventilation
 Incorrect feeding

Please note the following

 Broilers are kept in the brooder house from day old to 3 to 4 weeks.
 Layers are brooded up to 6-8 weeks. Longer periods are in winter and
shorter in summer.
 Broilers here are fed on broiler starter mash
 Layer chicks are fed on chick mash

Finishing phase for broilers + growing phase and laying phase for layers
From 3-4 weeks onwards, broilers are called finishers at this phase. Layers are
called pullets from 8 weeks-18-20 weeks. As a layer starts dropping eggs, it
ceases to be called a pullet but a layer. With layer birds it is important to observe
lighting regime to delay sexual maturity. Broilers still need 1 hour of darkness to
avoid panic in power failures.
 8-18 weeks pullets are fed on layer growers mash

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  18+ weeks they are fed on layers mash (production)
 Broilers from 3-4 weeks up to slaughter are fed on broiler finisher mash.
 Six weeks of age is the cut off point for broilers after which returns
diminish.
Broilers do not usually need debeaking. Layers need debeaking to avoid
cannibalism, feather picking and egg eating. These are caused by:
 Overcrowding
 Too high temperatures
 Improper ventilation
 Poor feederer/waterer space
 Too much light which promote a lot of activity
 Improper nutrition.
Feederers should in all cases be one third full. This reduces feed wastage;
remember feed constitutes 60-80% of total production costs. Allow 5 cm feeding
space per bird for broilers and 10-14 broilers per m2 during the finishing phase.
Broilers will require 1.5-2.5 cm drinking space per bird depending on age.
For Layers, 5-8 weeks allow 9m2/100 birds and 3.0m-trough space. 9-20 weeks,
allow 12m2/100 birds and trough space should be 6.0m. Layers require 10-15 cm
feeding space each and 5 cm drinking space. If you leave them overcrowded, you
promote cannibalism, damp litter, poor health, high mortality, depressed feed
intake and hence depressed performance. Provide one nest of 30 cm2 for 4-6
hens. Keep nests with soft and clean material inside.

Target weight gains for broilers

Week Weight (g)
1 100
2 260
3 500
4 800
5 1300
6 1650
7 2000

Make sure you give the birds the water that you are prepared to drink. Birds
drink 2-3 kilos of water per each kilo of feed consumed. A raise in temperature
tend to cause increase in water consumption. Test water for mineral content and
possible pollution problems. Drinkers should be cleaned at least once a day and
filled with fresh water. Drinkers should be adjusted such that they are level with
the back of an average bird to reduce spillages at the same time, allowing easy
access to water. Litter should be dry and loose all the time. Dry dusty bedding
should not be turned as dust irritates the eyes.

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Lighting Regime for Layers
Increasing day length stimulates egg production. Longer day lengths promote
early sexual maturity, which is not desirable as it reduce egg out put and egg
size. Shorter day lengths delay sexual maturity. Artificial light is used to control
day length.

Age in weeks Hours of light Hours of darkness

0-1 18 6
2-8 6 18
9-22 Increase light by 40 minutes/week to give stimulus at first laying
23+ Increase light by 20 minutes /week to give 18 hours constant

* Layers lay eggs in batches and have a rest time to involute the reproductive
system. As they start laying, the batches can be as long as 10-20 eggs per
sequence. During laying, a good layer drops an egg every 25-27 hours. Length of
the batch tends to decrease with age and can be as low as 4 eggs per batch.

Optimum temperature is 21oC, temperature above 24oC for long periods reduce:
production, egg quality, egg weight and bird appetite.

Layers Management Problems

Broodiness
Tendency to sit on the eggs for incubation. This is associated with the hormone
prolactin. Problem is common in deep litter systems. Inheritable, so cull against
broodiness. Also, remove eggs as soon as is possible.

Moulting
This is a natural process. Birds lose feathers to regain another set of feathers.
Initiated by thyroxine hormone triggered by decrease in day length, too,
triggered by stress related to lack of feed and water. Moulting birds cease
production for 8-12 weeks. Force moult your layers if you anticipate price
increase (present price being poor) or when their laying percentage has gone low
(below 65%) and you don‘t have replacement stock.

Egg eating
This is caused by overcrowding, delayed egg picking, malnutrition, lack of
entertainment, etc. Correct by reversing the causes + debeaking and hanging
vegetable leaves (raw) around the run so that the layers spend time pecking
them and entertained.

Feather picking
Caused by too hot conditions, overcrowding, poor ventilation, etc. Reverse this
by reversing the causes.

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Vaccinations
Vaccinate your stock to prevent diseases. Newcastle disease and Infectious
Bursal Disease (Gumboro) post high mortalities. Vaccinate birds according to the
type of bird and recommendation from the local poultry veterinarian.

Diseases
Diseases are caused by microorganisms, which can be virus, protozoa, bacteria,
etc. Take time to read around and familiarize yourself with wide range of
diseases affecting poultry. I will briefly discuss one viral, one protozoal and one
bacterial.

Coccidiosis
This disease is caused by protozoa. It affects all ages of birds. It is infectious and
ubiquitous. Occur mostly on conditions of high stocking density, dirtiness, high
temperatures and high humidity. If protozoa encysted, it withstands adverse
conditions for months and or years. Temperatures above 560c and below
freezing point are lethal to the protozoa, so as desiccation. Coccidiosis cause
impaired Feed Conversion Ratio.
Signs
Diarrhoea, thirsty for water, ruffled feathers, dirty vent and depression
Control
Hygiene, vaccination, prophylactics, treatment

Newcastle Disease
This is a viral disease, affects all major species of domestic fowls.
Spread
Depends on organ virus multiplies. Aerosol-through bird showing respiratory
signs; ingestion of contaminated faeces; indirectly through water and food;
movement of birds and their products, personnel, wild animals and birds.
Signs
Vary with infecting virus, species of birds, immune status and condition of
rearing. They include:
Sudden death, prostration, diarrhoea, depression, oedema of the head, 100%
possible mortality, respiratory signs (sneezing, gurgling, coughing, difficult
breathing), drop in egg production, nervous signs (neck twisting, wing paralysis,
uncoordinated movement).
Control
Slaughter policy, Restrict movement of poultry and poultry produce, ring
vaccination, prophylactic vaccination, vaccination, hygiene.

Salmonella Pullorum (Bacillary White Diarrhoea)

This is a bacterial disease. Is transovarian. Affects mainly domestic chicken.

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Transmission
This is via microorganisms localized in the ovary. Progeny during hatching or
brooding can be source of infection to susceptible birds in contact with them.
Can be transmitted during sexing, or by objects contaminated by chicks like
attendant‘s hands, chick boxes, etc
Signs
Show predominantly to chicks less than three weeks.
There are large number of dead-in-shell, death shortly after hatching, depression
with tendency to huddle, respiratory distress, anorexia, white viscous droppings
that adhere to the feathers around vent (hence BWD), mortality can be as high as
100%, lameness, swollen hock joints, pale shrunken comb.
Control
 Eradication, hens and chicks
 Prophylactics
 Treatment with furazolidone
 Hygiene reduce losses

Marketing
Broilers
Broilers can be marketed as live or dressed. The customer selects live ones on
visual appraisal. Customer may need to purchase dressed birds from you.

Slaughtering and dressing

Weigh live mass. Hang the broilers on shackles through a hock joint up side
down. Use dim or blue light to keep chickens calm. Stun by electric shock passed
through a bath of water. Use current between 50-70 volts. Current should not kill
the birds! If they are killed, they will take long to bleed which is not desirable.
After stunning, they are killed by severing the blood vessels in the neck; trachea
and esophagus are not cut. Let them bleed for more than 90 seconds over a
bleeding cone, which collects blood.

Defeathering
Immerse carcass in hot water for 30-75 seconds at 50-550c (soft scalding). By soft
scalding, yellow colour of skin is retained. Hard scalding at 55-650c results in
white skin and yellow skin is lost.
 Pluck the feathers
 Remove head and feet
 Remove neck
 Eviscerate
 Wash and cool carcass
 Cool to temperatures less than 100c at breastbone as soon as after
evisceration, this reduces bacterial growth and lengthens shelf life.
 Weigh the carcass and record cold dressed mass

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Marketing eggs
A market research is necessary. Customers appreciate good eggshell and then a
good quality shell should reach the market.
Egg quality may be influenced by:
 Breeding
 Nutrition
 Environment
 Management – egg handling, grading, storage, packing, transportation
External quality is influenced by:
 Strength and colour of the shell
 Egg shape
 Egg texture
Shell quality depends on:
 Feeding,
 Age – as the flock ages, shell thickens more
 House temperature – as temperature exceed 280c, thickness decreases
 Disease also affects the thickness and soundness of the shell.
Selling of layers that are no longer productive is usually done. They are sold as
live and then called off layers.

Biosecurity
Offer security to the life of your stock, this makes you stay in business and
reduce expenditure on treatments. Observe the following and look for more
biosecurity measures:
 Don‘t mix stocks
 Observe vaccination programmes
 Restrict movement in your unit by fencing around
 There always should be a footbath at every house entrance with a
disinfectant
 Provide a wheel bath with disinfectant at the car gate large enough for the
wheel to roll in as vehicles get in or out of the unit
 Destroy dead birds of unknown cause or disease by burning
 Give balanced diet
 Provide protective clothing for workers and visitors so that the don‘t jump
foot baths
 Give a rest period between flocks of +7 days, better if longer.
 Poultry houses to be animal and bird proof
 Always clean with a detergent and preferably also use a disinfectant
between flocks.
 Control flies and rodents, these bring diseases like Salmonella
 Always start with young birds when visiting or any operation and then
proceed to the older ones.

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  Move from disease free house to the diseased house each time.

After the practical today, you meet your neighbour who was keen to meet
you because he had been informed you are doing Agric as a degree. He tells you
he has already paid for 100 broiler chicks to collect in the next two weeks. Is
informed that the shops sell broiler concentrate and for first 4 weeks, the
concentrate is mixed at a ratio of 2 parts concentrate: 3 parts maize meal, and
from 4 weeks to slaughter, the concentrate is mixed at 1 part concentrate: 2 parts
maize meal. Can you calculate and advise him how much of concentrate and
maize he should buy for the entire production period considering that the first 4
weeks, each broiler consumes 1.5 kg and need 3.5 kg of feed from 4 weeks to
slaughter.

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UNIT 18: PIG PRODUCTION

Introduction
In this unit we will be looking at the origin of pigs and their relatives. We will
also look at the uses of pigs and the products that we get from them. After that
we will look at pig breeds and their economic characteristics. We will consider
pure-breeding and crossbreeding systems used in pigs. The concept of traits of
economic importance will be discussed before we look at selection of breeding
animals.

