13-Nuclei

Composition of nucleus:-
In 1932, Chadwick discovered a neutron and he suggested that nucleus consists of only
proton and neutrons, and known as nucleons. According to Chadwick, “The sum of number
of protons (Z) and the number of neutrons (N) is called mass number.”
i.e A= Z +N or N=A-Z
Nuclides are represented as,

X is symbol of element; Z is atomic number and A is mass number.

Example:

Atomic Mass Unit:-

Atomic mass unit is defined as of the mass of carbon-12 atom.

Proton (1H1 or 1n0):-

 Proton is a positively charged particle.
 The elementary charge on proton is equal to 1.6 × 10-19 coulomb.
 Rest mass of proton is 1.673 × 10-27 Kg = 1.0072768 u
 It has angular (spin) momentum equal to
 The number of proton represents the atomic number (Z) of the atom.
 It has magnetic momentum.

Neutron (0n1):-
 Neutron has no charge i.e. neutral particle.
 The rest mass of neutron is about 1.6748 × 10-27 Kg = 1.008665 u
 It has more penetrating energy than proton and electron.
 It has low ionizing power.

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  It is stable inside nucleus.
 A free neutron is unstable and decays.
 It has angular (spin) momentum equal to and magnetic momentum.

Isotopes:-
The nucleoids having same proton number but different neutron number (or mass
number) are called isotopes. Examples Proton, Deuterium, Tritium;
Similarly

Isobars:-
The nucleoids having same mass number but different proton number are called
isobars.
Examples; ; ;

Isotones:-
The nucleoids having same number of neutrons but different proton number are called
isotones.
Example;
; Both elements having 8 neutrons but 6 protons in carbon and 8
protons in oxygen atom.

Size of nucleus:-
Rutherford suggested that the existence of nucleus and constituents of nucleus. He also
explained the mass and size of nucleus. Geiger and Marsden performed an experiment that is
α-particle scattering and it is found that the size or radius of nucleus is proportional to the
mass number.
∴The volume of nucleus ∝ mass number ⇒ ∴ V ∝ A
∝ ⇒

∴ [ ]

Since R0 is constant and found to be,

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 [ ]

Nuclear Density:-
Nucleus consists of proton and neutron of nearly same in size and mass hence the
nuclear density is almost same for all elements.
Nuclear density is equal to the ratio of nuclear mass to the nuclear volume.

( )

Hence, nuclear density do not depends on the mass number (A) or number of nucleons
in the nucleus. Thus nuclei of all elements have nearly the same density. It is 1014 times
greater than water density.

Einstein’s Mass-Energy relation:-

From the special theory of relativity, Einstein established that mass and energy are
equivalent. According to Einstein’s mass energy equation; ⇒
Thus from above equation it can be stated that the mass is another form of energy and
mass can be converted to energy or energy to mass.
The Experimental verification and observation of Einstein’s mass-energy relation are;
 Annihilation (destruction) takes place when electron and positron comes closer to
each other and radiates the energy in the form of gamma radiation.
 When a gamma ray photon of energy 1.02 MeV or more energy is approaching
(coming closer) a heavy nucleus due to intense electric field, photon is converted in
to electron and positron. This process is known as pair production.

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  Nuclear fission of a heavy nucleus into smaller nucleus with decrease in total mass
in the form of liberation of energy.

Thus, according to Chadwick;

( )

E = 931 MeV
Therefore one atomic mass unit is equivalent to 931 MeV of energy. i.e. 1u = 931 MeV

Mass Defect:-
The difference between the sum of the masses of the constituent nucleons and the actual
mass of nucleus is called mass defect.

[ ]

[ ( ) ]
Binding energy:-
The minimum energy required to split the nucleus into its constituent nucleons, is
known as the binding energy of a nucleus.
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation,

[ ( ) ]
Thus the binding energy Eb is equivalent to mass defect.
([ ( ) ] )
Binding energy per nucleon (Specific Binding energy):-
The average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding
energy per nucleon. It is also known as specific binding energy.

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 }

Binding energy curve:-

When a curve of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number is drawn, the
following features can be observed;
1. The binding energy per nucleon is very low for lighter nucleus.
Ex.
2. The binding energy per nucleon is independent of atomic number for the mass number
in the range of 30 <A<170 and which have great nuclear stability.

3. For higher mass number the binding energy per nucleon is lower and hence they are less
stable. Ex. U235
4. The peak of the curve show the most stable element in the nature i.e. Fe = 56; which has
binding energy =8.79 MeV per nucleon.

