INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Flourished from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE

 GEOGRAPHY & SETTLEMENTS

 Located in the Indus River Valley (present-day India and Pakistan)

 Vast and extensive civilization
 Major cities:- Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Lothal
 Planned urban centres with grid-like street layout
 Sophisticated drainage systems and public wells

 SOCIAL ORGANISATION

 Well-structured society
 Hierarchical system with distinct social classes
 Evidence of a ruling elite and priestly class
 Skilled artisans, traders, and labourers
 Evidence of communal living and shared public spaces
 Possible evidence of gender equality and absence of social
discrimination

 ARCHITECTURE & CRAFTSMANSHIP

 Advanced urban planning and architecture

 Use of standardised bricks in construction
 Large public buildings, granaries, and reservoirs
 Elaborate drainage and sewage systems
 Intricate and well-designed houses with courtyards
 Skilled craftsmanship in pottery, metalwork, jewellery, and
figurines

 WRITING SYSTEM & SYMBOLS

 Indus script, still undeciphered, Boustrophedon method of

writing
 Thousands of short inscriptions found on seals and tablets
 Use of pictographic and abstract symbols

 TRADE & ECONOMY

 Thriving trade networks with Mesopotamia and other regions

 Presence of seals depicting animals and script, possibly
indicating ownership or trade
 Evidence of long-distance trade in precious stones, metals,
and goods
 Agricultural economy based on cultivation of wheat, barley,
and domestication of animals
 Craft specialisation and production of goods for trade

 RELIGION & RITUALS

 Worship of Mother Goddess and male deities

 Ritual bathing and religious bathing platforms (Great Bath)
 Ritualistic objects and figurines found in archaeological
excavations
 Possible worship of trees, animals, and fertility symbols
 No temple like structure found; belief in Ghosts and Evil
forces (Wore amulets for protection)

 DAILY LIFE & SOCIETY

 Well-planned cities with separate residential, commercial, and
industrial areas

 Houses with multiple rooms and private bathing facilities

 Access to public amenities like wells, public baths, and
assembly areas
 Evidence of an organised system of weights and measures
(weights in multiple of 16)
 Evidence of games, music, and artistic expression

 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

 Agriculture:- Cultivation of wheat, barley (Banawali), rice

(Lothal and Rangpur), and cotton
 Animal husbandry:- Domestication of cattle, sheep, goats,
and pigs
 Craftsmanship: Pottery making, metalworking, jewellery
making, bead making
 Trade and commerce: Long-distance trade networks, use of
seals for commercial transactions

 EXCAVATED SITES

 Harappa:- Located in Pakistan, well-preserved urban site with

public and private structures
 Mohenjo-Daro:- Located in Pakistan, well-planned city with
Great Bath, granaries, and residential areas
 Dholavira:- Located in Gujarat, (India) with impressive water
management systems and fortified structures
 Lothal:- Located in Gujarat, (India) known for its dockyard and
maritime trade connections
  Rakhigarhi :- Located in Haryana, (India) one of the largest
Indus Valley settlements

 DECAY & DECLINE

 Theories on the decline include ecological factors, floods, or

shifts in river courses
 Possible invasion or internal conflicts leading to the decline
 Abandonment of major cities and urban centres

SITE MAJOR FINDINGS EXCAVATORS IMPORTANCE

 Great Bath  One of the largest cities

Mohenjo-  large-scale urban  showcasing the civilization's
 R.D. Banerji
planning,  John Marshall urban sophistication and
daro  advanced drainage engineering skills
 Ernest Mackay
systems,
 priest King,
 Bronze Dancing Girl

 Grid-like street  Sir John  First site to be excavated

patterns Marshall  contributed to the initial
Harappa understanding of the
 well-built  Mortimer
structures Wheeler civilization
 Steatite seals  Rai Bahadur
 mother Goddess
  Dockyard  Important port city
 warehouse  S.R. Rao  evidence of Indus Valley's
Lothal  complexes  J.P. Joshi
 advanced maritime maritime activities and
 Rakhal Das trade
trade Banerjee
 Bead- making
workshop
 Rice husk

 Large-scale water  Showcased advanced urban

 R.S. Bisht planning
Dholavira management  J.P. Joshi
systems  extensive water conservation
 Ravindra techniques
 three divisions of Singh Bisht
town
 stadium

 Provided insights into the

 Unique fire altars  B.B. Lal civilization's agricultural
Kalibangan
 defensive walls  A. Ghosh practices and urban
 evidence of plough  K.N. Dikshit planning
agriculture

 Extensive urban  Largest known Indus Valley

 Amarendra site,
Rakhigarhi settlement Nath
 cemetery with  significant in studying the
 Vasant Shinde civilization's social structure
large number of  R.S. Bisht
burials
 steatite Dice

 Demonstrated urban
 Planned city layout  Ernest Mackay planning and copper
Chanhudaro
 bronze and copper  N.G. metallurgy skills
artefacts Majumdar
 cylindrical seals

 Significance lies in the

Rangpur  Unique steatite  Ghosh discovery of distinct seals
(soapstone) seals  S.P. Gupta and artwork
 terracotta
figurines
 Provides insights into the pre-
 G.F. Dales
Kot Diji  Fortification walls  Ahmed Hasan Harappan phase and cultural
 specialised pottery Dani
 early Harappan development
culture