Origin of domestic pigs

It is generally believed that all the present domesticated breeds of pigs originated
from two wild types viz. Sus vittatus- the wild pig of east and south east Asia and
Sus scrofa- the European wild pig. Domestication occurred a long time ago.
Domesticated pigs were present in Turkey around 7000 years BC and in China
around 3000 BC. Pigs of the Asia-type were introduced into the Mediterranean
region of Europe in Roman times and were crossed with local pigs. Around the
same time Chinese pigs were introduced into Britain and were crossed with the
‗Old English ‗ pigs. They were introduced principally for their prolificacy and
their characteristic early maturity associated with a capacity to fatten. Therefore
the ‗modern ‗ breeds have been derived from crosses that included South East
Asian, Mediterranean and European pigs. The Spanish introduced the pigs into
Caribbean Islands, Central and South America. In early colonial days, in
America, pigs were introduced from Britain and Continental Europe. In
Australia, domestic pigs were imported mainly from Britain. In Africa, domestic
pigs probably are related to the Mediterranean-type.

Pig breeds and their characteristics

The animal kingdom is divided into species. Two species do not interbreed or do
not produce fertile progeny when mated. Within a species different breeds can
be distinguished. A breed is a certain group of animals (a population) that differs from
other groups within the same species in respect of definite genetically determined traits.
The traits that mark a breed can be qualitative, like skin colour, position of ears
on the head. They could be quantitative like body mass, body type and
production traits. Purebred animal refers to an animal that is registered or
eligible for registration in the herd book. Purebred animals constitute a selected
group of animals for use in breeding. The requirements for animal‘s acceptance
in the herd book vary with time and place (it depends on breeding policy and
purpose and is not biologically determined). The division of species into breeds
is justified because the animals that constitute the breeds have been specialized
for different purpose and for different local conditions. A breed can be sub-
divided into different strains. A strain being a group of animals within a breed
that are more or less isolated from each other due to geographic conditions or

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when the aim of breeding is different. A line is a collection of animals that, as a
result of inbreeding are more closely related to each other than the average
individual animals in the breed or strain.

Large white
The breed was developed in UK around 1850 by crossing the indigenous
European breed and an indigenous breed from Asia. The breed is the most
common and popular worldwide. It is white, with dished face and has erect ears.
It has stronger straight legs and is a meat breed. It is a large breed capable of fast
growth and has good FCR. It produces lean carcasses with good length. The
sows from this breed are prolific breeders with average litters of 12 to 14 piglets
per litter and high milk production. It is a maternal breed. Mature pigs of this
breed can reach a live mass of 500kg. But they tend to have heavy shoulders.

Landrace
Landrace is a breed native to Denmark, Sweden and Norway. It was derived
from crossbreds between large white (from Britain in 1895) and local sows in
Denmark. It was developed for bacon. It is a white breed with straight face and
hanging (drooping) ears. The landrace has a long body (it has an extra lumbar
vertebra) that makes it much suitable for bacon production and has light
shoulders. It is a meat type pig. It has more eye muscle. However, it is
susceptible to injury and therefore high standards of management are required
as well as proper selection. It has good growth rate and fertility of 10 to 13 piglets
per litter. It has good FCR and mothering ability. But when confined to concrete
pens the breed demonstrates consistent lameness.

Duroc
The breed originates from New Jersey, the eastern region of the USA. It was
possibly developed from old English colonial breeds and pigs from West Africa
and the Mediterranean region. It is red, but colours may range from light golden
to dark red. The breed can be as big as 700 kg. It has been transformed through
crossbreeding from a lard-type to a pork/meat type breed. It has slightly
hanging ears. Duroc excels all other breeds in muscle quality. It has the lowest
stress syndrome incidences. Duroc has average mothering ability and litter size
of 10 piglets. It is adaptable to varied environmental conditions. It has good FCR
and growth rate.

Welch
The breed originates from Scotland. The size is in between the large white and
landrace. It is a white breed with drooping ears very similar to the landrace. It
does not perform as well as the landrace. In Zimbabwe it is used in
crossbreeding.

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Hampshire
The breed originates from Southern England but also now the USA. It is black
pig with a white belt around the forequarters. It has a long face with straight
(erect) ears and face. It has good meat quality and reproduction. Hampshire has
excellent lean meat percentage and average FCR and daily gain. In Zimbabwe it
is used mainly in crossbreeding.

Indigenous pig, Mkota

They originate from the Northern part of Zimbabwe. They are hardy and long
nosed pigs. They can survive on low nutritional status. They attain mature mass
of 110kg. But they have heavy forequarters that are undesirable. They have
excellent mothering ability though the litter size is poor at 4 to 8 piglets. The FCR
is comparable to the exotics. The coat colour may range from reddish brown,
black and white or could be spotted. They are mainly kept in the communal
areas and are not penned. Their diet is therefore variable. Puberty is reached at
120 days. It is an early maturing breed. Fat deposition is mainly subcutaneous
and thus facilitates trimming to give a lean carcass. A fair opinion is that
palatability is equal to if not better than that of exotic breeds.

Characteristics /traits of importance in pig production

All characteristics are only partly determined by genetic factors (G) and are
influenced by the environment (E). In the tropical countries or regions
environmental factors are more limiting than genetic factors. They hinder genetic
improvement. Not all traits are of the same importance. The relative importance
depends on the breeding goals of the pig production in that part of the world
and the use of the pig in that area.

Uses of pigs
Meat production
Suckling pigs are slaughtered at 1 to 4 weeks of age when they weigh 2 to 6 kg.
The carcass is chilled and sold for roasting. This is popular in China. Pork
production is another use. Pork is fresh or salted flesh of pigs when dressed for
food. Pigs for pork produce lean meat at early age. The weight at which pigs are
slaughtered for this purpose varies considerably. The range is from 40kg to 85
kg. Pork pigs are sold in the form of complete carcass. The third meat production
from pigs is bacon production and other cured products. Bacon is a side of a pig
after removal of the spare ribs and after being cured dry or in pickle, and smoke
(brine-cured bacon). Pigs for bacon are slaughtered at 90kg to 110 kg live mass.
The carcass is split, removing the back bon and chilled. The carcass for this type
of production should have a well-developed ham and eye muscle, without a
heavy covering of fat.

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Lard fat production
These pigs produce mainly fat. They show a typical block shape. The lard pigs
are grown to heavy weight 100 to 150kg live mass. They are given diets that
promote fat deposition and at slaughter the fat is removed and rendered for use
in cooking. This is mainly in African and Asian countries.

The characteristics of economic importance

Constitution/Hardness
This can be defined as the extent to which an animal can adapt itself to the
circumstance in which it lives (the ability to survive). It is related to resistance,
tolerance and immunity to certain diseases. The quality of the legs and the
walking ability of the pigs is related to hardiness. The colour of the skin may also
influence hardness especially where there is insufficient shade. A bad
constitution results in a high mortality rate. This rate depends for a major part on
the conditions in which the animal lives (E) and is only to a small extent partly
determined by the genetic factors (G).

Reproductive traits/ performance.

These are very important traits in pig production. In females, the length of the
pre-pubertal period should be considered. This is the period from birth until the
first heat. In modern improved breeds, first heat occurs normally at the age of 6
to 8 months. For some tropical breeds it occurs at 4 months. The oestrus cycle for
most known breeds is about 21 days. In general sows are in heat 3 to 11 days
after weaning. A period of about 180 days is considered normal for the period
between two consecutive gestations. The length of the gestation of different
breeds varies from 101 to 130 days. For most important breeds the gestation lies
between 112 and 115 days (3months-3weeks-3days). The ovulation rate indicates
the number of eggs released from the ovaries. The range is 20 to 25 egg cells. This
is not easily measured on the farm. The same applies to the number of fertilized
ova that implant in the uterus. The pre-natal mortality refers to mortality during
gestation before birth. There is very little information available on this trait. A
pre-natal mortality of 30 to 40 % is considered normal. The greatest loss occurs in
the first month of gestation. It is also known that environmental factors are
important for this trait. Another trait is the number of pregnant sows per 100
sows served or per 100 inseminations. This essentially measures the conception
rate. The frequency of abortions in the herd will affect your production levels.
The litter size refers to the number of piglets born per litter. This trait is affected
by the ovulation rate and pre-natal mortality. The mass at birth per piglet or per
total litter is important. This affects the chances of the piglets to survive. Mass at
birth varies with breed from 0.64kg to 1.5kg with an average of 1.0kg. The pre-
weaning mortality is important. There is a strong relationship between pre-
weaning mortality and mothering ability of the sow (bad/good milkers). The
level of 15 to 20 % is considered good, but it may get as high as 30%. The trait is

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influenced by heterosis. The number of piglets weaned per sow per year is
another trait of economic significance. In Zimbabwe, it is in the range of 14 to 20,
with an average of 16. It depends on the sow‘s ability to shelter and protect her
litter (mothering ability) and the number of farrowings per year (the litter index).
The length of time that the sow stays in production, also called longevity, is very
important. If it is long, then there is the opportunity to select only superior
replacement gilts. This translates to greater overall pig unit performance. In
Zimbabwe, a sow is kept for an average of 6 litres equivalent of 3 years (36
months) in production. In males, the quality of the semen is important. This will
be looking at the number of spermatozoa, the motility and the proportion of live
to dead sperm cells and the proportion of the normal to abnormal cells. The
libido or sex drive, the desire of the boars to seek and serve females on heat will
also affect reproductive performance of the pig unit. The working life of a boar is
3 years (36 months).

Fattening traits
Growth rate, which is the daily gain in grams per day, is an important trait in pig
production. It varies greatly from 350 to 1000g per day. It depends on the breed
and the composition of the gain. In Zimbabwe the average is 650g per day. It will
determine the number of fattening houses required in the pig unit. The feed
conversion ratio (FCR) is paramount. This varies from 2.5 to 10. It depends on the
quality of the feed and the feeding system that is used on the farm (restricted
versus ad lib), the age and mass of the pigs and the composition of the gain
(meat/fat).

Carcass traits
These include the mass of the warm (hot) and cold carcass. This shows the
amount of carcass shrinkage. The killing out percentage or dressing out % tells of
the actual saleable meat. The fat %/meat % and bone % in the carcass is very
important. Colcom (pvt) Ltd is now paying based on the meat yield per carcass.
This is affected by the shape of the carcass i.e. the proportion of the hind end, the
length of the carcass etc. The quality of the meat as determined by the colour,
texture, tenderness, juiceness (moisture in the meat), the flavour, the intra-
muscular and inter-muscular fat, the back fat (depth) thickness, fat colour and
the firmness of the fat is another important trait to be considered.

Other traits
These include behaviour (temperament) and aggressiveness, colour of the skin
and hair, position and shape size of ears, body conformation (length, size, depth
etc) and the number of teats of the sows.