Nuclear forces:-

The nuclear forces arise due to the exchange of elementary particle known as pions (π-
mesons) between the nucleons i.e. proton and neutron. According to theory of H. Yukava,
The reactions in which nuclear attractive forces are developed are given below;
A proton inside the nucleus emits π+ meson and becomes neutron. In converse neutron
absorbs π+ and becomes proton.
A neutron inside the nucleus emits meson and becomes proton. In converse proton
absorbs and becomes neutron.
The attractive force between proton-proton and neutron-neutron develops due to
exchange of π0 mesons.

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 Characteristics of nuclear forces:
 Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.
 Nuclear forces are short range forces. [≈2 Fermi = 2 × 10-15 m]
 Nuclear forces are charge independent.
 Nuclear forces are saturated (limited) forces.
 Nuclear forces are spin independent.
 Nuclear forces are exchange forces

Radioactivity:-
The phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of heavy nuclei with certain emission
of radiation is called radioactivity. And the elements which shows radioactivity phenomenon
are called radioactive elements.

There are three types of radioactivity radiations discussed as below;

a) Alpha Rays (α-particle radiation)
A α-particle is a helium nucleus (2He4) having two proton and two neutrons. The
properties of α-particle radiation are as below;
 α particle have positive charge equal to +2e, since e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
 The mass of a α-particle is equal to four times of proton mass. i.e. mα=4mp
 α particles are emitted with velocities of order 107 m/s.
 Alpha rays are deflected by electric field and magnetic field.
 The ionizing energy of α particle is 100 times greater than β particle and 10,000
times that of gamma rays.

b) Beta Rays (β-particle radiation)

The properties of β particle radiation are as below;
 β particle have negative charge equal to 1.6 × 10-19 C.
 The mass of β particle is equal to the mass of an electron. i.e. 9.1 × 10-31 Kg.
 Beta rays are deflected by both electric field and magnetic field.
 These rays travel with speed of 2.99729 × 108 m/s.
 The penetrating power of β particle is 100 times more than α particle.
 The ionizing power of β particle is 100 less than α particle.

c) Gamma Rays (γ-particle radiation)

The properties of γ particle radiation are as below;
 These are the packets of high energy electromagnetic radiation. i.e. high energy photo.

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  These have no charge.
 The electric field and magnetic field do not affect the gamma rays.
 These have high penetrating power, 100 times greater than β particle.
 The ionizing energy of gamma radiation is very low, 100 times less than β rays.

Law of Radioactive decay:-

The rate of disintegration of a radioactive substance at any instant of time is directly

proportional to the number of atoms of that substance present at that time.
Let N0 be the number of atoms of radioactive substance at time t = 0. i.e. initially.
∴according to law of radioactive decay,
∝

Integrating above eqn with limit N0 to N and t = 0 to t = t;

∫ ∫

[ [

Since λ is decay constant and it can be defined as, “the reciprocal of time during which
the number of atoms of the substance decreases to 1/e times the number of atoms present at
initially.”

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Half Life:-
The time during which half of the atom of the radioactive substance disintegrates is
called half-life of a radioactive substance.
As we know,

Since half of the initial atoms disintegrate i.e.

Thus, half-life of radioactive substance is inversely proportion to the decay constant

(λ).
Mean Life:-
The average or mean life of a radioactive substance is reciprocal of the decay constant
of the substance.

Mean life also defined as, mean life of a radioactive substance is the ratio of the sum of
lives of all the individual atoms to the total number of atoms present in the sample.
Activity (Decay rate):- (A)
The activity of a radioactive substance is the number of disintegrations per second.
i.e. activity = number of atoms disintegrated per second
A=λN
S.I. unit of activity is becquerel (Bq) and also curie (Ci).
i. becquerel (Bq)

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 The activity is one becquerel if there is one disintegration per second in the substance.

ii. curie (Ci)

The activity of a substance is said to be 1 curie if it has 3.7 × 1010 atoms disintegrate
per second.
Thus, 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays/second
Or 1 Ci =3.7 × 1010 Bq
Alpha Decay:-
The process of spontaneous emission of a α particle from a radioactive nucleus is
called alpha decay. Alpha decay is emission of helium nucleus (2He4) and it can be
expressed as;

In above equation; X is parent nucleus and Y is daughter nucleus, 2He4 is alpha

particle and Q is energy liberated in the reaction as mass defect and known as value of
reaction.
Value of reaction or Disintegration per decay:
The difference between initial mass energy and total mass energy of the decay products
is known as value of reaction.
( )
Since, mx is mass of parent nuclei, my mass of daughter nuclei and mα mass of α
particle. This value of reaction or the loss in energy is two types;
1. If the value of Q > 0 (i.e. positive) then the reaction or the process is exoergic or
exothermic nuclear reaction. Hence energy (Q) is released in this reaction.
2. If the value of Q < 0 (i.e. negative) then the reaction or process is endoergic or
endothermic nuclear reaction. Hence the energy is supplied to the substance to occur
the reaction.
Beta Decay:-
The process of spontaneous emission of β particles from a radioactive nucleus is called
β decay. The β decay is of two types; electron emission (β–) and positron emission (β+).
a. In β– decay, neutron inside the nucleus is converted into proton by emission of
electron (β–) and antineutrino particles. This kind of reactions can occur in the
unstable nucleus of element having mass number greater than 20.