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SELECTION
This is the systematic choice of animals according to fixed guidelines from a
population as parents of the next generation. The animals to be selected must be
superior in the traits that they are to be selected for. For this to be possible, there
is need for good record keeping (identification of animals and accurate
registration of the performance of the animals). Culling should be done. Culling
describes the removal of inferior animals. Therefore selection and culling
improve the average performance of the group of animals. Selection is based on
the phenotype or the measurements taken on the animal or it relatives. The aids
to selection are tools used for helping to get to select the animals. These include
individual or mass performance testing. This is where animals are selected based
on their individual record of production. The progeny testing is another aid to
selecting where the animal is selected based on the performance of the progeny.
This is not used here in Zimbabwe. Pedigree selection involves the use of the
pedigree information as the basis for selection. Sib testing can also be used where
information of relatives, full sibs, half sibs are used. In some cases all these aids
to selection are used. These aids to selection are used to get the breeding values.
Animals to be selected should be subjected to the same environment. The
selection methods are; tandem selection, where one trait is selected for until the
desired level is reached before starting selection for another trait. The second
method is the independent culling levels, where set standards are set and only
those animals meeting those levels are selected. The selection index is the one
that is used in most developed countries where a number of traits are combined
together to come up with a single figure called the index. In doing this selection
it is important to know what happens to one trait when selection is applied for
another trait. This is expressed in the correlation between traits.

Mating methods
This is how the selected animals are mated. In pig production, it will be which
boar is to mate which sow or gilt. The mating systems can be pure breeding
where the animals mated are of the same breed. The breeders or producers of
seed stock mostly use this. The good and the bad traits of both breeds will be
combined in the offspring. Crossbreeding is the breeding system used on
commercial pig farms.

Zimbabwean situation on pig improvement.

The Pig Industry Board (PIB) whose roles are to run research programmes based
on 300-sow unit monitors the improvement. This research is mostly on nutrition,
breeding and housing of pigs, it offers national advisory services to the farmers
and publishes literature and regular newsletters. PIB offers training programmes
at different levels to the farmers and to the stockman. It offers genetic
improvement service through the central station testing and on farm testing
service. There is the use of the major breeds imported over the last 50 to 60 years.

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Basically, there is a pyramidal genetic movement of the Nucleus Breeding
Scheme.

Nucleus herd

Multiplier herd

Commercial herds

The Pedigree breeders in the country do the nucleus and multipliers‘ duties and
the testing is done by PIB. PIB used to do progeny and performance testing, but
are now only doing the latter due financial problems. In the performance testing
they assess the growth rate, FCR, and the back-fat thickness. They also visually
appraise the legs, and movement and the development of the animals.

Selection of breeding stock within a unit

Gilts
Selection of breeding gilts within a herd is an important tool to improve herd
performance and to solve specific problems within the herd. Some traits of the
sow have high heritability and others have low heritability. Yet all of them
account for the breeding value of the sow. Gilt selection in a herd should start in
the farrowing house. Gilts should be selected from large litters although litter
size has a low heritability. Gilts should be selected for good mothering ability
and absence of sow aggression on the litter. Gilts from a temperamental sow
should not be selected. The sow aggression shortly after parturition is often
related to inadequate preparation for parturition. Sows and gilts should enter
their farrowing pens at least 7 days before parturition, and bedding material
will allow their nest building behaviour and get them better prepared for giving
birth. The gilts should have 14 teats that are all functional and evenly spaced.
Teat necrosis that occurs shortly after birth results in blind teats. This normally
coincides with the swelling of the vulva of the newly born and taping the teats
can prevent teat necrosis. Gilts should be selected from a litter that is well-
nourished and uniform in size. These two will indicate that the sow is producing
enough milk and the piglets easily induce milk ejection. The litter size at weaning
should be at least 10 to avoid negative selection. Gilts should be selected for good
body conformation, length and good movements. They should come from multi-
parous sows because the performance of gilt litters in general is not optimal. The
desirable (on the left) and undesirable characteristics of pigs used to choose
replacements are shown in the diagrams below.

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Desirable and undesirable Conformation characteristics of pigs

Body shape

Wedge shaped

Conclusion
The present day pigs were present in Turkey and China a long time ago. They
then migrated from there to the rest of the world. You must be able to
distinguish the different breeds of pigs. In Zimbabwe the main breeds of pigs
used are the Large White, Landraces, Duroc and lately the Dalland. The breeding
animals that you use in your herd should be selected based on functional
features from the head down to the feet.

Management of breeding pigs

Management of breedingstock
On any pig herd about 40% of the sows are replaced each year. Boars are
replaced at least every three years.

The young gilts

Homebred gilts
These are selected from the bacon pens at 5 months of age. Letting them mix
together hardens them. They are fed on 2 to 2.5 kg of sow and boar meal for
continued growth. Overfeeding and consequently an over fat gilt will have
smaller litters in later life. After a month the gilts should be moved to the service
pens within sight, smell, sound and contact with the boars

Bought in gilts.
These must be given special care and attention as the new environment is
stressful to them. It is stressful because they will meet new home with different

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systems, feeds etc. In most cases they meet a new pathogen challenge. Every pig
unit has its own type of pathogen population to which its pigs develop
immunity. The new gilts will not have this. A period of integration is therefore
essential in the case of bought in gilts. This enables them to develop immunity to
the infertility viruses (smedi or parvo virus) and to the coliform organisms that
cause trouble at farrowing. The gilts should be bought in batches, 6 to 8 weeks
before being served. On arrival check for any damage, lameness – a walk would
reveal whether any lameness or constipation is present. Move dung or after birth
from farrowing house to the gilts, to encourage immunity development or put
them together with pigs of the same age. Or put the gilts where older sows were.
Encourage the gilts to feed as much as possible. It may be necessary to give a
parvovirus vaccine in consultation with the veterinarian. The gilts should not be
served below 6 months and not lighter than100kg at service. The signs of heat
are; the gilt/sow show interest in the boar, swelling and reddening of the vulva,
restlessness, mounting other gilt/sows and there could be a clear mucus from the
vulva. To be sure that the gilt/sow is on heat a ‗riding test‘ can be given by
applying pressure on gilt‘s back. If she is on heat she will stand still and firmly
with the handler sitting on her back. Heat lasts for 50 to 60 hours and the
optimum period for fertility lasts for 24 hours. Ovulation occurs 24 to 36 hours
after the onset of heat. The boar should therefore serve about 12 hours after heat
detection. The sperm mass has a working life of 36 hours. Thus, gilts/sows on
heat in the afternoon should be served the following morning and again in the
afternoon. And those on heat in the morning should be served in the afternoon
and again in the following morning. One service is enough if the boar is fit. This
means that heat detection should be done twice per day, in the morning and
afternoon. Use young boars that are not too heavy for the gilts. If the gilts get to 7
to 8 months without showing heat signs then expose them to larger boars. If this
does not work, put them at the back of the truck and drive around the farm. The
stress will induce them to come on heat a day or two afterwards. At service
continue the integration of the gilts into the herd by housing them with the sows.
In cubicles or stalls, keep them side by side with sows. In a yard system a gate
between the sows and the gilts is enough. Watch carefully that the gilts/sows do
come on heat after 21 days after the service. Bring a boar to the sow or gilt to help
in the detection around 19 to 23 days after service. If they come, then they did not
conceive after mating. Gilts/sows that come on heat after mating twice should be
considered for culling as they end up with too many lost days. Make sure that
within the first 28 to 35 days after mating the sows/gilts are kept quiet.
Implantation occurs in this period and is affected by stress. Give them optimal
psychological, physical, nutritional and environmental conditions in this period.
Avoid changing houses during this period, grouping sows/gilts that may fight.
Thus group housing may not be the best at this time.

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Management of gilts/sows during pregnancy
This is a very important stage that lasts 115 days with a range of 110 to 120 days.
Feed the sow/gilts well during this stage such that it gains 15 to 30 kg live mass
for the first 3 to 4 lactations. This will ensure even out growth patterns, adequate
milk for the litter and avoids farrowing problems due to fatness. Feed between 2
to 3.5kg per day of 12 to 13 % crude protein that should be changed to 16 %
crude protein before lactation.

Management of gilt/sow and her litter

The number of weaned piglets per litter is the most important figure to the
survival of a pig unit. This figure depends on the care of the sow before, during
and after farrowing together with the litter.

Before farrowing.
De-worm the sow 8 to 10 days or 4 weeks before farrowing. Before she goes to
the farrowing unit brush her thoroughly with soap and water to remove worm
eggs. Spray her with a suitable acaricide (like tick buster or triatix spray) to kill
mange and lice. The sow must be accustomed to her environment before
farrowing, therefore she must be put in the farrowing unit 7 days before
farrowing. Watch for constipation seen in the form of hard dry dung. Feeding
silage or Lucerne or cabbage or rations with high fibre content can prevent this.
Digestive problems at this stage can be detrimental to milk production of the sow
after farrowing; this must be avoided by reducing the feed towards farrowing. 3
days before farrowing reduce the feed to 1 kg. Large losses in pig production are
usually caused by microbes like Escherichia coli (E.coli). The piglets have low
resistance and therefore must be protected. The farrowing unit should be
separated from the rest of the other pens. Strict hygiene measures must be
applied at all times. After removing the sow and her litter, the unit must be
cleaned thoroughly using a high-pressure spray and or hard broom. The floors
must be disinfected. When the unit is in use, the cleaning routine must be such
that the pen is kept as dry as possible. Daily use of water must be minimised.
Dirty and soiled bedding must be removed and replaced by dry bedding.
Provide light and heat 24 hours. Light attracts the piglets away from the sow
thereby avoiding crushing by the sow.

Management of gilts/sows during farrowing

Supervision is recommended particularly with gilts. The signs of farrowing are,
chewing of straw and making a nest where the sow has free movement. 24 hours
before farrowing the teats become turgid and a little /light squeeze can draw
milk. The udder appears full. 3 hours before there will be abdominal
contractions. The vulva becomes greatly enlarged. 2 hours –blood or blood
stained fluid comes out. When this occurs be quiet and allow peaceful
farrowing, to minimise upset. An upset sow can act savagely to the piglets

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(crush, cannibalise and may not allow the piglets to suckle). Different sows take
varying time to finish farrowing. This can last an average of 4 to 6 hours. There
must not be more than 30 to 45 minutes between two piglets. The piglets
normally break the umbilical cord therefore there is no need to pull the cord out.
If the interval is greater than 45 minutes you can walk the sow. If this does not
work then inject oxytocin and give assistance. The afterbirth (placenta) marks the
end of the farrowing process and note that the last piglet may be entangled in
this and can suffocate if not removed in time. Check that the sow is producing
milk from each teat, after farrowing. The sow may develop Mastitis, metritis
agalactia syndrome (MMA). The signs of MMA are lying on the belly (sore
udder) hot and hardy udder fever, whitish yellow discharge from the vulva, no
milk production and from the teats. This MMA syndrome often occurs in newly
farrowed sows either as a single entity or the 3 combined. The first essential
thing when this happens is to get milk flowing again. Give the hormone
partuitrin (prolactin) and an antibiotic like streptomycin. Repeat these 12 hours
later. If the condition persists consult a vet.

Check up of the sow after farrowing

Check the sows for health during the first few days after farrowing is very
important because:
 the piglets‘ health depends on that of the sow
 in case of illness quick action can be taken.
 the sow‘s ability to become pregnant can also be influenced by the health
of the sow at this stage.

Check the sow’s feed intake

The sow is given plenty of water. Give the sow feed gradually so that by the 7th
day she gets 1.5 to 2kg + 0.5kg per piglet given twice per day of 16 % crude protein.
E.g. sow has 10 piglets, then she get 2kg + 0.5 kg x 10 = 2kg + 5kg = 7kg/day. It
must be consuming all of its feed a day after farrowing.
 Check the milk production. (observe the piglets). Are some teats hard or
is the udder too warm (mastitis).
 Is the sow still pressing. Afterbirth could be retained. Check for this from
the vulva.
 Is the dung normal – constipation then give greens, Epson salts can be
given.
 If in doubt check the temperature, Normal is 39 – 40C. Any higher
temperature indicates an infection. Then the sow must be given an
antibiotic.

Care of the piglets during the first few days.

Mortality during the first days can be quite high. This may be caused by crushing
of the piglets by the sow. This in turn is caused by unsuitable farrowing pens or

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crates. Too low creep temperatures, too small and weak piglets, the sow having
poor legs and long bedding. The temperature in the creep area must be 26-350C

To prevent this there is need for good farrowing pens and crates. Keep the
temperature at 22C using gas or infrared lamps. Piglets born with little
subcutaneous fat and hairs still small provide plenty of bedding. Culling old and
weak sows

Other problems
 diarrhoea – scours improve the hygiene
 Abnormal piglets
 Give additional milk if sow is not producing enough milk.

Post Farrowing Management

The piglets should get colostrums within 12 hours. Dip the navel (umbilical
cord) in iodine to prevent infection (joint ill). Eyeteeth should be clipped on day
one. This is because these are very sharp and inflict wounds on sow‘s teats and
the sow may refuse to suckle her young due to the painful teats. The piglets
should be weighed within a day of birth. The average weight should be 1.3 to
1.5kg/piglet. Where tail biting is a problem detail at birth. Iron injection is very
important and it should be given on day one or within 3 days, can use red soil, or
iron capsules. The piglets are born with low iron because of insufficient iron
transfer across the placenta. Also the sow‘s milk has low iron content. Without
this iron, the piglets would suffer from iron deficiency, which is noticed in the
form of anaemia, scouring profusely and general unthrift ness.

Ear notching
This may be done together with iron injection, which is very important tool for
identification of animals. This should be done as early as possible to minimise
stress in the period of rapid growth.

Castration
Pigs are castrated to avoid perpetuation of genetically undesirable animals,
improve meat quality (avoid boar odour in meat due to the hormone
testosterone), castrates eat more and are more docile to handle than entire males.
The earlier it is done the better. Usually done between 10 – 21 days. Earlier than
a week it is difficult to find the testes and later than 21 days, you get unnecessary
bleeding. Ensure strict hygiene when castrating and disinfect all instruments.
The operator should wash and disinfect hands. Then make an incision and cut
through the membrane and press out the testes. Cut the spermatic cord close to
the body abruptly to avoid bleeding. Apply some iodine and wound powder.
Can‘t use burdizzo‘s forceps or elastrator ring in pigs nor the triple crush.
Castration is not being done in Zimbabwe these days.

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Creep Feeding
The sow‘s milk production decrease 3 weeks after farrowing and at this stage the
sow cannot meet the nutrient requirements of a normal litter. To compensate for
the shortage of nutrients the piglets must be given a creep ration. Provide a good
quality ration from the first week. This ration should be out of reach of the sow
in an area called the creep area. To encourage intake creep feed should be
palatable and highly digestible (18-19 % crude protein).

Advantages of creep feeding

The piglets are heavier at weaning. The pigs reach slaughter weight sooner than
those not fed creep feed, less fattener feed is required per pig to slaughter. Proper
creep feeding reduces diarrhoea and death. Gets the piglets used to taking solid
feed in preparation for weaning i.e. reduces the weaning stress. The feed trough
should be 300mm long by 150mm wide and 100mm deep with dividing
bars/wires to prevent piglets standing or lying in the troughs. Each piglet
consumes between 15 and 20kg up to 8 weeks when the feed is changed to
grower/fattener.

Weaning
The best age depends on the farm. The safest age is 7 to 8 weeks because this
gives the least of digestive problems and requires less of good standard housing
and the digestive system micro flora anatomy will be mature to digest solid feed.
Where management is good this can be done at 4 to 6 weeks of age. This enables
the production of two litter/sow/year. The sow is taken away from the litter
unless cages are used or weaning into cages. This is done to reduce shock to the
pigs and gives less digestive scours. The piglets should be given the same feed
they were receiving for at least a week after weaning. The change to a fattening
ration should be made gradually over a period of 7 days. If the pigs show signs
of bowl oedema and scours – remove the feed for 24 hours and provide a lot of
water, then start feeding the piglets again after 24 hours this time a little at first
then gradually increasing. Continue with provision of generous amounts of
bedding. Litters can be grouped together provided there were born within a
week of each other. They should only be grouped after two weeks after
weaning. Also provide plenty of bedding.

Multi-sucking
This is the mixing of sows, which have farrowed in the same week in one house.
This leads to the formation of a pool of weaners at weaning and therefore
reduces stress. There will be less capital requirements in form of houses for
rearing piglets. There can be a bit of fighting during eating by the piglets. There
is no opportunity to individually feed them if they have one trough. The
optimum number of sows to be mixed is 3. Do not mix gilts and sows. There is

109
need for adequate space 7 – 8 m2/sow. There is need for enough creep space and
plenty of water.

Litter records
Record sow and boar numbers, date of farrowing, date of weaning, litter size at
birth and sex, birth mass, weaning mass, litter size at weaning and weekly
masses.

Danish pen or English pen or combination system of weaning

Sow farrows and rears her litter in the pen and at weaning the sow is removed
and piglets remain in the house up to 11 weeks (23kg) then they are transferred
to fattening pens. There is less stress and pigs grow better – cheaper in terms of
construction costs. Disadvantage is that it is space consuming. The piglets start
with far more space than they need which is costly.

Conventional system
The sow farrows in the farrowing pen then, she and her litter are taken into
rearing pen then the piglets remain in rearing pen at weaning. The farrowing
pen will be different from the rearing pen.

Management of Dry Sows

The aim is to ensure that all activities lead to the production of a healthy, large
litter at the next farrowing. There are three critical periods worth mentioning at
this stage viz: Period after weaning to oestrus, service period (heat signs to
mating) and pregnancy period. Period between weaning to service, Sow
should dry off quickly. The sow should come on heat quickly. Weaning removes
the sucking stimulus for milk production. Abrupt weaning induces stress, which
in turn induces oestrus. On weaning day the sow is removed from the litter and
no feed is given to the sow, only water should be available. The sow should be
in rising body condition. Period between weaning to service should be 3 to 10
days (it should be short). This period is influenced by; temperature, which
should warm 20-25oC, other stress – should be avoided, the site of the boar pens
in relation to the dry sows. The sows should have all the four stimuli of sight,
smell, sound and contact but not housed in the same houses. The presence of
another sow in oestrus and exercise are all very important. Ideally house the
sows in groups of 2 to 4 in a pen. Flushing is done by feeding 3.5kg to 4kg of feed
per day, after weaning for a maximum of 10 days. Thereafter, revert back to
about 2kg of feed per day of 12 to 13% crude protein ration. This flushing is only
effective with growing sows i.e. the effect of flushing has not been demonstrated
in mature sows.

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THE PRODUCTION CYCLE CALCULATIONS
Scenario 1
Pregnancy 115 days
Lactation 35 days
Weaning to service 7 (10 days)
Total 157 days

The number farrowing per year or litter index

365 = 2.3 farrowings/year

157

Scenario 2
Pregnancy 115 days
Lactation 56 days
Weaning to service 11 days
Total 182 days

The number of farrowing per year or litter index

365 = 2.005 = 2.0
182

The practical litter index will be less than in scenario 1 because; the sow may
repeat, may abort. The sow may fall sick and does not show heat signs. May have
problems with the boar or A1 fails and then does not settle. All these factors lead
to a lower litter index. The difference between theoretical litter index and
practical litter index is called lost days. Others call them Non-Productive Sow days
(NPSD). The sow should either in gestation or lactating. All other days translate
into non-productive time. NPSD is calculated by adding lactation and gestation
days take that total and multiply litters per sow per year and subtract the figure
from 365.

E.g. in Scenario 1
NPSD = 365 - [(35+115) * 2.3]
= 365 - [150 * 2.3]
= 365 – 345
= 20 days.
In Scenario 2
NPSD = 365 - [(56+115) * 2.0]
= 365 - [171 * 2.0]
= 365 – 342
= 23 days.

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Suppose the sow aborts at day 57 of pregnancy after service
Gestation 115
Suckling 35
Weaning to service 1 10
Service to abortion 57
Abortion to service 2 10
Total 227 days

Litter index = 365 = 1.6

227
If the sow fails to conceive after service and comes on heat again after 21 days.

Gestation 115
Lactation 35
Weaning to service 1 10
Oestrous cycle 21
Total 181 days
The litter index will be : 365 = 2.0
181

The management young boars and the herd boars

On arrival the young boar need careful handling. He needs quiet handling and
observation whilst settling into the new environment. He needs to be de-wormed
and given a mange treatment or spray and then two weeks later. He should be
allowed to communicate with other pigs in adjacent pens. He should be
exercised daily to allow the handler to familiarise with him. Give him 2 to 2.5 kg
of (a 12-13% crude protein) feed of sow and boar meal in two rations daily. Try
wet feeding to encourage him to eat. The boar must be kept fit but not fat. At less
than 8 months feed him with 2.5 kg and beyond 8 months feed him with 2kg of
feed daily. Overfeeding the boar reduces the semen volume from 900-1000ml, the
quality of service goes down from the 15 minutes, it becomes too heavy for use
on gilts and he become sluggish ,lazy and his sex drive reduces. The boar must
start to serve at about 8 months. He should be housed in the sight of gilts. The
first few services should be on small sow or gilts well on heat. Use him twice a
week in the first 2 months for a young boar of 8 to 11 months and check his
libido. A good service should last 15 to 20 minutes, anything less than 8 to 10
minutes is doubtful. The fertility of the boar is affected by the genotype of the
boar. There is marked heterosis in fertility traits and libido in the crossbreds,
such that crossbred boars do better than purebreds in these traits. The nutrition is
important. Avoid high protein diets as these lead to fatness, which leads to
reduced fertility and libido. Temperature affect boars especially when it is
greater than 35oC. Therefore , the boars must be housed in cool environment. The

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frequency of use will also affect boar fertility. It is essential neither to overuse nor
under use the boar. Use the young boar twice per week and the older boars twice
to thrice per week but not more than 5 times. After a long rest of greater than two
weeks fertility goes down. In that case a double service is advised and only at the
forth service will fertility be normal. A high proportion of dead sperms is
recorded after a long interval. Keep the boar in a lean but fit condition.