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 ̅
Since, 0n1 is neutron; 1n0 is proton (1H1); –1e0 is electron (e–) or β– particle and ν is
antineutrino particle. Example;
̅
̅
b. In β+ decay, the proton in the nucleus is converted into neutron with emission of
positron and neutrino. This reaction occurs rarely.

Since, 0n1 is neutron; 1n0 is proton (1H1); +1e0 is positron (e+) or β+ particle and ν is
neutrino particle. Example;

Gamma Decay:-

The process of spontaneous emission of high energy photon from a radioactive nucleus
is called gamma decay.
i.e. γ –rays, hν = E1 –E0 , thus γ–rays are emitted by the daughter nucleus so it is the
emission after emission of α particle or β particle. Ex.
̅

Nuclear Fission:-

This was discovered by German Scientist Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman in 1938.
“Nuclear fission is a process in which nucleus of a heavy atom splits into two or more nuclei
with the release of large amount of energy.”
( )

In this reaction, the mass defect is 0.223 u. occurs which is equivalent to 200 MeV of
energy and is released in the reaction. Other daughter products are,

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 Nuclear chain reaction:
The neutrons ejected during fission continuous in further and the reaction becomes
self-propagating is called chain reaction.

Nuclear Reactor:-

Nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission is produced by controlled self-

sustaining chain reaction. In early days it was known by atomic pile. The first nuclear
reactor was built by Enrico Fermi and his associates in 1942.
Construction:
1. Fuel (F):
The fissionable material used in a reactor is called reactor fuel is called reactor
fuel. Ex. Uranium isotopes, Thorium isotopes, plutonium isotopes
2. Moderator (M):
These are the materials used to slow down the neutrons to thermal energies (i.e.
low kinetic energy). Ex. Water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite
After emission of neutrons in first reaction, possess higher kinetic energy known
as fast neutrons which is equivalent to 2 MeV and after slow downed they possess low
kinetic energy which is equivalent to 0.05 MeV.

3. Control rods:
These rods are used to controls the chain reaction i.e. rate of fission. The rods are
commonly made from cadmium and boron which absorbs the neutrons and controls the
rate of fission (i.e. reaction) by moving these in or out in the core of reactor.

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 4. Coolant:
A large amount of energy is released in the reactor in the form of heat which is
utilized (used) to produce electricity by circulating material in the core known as
coolant. Ex. Water, Nitrogen, CO2
5. Reflector:
The surface of the reactor chamber is coated with a material which can reflect back
neutrons leaking out. Graphite is commonly used as reflector.
6. Shield:
A shield is protecting wall of 2 m thickness made up of concrete. There is another
shield inside reactor made of steel or iron of thickness few inches.

Multiplication factor (k) or reproduction factor:-

It is a measure of the growth rate of neutrons in the reactor. It is defined as, “the ratio
of number of neutrons in one generation to the number of neutrons in the preceding
generation.”

If K = 1 the fission chain reaction will be critical and the chain reaction is just sustained
(constant). If K < 1 then the fission chain reaction will be stop. If K > 1 then the fission
chain reaction will be accelerates (fasten).

Nuclear fusion:-
Nuclear fusion is the process of combining two lighter nuclei into a stable heavier
nucleus with the liberation of energy.
Ex. Fission reaction
( )
( )

Energy generation in stars:-

Stellar energy is the energy obtained from the sun and stars. In sun core heavy elements
are in small quantity whereas Hydrogen and Helium constitute about 90% sun’s mass.
Hence the source of energy is some nuclear process involving Hydrogen and Helium. This
energy process can be represented by the reaction sets of the proton-proton cycle as;
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 ( )
( )

The total energy released in proton-proton cycle is 18.77 MeV and the two protons
produced in total process and which repeats the cycle and continues the reaction with
liberation of huge amount of energy i.e. stellar energy.
The above reaction can be summarized (shorten) as;

Thus four Hydrogen atoms combine to form a 2He4 atom with a release of 26.7 MeV
energy.
In 1938 Hans Bethe proposed a set of nuclear reaction for the energy produced in the
sun and other similar stars known as Carbon-Nitrogen cycle.

The total energy released in this reaction is 26.7 MeV

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