Conclusion
The gilts must be exposed to the pathogens in your herd as quickly as possible so
that they develop immunity to these. Proper feeding together with flushing
towards mating is very important so that you get large litter sizes at birth. After
mating the sows should be given a quiet condition. The signs of impending
farrowing should be known so as to render assistance where it may be required.
You need to check for MMA signs to enable to treat the conditions early enough
to be effective. The sows and the boars should get some mange treatments as
recommended to avoid the parasites being passed on the piglets. The boars
should be fed and kept active. They should neither be over nor under used as
both is detrimental to their fertility.

Management of fattening pigs

This is the stage that follows after weaning of the piglets. The growth of the pig is
shown in figure 1. This stage lasts until the pig reaches 45 to 107kg live mass.
This is roughly attained at the age of 14 to 26 weeks (4 to 6 months). The aim in
rearing pigs is to allow for optimum growth rates. Pigs tend to be too fat at
maturity because they are able to eat more than what is required for normal
growth. The growth pattern is show in the diagram below. This is affected by the
level of nutrition. The graphical illustration of these results is given below

The sigmoid growth curve

LIVE MASS

AGE

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The aim in pig production is to make profit out of keeping pigs. This is only
possible if the input costs are kept low, while the returns from outputs are high.
Good management is essential if this is to be achieved. In order to be able to
judge the level of management, accurate records must be kept. The following
phases can be distinguished:

Standard production figures

In order to analyse the records we make use of certain standards figures. In pig
production these are, average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), the
feed cost per gain and the mortality percentages. The ADG tells us how long the
fattening period will last and this has a bearing on all kinds of costs, like housing,
labour and feed etc. quickly growing animals are often cheaply growing too (low
FCR). More pigs can be sold per year (quicker money return). To calculate ADG
we need the starting fattening mass (15 to 25 kg). This is higher in temperate
areas 22-25kg and lower in tropical areas 12-25kg. The end of fattening mass of
80 to 110kg is required. This may be lower in tropical areas and higher in
temperate areas. The number of fattening days is needed. This is calculated from
the starting date to the delivery date. Sometimes only the dead mass or cold
dressed mass is known; the live mass is computed as
Live mass = 100 /KO*CDM.
The Average daily gain = total gain/number of fattening days. The daily gain
depends on the quality of feed, the quantity of feed consumed, quality/breed of
the pig, health of the pigs (indirectly, housing and management etc) and the
period of fattening. The pigs of 20 kg grow at about 60% of the average gain,
which can be obtained from 20 to 100 kg. Pigs of 100 kg grow at about 120 % of
the average gain of the whole period. For example if the average daily gain is
600g/day (20-100kg), a 20 kg pig will grow at 60/100*600=360g/day. At same
time a 110kg pig will grow at 120/100*600 = 720g/day. If the ADG is <500g/day
then it is poor, > 700g/day then it is excellent.

Feed conversion ratio tells us how many kg of feed are required to produce a kg
gain in mass. It is a good indicator of how well the fattening process is going on.
There is need for the record of the amount of feed used in the period under
review, the kg of gain in that period and the feed costs. There is need to keep
records of amounts and costs of the feeds. FCR = Total amount of feeds
consumed/Total gain. The feed cost per kg gain = total cost of feed /total gain. For
example 8 pigs were set up for fattening on 15 February 2001,average start mass
was 24 kg, they were sold on 2 July 2001, with an average mass of 109 kg. They
consumed a total feed of 2460kg. FCR = 2460/(109-24)*8 =2460/680 =3.6kg
feed/kg. Feed cost per kg gain = 3.6kg*25.27/kg gain= $90.97/kg. The FCR is
influenced by the factors as daily gain viz, it depends on the quality of feed, the
quantity of feed consumed, quality/breed of the pig, health of the pigs
(indirectly, housing and management etc) and the period of fattening at which it

114
is measured and the sex of the animal entire males have the lowest, then females
and the castrates last. If the daily gain or FCR are not according to the
expectations then we should find the reasons for the discrepancy. The feed
consumption per day must be checked. The total feed consumption/total
number of pig days gives the feed consumption per day. A normal consumption
lies between 2 to 2.1 under restricted feeding and 2.2 to 2.5kg on ad lib feeding
for pigs of 20 to 110kg. If the feed consumption is normal, and gain below
expectation, then check the quality of the feed and management, and other
aspects like housing. If the consumption is too low, 1.6 kg per pig per day, then
the daily gain will also be low and FCR is often high as a small proportion of the
feed is used for growth and a large portion goes for body maintenance. If the
consumption is too high, 2.9kg per day the daily gain may be high whilst FCR
may be normal or too high as the pigs may be too fat.

Conclusion
The growth pattern of pigs is similar to that of other farm animals that follows a
sigmoid curve. The plane of nutrition has a marked effect on the carcass that you
get from the pigs especially the proportion of the three tissues bone muscle and
fat. Records are indispensable. These are used to compare and control the
production process. You need to use the different methods of production control.

Feeds and Feeding Pigs

Introduction
This section is about nutrient requirements of pigs and the different types of
feedstuffs used in pig feeds in Zimbabwe. After this we will discuss the feeding
of different classes of pigs. We will also discuss the comparison of different
feeding systems used in pig production.

The nutrient requirements of pigs

Pigs are monogastric, non-ruminants and this should be born in mind when
making their feed. The fibre content of the diet is very important. The protein
must have a certain biological value and amino acid profile. You also have to
consider the vitamin and mineral content. The table 4 below gives the nutrient
requirements of different classes of pigs.

It should be born in mind that the pig is a mono-gastric or non-ruminant. The

fibre content, biological value of the protein and amino acid profile and the
vitamin and mineral content are important. The major portion of the feed is
maize, which is abundant on most farms. It is advisable to buy protein
concentrate and mix on the farm with the maize. The maize should be accurately
and realistically cost. There are also ready to feed feeds or straight feeds at the
feed mills (National foods, Agrifoods and SAFCO), these tend to be more
expensive. One can formulate one‘s feed if one has the knowledge and skilled

115
manpower to do the mixing. There is need for the appropriate equipment, skills
in buying the ingredients especially when these are in short supply. There can be
problems especially with vitamins and minerals.

Feedstuffs used in pig rations

Cereals and cereal by-products
The energy component of the ration cost about 70 percent of the cost of the
ration. Therefore your choice of the energy source is the most important factor in
formulating your pig diets. The major sources of energy are the cereal grains.
These include maize (Zea mays). You can use both white and yellow as they
have a high yield and high energy content. Maize normally contains less protein
then other cereals usually around 8.8 percent. Maize apart from the absolute
deficiency in protein is also has lysine and tryptophan as the limiting amino
acids. It is deficient in phosphorus and nicotinic acid because they are largely
unavailable even if they are there. You can also use the by-products of maize
milling such as maize bran and maize germ. You can also use sorghum
(Sorghum vulgare). This you can grow on drier areas and poorer soils than maize
though it will respond to better growing conditions with good yields. There are
different varieties of sorghum and differ in their tannin content. The red varieties
tend to have higher tannin than white varieties. This makes the red varieties
unpalatable and unsuitable as sole suppliers of energy in pig rations. The energy
content of sorghum is slightly less than that of maize. The protein content a little
higher though the lysine level is even more deficient in sorghum than maize. The
tryptophan content is higher in sorghum than maize. Sorghum is fed cracked or
coarsely ground and the utilization is improved greatly by pelleting.

Feeding of pigs
Feeding Dry and pregnant gilts and sows and boars.
Dry and pregnant sows are the best converters of roughage feed of all classes of
pigs. These roughages must be free from moulds. Give the sows 1 to 2 kg of the
concentrate feed to ensure that they receive enough vitamins and minerals. The
roughage will reduce the cost of feeding and increase the size and activity of the
digestive system, which will enable the sow to take more feed during lactation.
This is detailed in the table 5 below.

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Feeding Dry and pregnant gilts and sows and boars.
Period Amount Remark
Day of weaning No feed To stimulate the
sow/gilt to come on
heat
Till first service 4kg per day Flushing
maximum of 10 days
after weaning
First four weeks of 2kg /day This is the critical period
gestation if overfed embryonic
mortality increases.
They need rest and
shade
Till 6 weeks 28-73 days 2.5 kg /day This the time for
condition correcting
Last 6 weeks 3.5kg /day To cater for rapid
growth of foeti.
Last 3 days 2.0kg /day To empty the GIT to
prepare the sow/gilt for
farrowing
Gilts 7 months old 2.0/ head/ day Ration adjusted during
flushing
Boars 2.0 per day Ration adjusted
according to body
condition and activity

The feeding of the lactating sow.

The feed must meet the lactation demands, which depends on the number of
piglets born and the maintenance requirements of the sow, which depends on
the body mass of the sow. The first day give 2 kg, second day 3 kg, forth to
seventh day give 4 kg of a 16 % crude protein ration. The rest of the suckling
period feed 1.5kg for maintenance plus 0.50 X number of piglets born. The sow
needs a lot of water during this time of the order of 15 to 30 litres per day. The
feed must be increased gradually during lactation and must be fresh.

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Feeding levels of pigs from birth to marketing
This is shown in table 6 below.

Feeding levels of pigs from birth to marketing.

Feed type Class fed Period Level + mode Remarks
of feeding
Colostrum + Suckling Birth to Ad libitum Colostrum is
Sow milk piglets weaning a must
starting from
birth
Creep feed Piglets + 1-8 weeks Ad libitum Weaning at 5
weaners weeks
Grower feed Growers 9 weeks to 60 Ad lib/
(porker feed) kg restricted
1.8kg/day
Pig finisher Fattening Adlib/
feed pigs restricted
2.5kg/day
Water All Throughout Ad libitum Must be cool
life and clean

The category, live mass, time spent in fattening pens from 9 weeks and the feed
required are shown in the table 7 below (remember these are guidelines).

The amounts of feed used by fatteners sold at different live masses

Live mass in kg Category Time in Feed required
fattening pens in per pig in kg
weeks from 9
weeks of age
35-50 Small porker 8 80
51-63 Medium porker 12 120
64-80 Large porker 15 170
81-100 Baconer 18 225
101-135 General purpose 18 325
Manufacturing
fast growing
Slow growing 23 355

Ad libitum versus restricted and wet versus dry feeding

Many comparisons have been made regarding ad lib feeding and restricted
feeding and other feeding systems. Ad lib is when the feed is available to the
animal throughout the 24 hours. The animal feeds as and when it wants. It is also
known as free choice. The advantages of this feeding system are that it achieves

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higher carcass masses, faster turn over and hence more rounds per year are
possible and it saves on labour of feeding and housing. However, the feed costs
are higher, and poorer grades obtained due to mostly fat content of the carcass. It
is used up to when the pigs are 10 weeks. Beyond this, feed is restricted to 30
minutes‘ consumption or use the scale of at 10 weeks feed 1 kg of feed. The
ration is increased by 100 grams per pig per week until a maximum of 2.5 kg per
pig is reached for baconers. The feed must be offered twice per day, offering the
stockman a chance to see the animals at least twice per day. Comparisons were
made between wet feeding and dry feeding. Wet feeding showed to be more
expensive as it required more labour and a feed trough always. It also increased
the chances of bacterial and fungal rotting of the feed. However, it resulted in
about 5% saving on feed, the baconers were sold at 10 days earlier. The mixing
ratios could be 1: 1 to 1:4 with the range showing the same results. Floor feeding
saves on capital (you don‘t have to construct the feed troughs). The shape of the
pen is also less critical. There is really little effect on pig performance between
these two systems. Although most people prefer trough feeding.

Conclusion
Pigs are monogastrics and therefore your choice of feedstuffs to use must
recognise that. Many feedstuffs can be used for energy in Zimbabwe like maize,
sorghum wheat and barley. The protein sources include fish meal meat meal and
meat and bone meal. Other producers in Zimbabwe are also including feed
additives in their pig rations. These include antibiotics, chemotherapeutics and
antihelmths. Pigs should be fed according to their class and stage of production
to meet their requirements. You can feed your pigs either ad lib or restricted,
generally people feed ad lib up to 10 weeks and then restrict from then on. Dry
feeding is better than we feeding.

Pig housing
Introduction
We are going to cover pig requirements for temperature, ventilation, humidity
floor space light and shade. Then we will look at the housing for different classes
of pigs from weaners fatteners to boars to service pens. We will also discuss what
goes into planning and the calculation of a pig unit. We will also consider the
importance of proper housing to pigs and the workers.

Pig basic requirements

There is the need to understand the requirements of pig in terms of, warmth
(temperature) fresh air (ventilation), adequate feeding and watering space, comfort for
sleeping (space requirement), nature of floors, light and shade, humidity and dampness.
You have to consider the pig stockman requirements in terms, health working conditions,
dirty air, low doors, ease of feeding and cleaning and ease access to observe the pigs. The
costs of making such buildings such that it is possible to have optimum space per

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pig at the most economical rate are an important consideration. The pig house
designs vary widely from the pens with artificial climate control in the temperate
regions to the more open natural climate houses mostly in the tropical regions.
The newly born piglets have very little hair and fat and therefore are prone to
chilling and death (Hypothermia). Thus protection against cold is very important
at this stage. As the pig grows it lays down fat to provide insulation to some
degree. Majority of this fat is subcutaneous. However, pigs do not have any
sweat glands and therefore cannot dissipate heat. This makes older pigs more
susceptible to heat stress. Where temperature control is possible the optimum
environmental temperature for different pigs are shown in the table 8 below.

The optimum temperature for different classes of pigs

Class of pigs Optimum temperature oC
Dry sows in stalls 15-21
Dry sows in yards 13-18
Farrowing house 18-21
Piglets in the creep area 26-35
Growing pigs 20-45kg 15-21
Growing pigs 45-110kg 13-18

Ventilation
Pigs of all ages need adequate ventilation for removal of foul air to be replaced
by fresh air. However, controlled environments that are expensive are not really
necessary in Zimbabwe. But in colder temperate regions, where the buildings are
closed, there is need for controlled ventilation. Practically, in the tropics,
ventilation is allowed to occur naturally using construction techniques. It is
advisable to allow for sufficient air movement during the hotter months but
provide window covers (Hesian sacks or canvas curtains) for the colder months
in winter.

Space requirement
Space requirements for different pig classes.
Class Space
In-pig sows in stalls 2m long X 0.64m wide
In –pig sows in cubicles 2m X 0.64 plus dunging area
Yards 3-4m2per sow
Boars 9m2 (pen +dunging area)
Farrowing crate 2m long X 0.7m wide
Farrowing pen (including the crate) 6.2m2
Solari fattening/follow-on (including 10m2
creep area)
Multi-suckling 7-8m2 per sow and litter

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Weaners Cage (per pig) 0.2m2 lying area plus 0.2m2 slatted
space
Weaners Yards (per pig) 0.7- 0.9m2 per pig
Porkers (pen ,including dunging 0.73m2 per pig
area)
Baconers (pen including dunging 0.93m2 per pig
area)

The feed trough space requirements of different classes of pigs.

Class of pig Feed trough linear space required
(m)
Light porkers 0.2
Heavy porkers 0.25
Baconers 0.3
Maiden gilts and sows 0.35
Boars 0.35

The drinking water is provided through the drinking nipple, which should
deliver 1litre per minute. One nipple is enough for 10 fatteners and one for the
sow and her litter. In grouped sow one nipple should supply 5 to 10 sows. One
nipple per boar.

Nature of floors.
You should avoid smooth slippery floors. The floors should be rough but not too
much. Use a 5 sand to 1 cement by mass ratio. The floor should be re-surfaced
every 5 years. Ensure adequate light and shade, make the pig houses face north-
south which avoids excess sunlight penetrating the pens. Excess sunlight would
leads to sun scotch (sunscald and heat stress).

Houses for weaners

These could be the rearing pens, where the weaners will stay after the removal of
the sow at weaning. In other places the weaners are taken to weaner cages, with
slatted pens. The dimensions are shown in the table 9 of space requirements
above. At this stage they are moved to the fattening pens. The weaners will stay
in these houses up to when they weigh 20 to 25kg. In UK they are put into piggy
boxes, which measure 0.35m2/ piglet.

The housing for fatteners.

The recommended minimum floor and trough spaces are given in the table 9
above. House not more than 8-10 pigs per pen. Beyond this daily gain, FCR, and
feed intake per day will be reduced and vices like fighting will increase.

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The boars’ pens
The boars‘ pens should be cool as high temperature will reduce fertility. Avoid
extremes of heat and cold. Provide strong doors and walls. The service quarters
must be comfortable and provide for supervised matings. They should be close
to the boar pens. The floor should be grass and free from sharp stones. It should
be circular or round.

Dry sow housing

Dry sow housing can be housed in sow yards. These are pens that are shared by
sows in groups of 5 to 6. It is simple and cheap. However, bullying may be a
problem. Or the dry sows can be put in sow stalls (Feeding and lying boxes).
Each sow is individually fed and attended to but there is no exercise for it. It
reduces bullying and this housing system is used widely in big herds/units. It is
difficult to detect heat so the system is only suitable for sow confirmed pregnant.

Housing for the sow and her litter.

The farrowing pen is a pen for a sow and her litter until the litter is 2 weeks old.
The dimensions of the pen are 2.5m X 1.45m and the creep are will be 0.4m X
0.4m. The sow will be put in a farrowing crate whose dimension are 2.5m long X
0.65m wide x 1.0m high. The sow and her piglets will have to be moved to the
rearing housing after the 2 weeks. The rearing pen is for a sow with her piglets of
2 or more weeks old to weaning time. The dimensions of the rearing pen are
2.25m X 4.0m plus a dunging area of 1.5m long.

The farrowing rearing houses.

These are recommended for large units. These are a combination of a farrowing
pen and a rearing pen. The sow and her piglets will be in this type of pen during
the farrowing and suckling period and it remains for the piglets after weaning.
The best example is the Danish farrowing rearing pen. In the farrowing position
two rails are put to have two creep areas and one space for the sow in the
middle. This position is maintained for two weeks after farrowing. After the 2
weeks one rail is removed to create more room for the sow and a separate area
for the piglets. This position is maintained until weaning time. The multi-
suckling pens are pens meant to house up to 3 sows and their piglets together in
one pen at about the second after farrowing. This will facilitate the weaning of
the piglet as one large group that will be group together during the fattening
period.

The types of pig houses/pens.

These include the boars pens, service pens, dry sow pens, farrowing/rearing
pens, or farrowing-rearing pens, weaner pens or cages, fattening/ finisher pens,
sick bay, feed store loading rump and vet room. Planning the pig unit is very
important. It should not be too exposed to cold. The area on which to build the

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pens must have a slope of 2%. The unit must be at least 100 m from wells and
boreholes and dairy unit. The prevailing wind should be from the homestead to
the unit. The unit should be 100 m away from the homestead. Leave room for
expansion preferably parallel to the initial buildings. The effluent may lead to
worms if allowed to get on to pasture. Pig flow there is need for a definite
direction of animal movement in a pig unit on the basis of health and effluent
management. The farrowing pens have prime priority in the whole plan. It must
be close to the water source, electricity supply and away from the fattening
houses. It must be close to the office as you need to give more attention to this
group of animals without disturbing other groups. The width of the pig houses
should be 9 to 10m, beyond,10m ventilation will be poor and construction cost
will be higher. There must be a minimum of 12m from one house to another. The
feed store should be closest where large amount of feed is required. Manure
must go from younger to older animals. The wind direction should be from
house to where manure is stored. The flow of the pigs should be as shown in the
figure below:

Pig Flow in pig unit

DRY SOW FARROWING REARING FINISHING

PENS + PENS FATTENING
BOAR PENS

FEED STORE RESERVE FOR EXPANSION

Before building the pig houses, one needs to know the number of places or pens
needed for lactating sows, weaners, boars, replacement stock, and fatteners.
These places/pens can only be calculated after the farmer has decided on the
following starting points , the number of sows on the farm, the expected litter
index, the weaning age, kind of weaner pens the farmer is going to use and
whether AI or natural service is going to be used, whether the breeding stock is
going to be selected on the farm or are to be bought from outside the farm and at
what age, the type of pens for the dry and pregnant sows (group or individual),
the expected culling rate, the expected growth rate of the piglets, the days
required for cleaning and disinfection the expected growth rate of the fatteners
and the number of fatteners per pen. The number of places and or pens is
calculated as follows:

The farrowing rearing pens = Number of sows X litter index X occupation days +10%

365

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Weaner pens = Number of sows X litter index X occupation days X piglets per litter +10%

piglets per pen

An allowance of 10 % is given for longer gestation periods, lower growth rates

and other irregularities in the reproduction and production cycle.

Places for dry and pregnant sows

= Number of sows X litter index X occupation days

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Places for replacement stock
= Number of sows X culling rate X selection rate X rearing period (months)
12 (months)
The number of pens for the boars. A teaser boar is necessary when AI is used.
When natural service is used, one boar for every 10 to 15 sows must be
considered. Therefore the number of boar pens
= Number of sows
15

Places for fatteners (closed farm)=

Number of sows X litter index X weaners per litter –replacement gilts

Rounds per year

to get the number of pens, this figure must be divided by the number to be put in
each pen.

Pig health
This is to beef up your animal health notes with an emphasis on pig rearing.

Introduction
In this unit we are going to define health and disease. After that we will consider
the diseases of different classes of pigs and other general diseases of pigs. We
will also loo at the contribution of the environment to disease out breaks. We will
then discuss the internal and external parasite of pigs.

Causes of diseases.
Health is where all the body organs and systems are functioning in harmony
with the environment. Any deviation from this result in a disease. There could
be animal related causes of disease and also environmental related. The genetic

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causes would be the animal related diseases. The constitution and sex determines
the general susceptibility to disease. One piglet may die of scours yet another one
will survive the condition. Female may have MMA and males may not be
affected. There also breed differences, the Pietrain is known for its stress
susceptibility. Duroc is known for its strong legs. In general crossbreds are
stronger than purebreds. The age of the pig is important. Very young and very
old pigs are more susceptible to diseases. Then there are acquired defects, which
expose the animals to infections. These include tail biting. The environment as a
cause of disease include feeds and feeding deficiencies, sudden changes of feed,
spoiled feed and toxins. The drinking water can be spoilt by refusals and dung
where water is supplied through troughs. The pens may have draughts, bad
floors, too hot temperature or wet floors. Management also predispose animals
to some diseases if the animals are stressed like if the piglets are not given the
creep area, excessive handling and immune suppression due to castration,
weaning and others. The infectious agents include bacteria, viruses, yeasts, fungi,
protozoa and parasites.

The diseases of the sow.

SMEDI (Stillbirth, Mummification, Embryonic Death and Infertility) is caused by
parvovirus and entero virus, pseudo rabies virus. Only embryos and foeti are
affected. There will be too many sows returning to heat, small litters, mummies,
and stillbirths and weak piglets. There is no treatment. Mixing the sows that
have been affected and the new ones control the condition. Take dung of older
sows and put to gilts once a week before serving.

Anaphrodisia
This is when sows/gilts do not come on heat when they should. The clinical
signs include too many gilts, which do not show heat even after 8 months. Sows
do not show heat 10 days after weaning. Heat detection must be done twice per
day also the sows could be too fat or too thin or it could be due to anatomical
defects. You may pay attention to the management or give hormones as a
temporary measure.

Early embryonic death

Any stress can cause abortions and mummification especially during the early
stages of pregnancy. Stress due to vaccinations, transfer, lack of water, and
fighting and sudden change of feed. Lack of nutrients and too high feeding levels
can cause EED especially in the first 4 weeks of pregnancy. There are genetic
differences between breeds especially as inbreeding increases, abortions also
increases. Any disease that has a fever as part of its course will also cause EED or
abortions.

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Disease of suckling piglets.
Neonatal diarrhoea or scours occurs in the first week of life. It is a heavy scours,
watery with a bad smell. Piglets are weak and very thirsty, chilling can be seen
which is corrected by adding bedding. The cause is Eschechia coli. Give an
antibiotic treatment for three days. Supply fresh drinking water. Electrolytes and
glucose should be added to this water to stop dehydration. This condition can be
prevented by ensuring that the piglets get colostrums, good hygiene in the
farrowing house, vaccination of the sows and gilts using commercially available
vaccines. The natural vaccination is achieved by moving dung from older sows
to the young ones.

Transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE)

Young piglets up to 10 days are most susceptible. The cause is corona virus. The
clinical signs include heavy diarrhoea, which will be watery and greenish.
Mortality may be as high as 100 % in piglets. The disease spreads rapidly. The
sow may be affected when it will not feed and may vomit. There is no treatment.
Give the animals water and electrolytes. Prevention is through good hygiene and
dung vaccination.

White diarrhoea or fat diarrhoea.

This is seen in piglets that are 2-4weeks old. They are not very sick but the
scouring is evident. The dung is pasty, yellowish or grey to whitish. The cause is
high fat in the milk from the sow. Give electrolyte to the piglets, and the sow
must get more feed to produce more milk with less fat.

Post weaning diarrhoea (PWD)

This is caused by E.coli and rotavirus. The diarrhoea has no specific appearance
but can be quite bad and can get a few mortalities. It is mainly seen in the first
week after weaning. If it occurs try antibiotics and reduce feed. The weaning
period is the most risk period. Many changes take place at this time. Milk supply
is stopped- protection from the agents of disease disappears. The intestines of the
piglets have to get used to large amounts of solid feed, which will be now their
only source of diet. Separation from the sow causes stress. The stress increases
when transferred to another pen or mixed with other piglets at the time of
weaning. So at this stage the pigs are susceptible to all kinds of diseases. This
condition can be prevented by practising good weaning management, ensuring
that piglets are used to solid feed by weaning time, 7 days before and 7 days after
weaning make sure there is no change in the feed, reduce feed to be given to a
little but often, meal is better than pellets, it moves slowly and mixes well with
the digestive fluids, remove sow and not the piglets, avoid mixing the piglets for
at least a week, if mixing is to be done then group them according to size and
paying extra attention to hygiene of the house, feed and water. Keep drinking
water clean and fresh. Some strains of E. coli produce toxins that are absorbed in

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the intestines. The toxins cause leakages of blood vessels with excessive loss of
fluid to the tissues. This is seen as oedema. The voice may be hoarse as result of
oedema of the vocal cords. Oedema in the brain causes nervous signs like
swaying gait, convulsions and comma. Sometimes you get sudden death. Try
antibiotic for treatment, reduce feed and give electrolytes. Also ensure that
piglets are used to solid feed at weaning.

Disease of fatteners.
There is Salmonellosis, pseudo rabies and atrophic rhinitis. Erysipelas caused by
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae can result in fast death or slow death. The signs
include fever, lack of appetite, difficult breathing, skin lesions that appear after a
few days are rather typical, the skin shows blots, first pink then gradually
becoming darker and bigger. These blots will be diamond shaped. Treatment
with antibiotics will be effective. You can vaccinate your pigs against the disease.

Other diseases of pigs

Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is caused by the Leptospira bacteria that are carried by rodents.
The signs include, abortions, frequent urination, and jaundice. You send the
aborted foetus for pathological examination to the veterinary research laboratory.
Boars may be transmitters. Use antibiotic, vaccinate animals in problem areas
and control rodents.

Brucellosis
Brucellosis caused by Brucella suis is another disease of pigs. There will be
abortions, repeat breeders and inflammation of the testes in boars, which may
lead to infertility of the boars, abscesses in the lymph nodes and spinal cord.
Send the aborted foeti for pathological examinations. Cull all affected animals
and they will not be fit for human consumption.

Salt poisoning
Salt poisoning occurs in pigs that are fed on kitchen refuse. The pigs will be
thirsty and have no appetite, constipated and may get into a comma and finally
death. There may be need to reduce water, as water aggravates the condition. No
water the first day then give little the second day and gradually increase the
amount of water available.

Heat stress (heat stroke or sun stroke)

This is caused by prolonged exposure to high temperature, which cause
problems in temperature regulation within the pig‘s body. Shower the pig with
cold water for treatment. Provide water with 1 teaspoon of salt to 1litre of water.

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Parasites of pigs.
External parasites
Mange
Mange is a name given to a skin disease caused by a mite called Sarcoptic scabei or
itch mite. The mite burrows deep into under the skin forming holes where they
lay their eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae and become adults in 3 to 15 days. The
animal rubs the skin very hard and this can cause severe wounds. These wounds
do not heal easily because of constant rubbing and they attract flies. The
condition is controlled by spraying with an acaricide such as traitix or tick buster.
This treatment must be repeated as it only kills the mites and not the eggs. The
sows are an important source and as such must get a treatment at 10days and 3
days before they are transferred into the farrowing pen. They should be washed
on the day of transfer to the farrowing pen. The piglet should get a treatment
before they enter the fattening pens. The gilts must be treated before service. The
newly purchased animals must be treated for mange and lice. The boars must be
treated twice per year for mange.

Lice
Lice are the Hematopinus suis or the pig louse; is an insect that sticks to the skin of
the pig. It does not burrow into the skin but sucks blood and cause bite wounds.
Its eggs are laid on the skin and can be seen by the naked eyes. These hatch into
larvae in about 3weeks. The first signs of infestation are itchy skin and red spot
of the bite wounds. These lice transmit swinepox and swine fever. The mange
treatment will also cover lice.

Internal parasites
There are round worms like Ascaris suum, lungs worms –Metastrongles apri,
nodular worm – Oesophagustomum pentatum, bladder worm Cysticercus celluloae,
tapeworm –Taenia solunum and liver flukes. The female lay their eggs in the GIT
and these are excreted in the faeces. The larvae migrate through the body and
then come back into the intestines where they develop into adults.

The de-worming programme.

The sows just before they enter the farrowing pen. The piglets at the start of the
fattening period, the fatteners may not de-wormed if they were de-wormed as
piglets. The rearing gilts will be de-wormed as piglets and at 7 months of age.
Boars must be de-wormed twice per year. Any purchased stock should de-
wormed on arrival on the farm. Use pirpezine for de-worming your pigs.

Conclusion
Pigs in Zimbabwe are not afflicted by many diseases. However you need to work
with your veterinarian to have a herd health programme for your farm. Some of
the diseases that affect pigs are very important such that they have led to

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mandatory erection of pig net fences to protect your herd from getting into
contact with wild pigs. It is important to recognise and be able to identify a sick
animal so as to be able to institute treatment effectively. Periodic dosing and
mange treatments should be part of your health programme to reduce the
infestation by internal and external parasites.

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UNIT 19: WORKSHOP SKILLS

FARM IMPLEMENTS

TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
The main aims of tillage are:
 production of a suitable tilth
 control of soil moisture
 destruction of weeds
 incorporation of crop residues, fertilizers and manure

The main implements used for tillage are:

Mouldboard plough: An example of this is the common ox-drawn plough. This
implement gives the best residue incorporation as it inverts the soil.
Disc plough: This is used where soil in extremely hard, rocky or there is a root
network beneath the soil surface. The disc plough lifts and inverts the soil but
does not completely cover the soil like the mouldborad plough.
Disc harrow: these have a number of discs mounted on one or two axles.
Penetration of the disc harrow into the soil is achieved by virtues of the weight of
the implement. This implement uses less fuel and is faster in land preparation. It
is now the most commonly used implement in Zimbabwe.
Rippers: Strongly constructed and used to break up deep (upto 50 cm) compacted
layers of soil to improve their internal drainage. They do not invert soil, thereby
minimizing erosion. Common practices now in Zimbabwe are ripping and
discing.
Chisel ploughs: They have the same effect as rippers but this ripping depth ranges
from 30 – 50 cm.
Field cultivators: These are constructed lighter than rippers. They are mainly used
for weed control in already established crops.

SEEDBED PREPARATION IMPLEMENTS

The main aim of seedbed preparation is to create a soil condition that promotes
germination and growth.
 Rollers: produces fine, level, firm seedbed
 Disc harrows: Despite being used for primary tillage, they are also used as
seedbed preparation machines.
 Harrows
 Cultivators

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Seeding Machines
Generally there are three types of rate application machines:
 Ground wheel driven: such as seed drills, speed variations do not affect
the application rate
 Power take-off driven
 Constant delivery
In general the application rate of ground wheel driven machines is varied by
hanging the gear ratio between the metering mechanism and the ground wheel.
The PTO (Power Take-Off) driven application rate is affected by change in speed
of the tractor when the gear in changed and also when changing the driving gear
of the seeder. The constant delivery applicator is the most sensitive to speed
variations.

Drills
They open furrows, meter seed into furrows and firm soil around the seed in the
furrow in one operation.
 Plain drills: Plant seed only
 Combination drills: Plant seed and apply fertilizer
 Field distributors: e.g. the vicon

Row Planters
Deposit seed in rows spaced to permit interrow cultivation. Consists of a tool bar
upon which planting units can be moved to give the desired row spacing. It
consists of single seed metering devices. Both mechanical and air systems are
used to meter seed. Most planters use air selection systems which use the flow of
air through a carefully sized hole in a moving seed plate to trap and hold a single
seed using vacuum until it is released to the seed tube when the vacuum is cut
off.

PLANTER ADJUSTMENTS
 row spacing
 rate setting
 depth of seed placement
 amount of soil coverage
 amount of soil compaction
The operator‘s manual describes how the adjustments are made for different
machines.

CALIBRATION OF SEED DRILLS

Ground wheel driven drills are easy to calibrate. Jack up the drive wheel and
turn the drive wheel a given number of revolutions collecting the seed being
discharged and weighing the seed. Measuring the radius of the wheel enables
determination of the circumference of the wheel. Circumference and the number

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of revolutions gives the length of which when multiplied by the drill swath gives
the area. Converting the data obtained into mass per given area enables
comparison with the recommended rates.

Example:
A drill with an effective width of 3m is to seed 100kg of wheat/ha. Calculate the seed
quantity in kg to be obtained from turning the drive wheel with a radius of 0.35 m.

Solution:
Circumference of the wheel = πd = 22/7*0.7 = 2.2 m
Area to be covered by 50 revolutions = 50*3*2.2 = 330 m2
Expected seed for the test area = 330m2/10000m2*100 kg = 3.3 kg

*Progressive adjustments are then supposed to be done to the metering device

for seed until the required 3.3 kg/50 revolutions are obtained.

Row Planter Calibration

Select the correct seed plate. Manufacturers recommend the correct plate for a
particular seed. Planter wheels give the drive to the seed plate through a system
of sprockets with different drive ratios. Varying sprocket ratios vary the speed of
turning of the seed plate in relation to the drive wheels. Manufacturers normally
provide calibration charts which match the various seed plates to different
sprocket ratios to give various seed spacings.

Question:
A planter plate turns half a revolution for each revolution of the ground wheel. The
ground wheel has an effective circumference of 2m and the plate has 16 cells. What is the
spacing in the row?

The characteristics of most seeds are such that one must overseed to get expected
emergence. Germination percentage for most seed varies between 80% and 95%.

Example:
Question:
If the desired plant population for maize is 50 000 plants/ha, and the maize seed has 90%
germination percentage, using an interrow spacing of 0.9 m determine the inrow
spacing that should be used.

Solution:
50 000 plants/ha = 90%
100/90*50 000 = 55 556 plants/ha

Interow spacing = 0.9m

Thus inrow spacing = 10 000/50 000*0.9 = 0.199 = 20 cm

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CHEMICAL APPLICATION
 Knapsack Sprayer: usually hand operated
 Field sprayers/Boom Sprayer/Fully Mounted or Trailed: These have the
following components:
o Tank
o Pump (pressure pump)
o Pressure regulator
o Nozzles

Calibration
Factors affecting the eventual spray concentration per unti area:
 pressure
 speed of forward travel
 water spray ratio in the tank
 nozzle spacing
With a given set of nozzles and a fixed pressure the output of spray per minute
remains constant, and the amount applied per unti area is inversely proportional
to the forward speed.

Method
 Decide on engine speed of tractor, gear, nozzle to use and pressure
 Measure 100 m in the field and measure the time taken to travel the 100m
with conditions selected in (1) above.
 With machinestationery sample out nozzles and measure their discharge
for the exact time taken to cover the measured 100m.
 Find the average discharge per nozzle and multiply by the total number of
nozzles to find total disrchage per 100m.
 Multiply number of nozzles with their spacing to find width of the spray
 Multiply width by 100m to find the area covered in a 100 m run.
 Invert the discharge per 100m to discharge per ha
 Divide tank capacity by discharge/ha to obtain ha covered by a full boom
tank.
Checking should continue in the field and adjustments made.

FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTORS
Implements used for this are the:
 Vicon spreader
 Oscillating sprout delivery
Discharge is affected by speed of tractor, discharge, swath, density of the
fertilizer. Determining the speed of the tractor, discharge per minute and swath
will assist in calibration of vicon spreader. Calibration is similar to boon sprayer
calibration.

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Lime spreaders
They have drive wheels and metering devices and are calibrated in the same way
seed drills are calibrated.

Combine harvesters
These are used for cutting, threshing and winnowing

Other implements include:

 Forage harvesters e.g. mowers
 Hay rakes
 Shredders – chopping crop residues for easy land preparation
 Hay balers
 Flail forage harvester/silage cutter

TRACTOR MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING

Tractor Maintenance
People have been killed and/or seriously injured doing maintenance and repairs
to farm tractors. Major hazards can occur when tractors are jacked and wheels
are removed without safe working procedures. These risks are magnified on soil.
Regular workshop maintenance of farm tractors and trailed implements can
prevent hazardous incidents in the field.

Spot the hazard

When planning tractor maintenance, check that the right equipment is available
for safe jacking, removal of wheels and other tasks. People performing the
maintenance should be experienced and safe procedures used. Heavy lifting and
carrying can cause strain injuries. Children should be kept away from tractor
workshops. Field repairs present specific injury risks.

Assess the risk

The greater the risk of an injury or dangerous incident occurring, the more
urgent the need for changes to minimize or eliminate the risk.

Make the changes

Ways to improve tractor maintenance safety include:
 Routinely adjusting brakes, clutches and drives, according to the manual.
 Ensuring steering, exhaust system and brakes are in top condition.
 Stopping the motor before refueling, servicing or greasing and, if possible,
waiting until the engine is cold before refueling.
 Never removing or replacing belts while pulleys are under power.

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  Keeping steps and working platforms free of grease, oil, mud and manure
to avoid slips and falls.
 If the engine overheats, allowing adequate time for it to cool off before
removing the radiator cap. The sudden release of pressure in the cooling
system can result in hot coolant being sprayed, typically resulting in first
or second-degree burns.

When jacking a tractor

 Jack on a flat, hard surface, ideally a concrete floor.
 Avoid working alone. Ask somebody with training and experience to
assist you.
 Refer to the manufacturer's manual on safe jacking procedures, or seek the
advice of a competent person.
 Where jacking points are not identifiable, jack from the lowest possible
point on the frame or axle housing.
 Use jacks that comply with applicable standards.
 If using jack stands, only use stands that comply with applicable
standards, and are designed and rated for the load to be suspended.

Blocks and chocks

 Ensure wooden blocks for jacking are made of hardwood (oak, elm or
ash), with a surface area that will support the tractor's weight on soft soils.
 Chock all wheels that will remain on the ground using big wooden chocks
at the front and rear of each wheel. Do not use makeshift chock materials
such as rocks, bricks, etc. Makeshift chocks do not provide the needed
stability to immobilize a tractor‘s wheel.
 Chock all wheels on articulated vehicles to stop them twisting sideways
during jacking.
 Before jacking, apply brakes, place in gear - or ―park‖ for automatic
transmissions - and switch ignition off.
 When operating the jack, only get as close to the tractor as necessary and
leave yourself an escape route should the tractor become unstable and
begin to slip from the jack.

When removing wheels

 Loosen wheel nuts before the wheel is off the ground, to avoid any
movement that could dislodge the tractor.
 Before removing a tractor tire from a rim, release all water and air
pressure.
 Use safety equipment and procedures to avoid serious injuries from split
rims.
 Never jack more than one wheel off the ground at a time in the field.

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  If both rear wheels have to be removed, work on a flat, level concrete
floor, in the workshop.
 When removing rear wheels, ensure the front wheels are immobilized by
fixing wedges between axle and body.

TRACTOR SERVICING
Daily Service
This is a service that is performed everyday before running your tractor. It is
advisable to stick to these regulations so as to prevent hazardous incidents of
damage to our tractor.
 Check the quantity of oil using a deep stick; this has two graduations i.e
the max level and the min level. Always make sure that the oil is at max
level.
 Check the amount of water in the radiator. The purpose of water in the
radiator is for cooling purposes and thereby avoiding over-heating of the
engine which result in expansion of metallic engine parts. The detrimental
effects are usually seen when the engine has cooled and cracks will be
appearing.
 Checking of tyre pressure. This avoids the risk of damaging the tyre tube,
tyre rim. Tyres are usually filled with 75%water and 25% air, so that we
may have full gripping and stability.
 Checking on the free play of the brakes and clutch. Free play is the
distance recorded between the stationary position of the paddle to where
it starts to be stiff. The larger the distance the less efficiency are the brakes
or clutch.
 Checking whether you fuel is adequate enough to perform an intended
task.

Weekly Service
It is a service that is performed every weekend after the devise has been working
for the entire week.
 Tightening of all loose bolts and nuts. Make sure that every loose bolt is
tightened as this prevents dismantling of any part when the tractor will be
in motion.
 Application of grease to all grease nipples. There are some parts of the
tractor where oil can not reach there is need to apply grease. Also due to
the viscosity of grease it tends to last longer than oil.
 Checking on the firmness of the V-belt. The V-belt is responsible for
linking the crank-shaft with the alternator and the fane. Crank-shaft
rotates the engine while alternator charges the battery
 Checking of battery water. It must always be above the cells to avoid
damage.

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Monthly Service
It is a service that is perform on the basis of the mileage of our tractor, how ever
at UZ farm it is performed after 3 months because of their frequency of use
 Changing of engine oil. As oil passes to all frictional points in the engine
metallic particulate matter tends to accumulate within thereby
contaminating the oil such that it will have less lubricating ability. Used
oil is drained from the engine and never to be re-used again in the engine.
 Changing of oil filters. Due to accumulation of metallic particles the pore
sizes of these oil filters are enlarged and the filtering capacity decreases.
Changed filters should not be reused again.
 Changing of fuel filters, diesel filters in particular. Fuel may be
contaminated during storage or transportation so there is need to filter out
all external material that may have been carried in fuel and as these
accumulate in the filters, the filtering ability is decreased hence the need
for a change.
 Changing of air filters. There are two type of air filter:
o Oil bath
o Dry element
Oil bath has a container full of oil that traps dust particles from the sucked air
and this type of filters cannot be blown to remove the accumulated dust
Dry element consists of a series of porous filters with different pore sizes, to the
extent that very small particles are filtered out.

Annual Service
It is an overall service that is set to assess the performance of the tractor. It is at
this service were major worn out parts are replaced such as worn out tyres, panel
beating e.t.c

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