 Indus Valley script  Important for the discovery

inscriptions  Y.D. Sharma of inscribed objects and
Ropar  agricultural  Shikaripur agricultural practices in the
terraces Ranganatha region
 dog buried with Rao
humans
 oval pit burial

Surkotada
 Citadel and lower  Jagat Pati
Note: Horse bone is found but IVC
town fortified Joshi
 pot burial people
 remains of horse
bone

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD

Estimated from 1500 BCE to 1000 BCE

 GEOGRAPHY & SETTLEMENTS

 Early Vedic Period marks the migration of Indo-Aryans into

the Indian subcontinent
 Settlements primarily in the north-western region of the Indian
subcontinent
 Major regions: Sapta-Sindhu (Seven Rivers) region
 Settlements along the banks of rivers like the Indus,
Sarasvati.

 SOCIETY & SOCIAL STRUCTURE

 Tribal society based on kinship and clans
 Tribal units called "Janas" or "Jatis"
 Raja (king) as the central authority
 Rajan (chief) as the leader of the tribe
 Presence of warrior class (Kshatriyas), priests (Brahmins),
and common people (Vaishyas)
 Social hierarchy based on birth (varna system) - Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras

 RELIGION & RITUALS

 Polytheistic religion
 Worship of natural forces and deities (devas)
 Agni (fire god), Indra (thunder god), Varuna (god of cosmic
order), and others revered
 Performance of yajnas (ritual sacrifices) and prayers
 Importance of hymns and prayers (Rigveda)
 Role of Brahmins as priests and custodians of religious
rituals

 LITERATURE & ORAL TRADITION

 Preservation of knowledge through oral transmission

 Rigveda - Oldest Vedic text, collection of hymns
 Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda - Other Vedic texts
 Rich poetic and metaphoric language
 Composed and recited by Rishis (sages)

 ECONOMY & LIVELIHOOD

 Pastoral and agricultural economy

 Cattle rearing and agriculture (wheat, barley, rice, pulses)
 Importance of cattle wealth (go-dhana)
 Barter system for exchange of goods
 No known coinage system during this period
 POLITICAL SYSTEM & GOVERNANCE

 Tribal chief (Rajan) as the political authority

 Assembly of tribes (Sabha) for decision-making
 Importance of counsel (Purohita) for advice to the king
 Emergence of kingdoms (Mahajanapadas) in later Vedic
period

 SETTLEMENTS & DWELLINGS

 Semi-nomadic lifestyle in the early phase

 Later settled agricultural communities (grame)
 Simple houses made of wood, reeds, and thatch
 Settlements fortified with wooden palisades
 Development of villages (grama) and towns (nigama) over
time

 TECHNOLOGY & SKILLS

 Knowledge of metal working (copper, bronze)

 Horse-drawn chariots used in warfare
 Skill in agriculture and irrigation techniques
 Weaving, pottery, and carpentry skills
 Use of horse and oxen for transportation and ploughing

 DECLINE & TRANSITION

 Gradual transition to the later Vedic period

 Socio-political changes with the emergence of kingdoms
 Transition from pastoral to settled agricultural communities
 Transformation in religious practices and rituals

LATER VEDIC AGE

Estimated from 1000 BCE to 600 BCE

 GEOGRAPHY & SETTLEMENTS

 Continuation of Indo-Aryan settlements in the Indian

subcontinent
 Expansion towards the Gangetic plains and eastern regions
 Major regions:- Gangetic plains (Panchala, Kuru, Kosala,
Videha), Eastern regions (Anga, Magadha)
 Settlements along the banks of rivers like the Ganges,
Yamuna, and Sarayu

 SOCIETY & SOCIAL STRUCTURE

 Evolution of complex social structure and varna system

 Varna system:- Brahmins (priestly class), Kshatriyas
(warrior/administrative class), Vaishyas (merchant/agricultural
class), Shudras (labourer/servant class)
 Emergence of new social groups, including skilled artisans
and traders (shreshthi)
 Development of urban centres and fortified cities
 Presence of powerful monarchies and ruling dynasties

 RELIGION & RITUALS

 Continuation of polytheistic religion

 Vedic deities revered, but new deities introduced
 Prajapati (creator god), Rudra (destructive god), Vishnu
(preserving god), and others worshipped; Rigvedic gods lost
their prominence
 Rituals and sacrifices (yajnas) held with increased complexity
 Emergence of ritual manuals (Brahmanas) to guide religious
practices
 Role of Brahmins as custodians of rituals and religious
knowledge

 LITERATURE & SCHOLARSHIP

 Compilation and preservation of Vedic texts

 Brahmanas: Prose texts explaining rituals and symbolic
interpretations
 Aranyakas: Forest treatises with philosophical and meditative
content
 Upanishads: Philosophical texts exploring concepts of the
self, reality, and liberation (moksha)
 Emergence of early philosophical and speculative thought

 ECONOMY & LIVELIHOOD

 Transition to settled agricultural communities

 Expansion of agricultural practices, including rice cultivation
 Cattle wealth and agriculture continued to be important
 Increased trade and commerce, with organised guilds (srenis)
 Barter system continued, with the introduction of coins
(punch-marked coins) in later phase

 POLITICAL SYSTEM & GOVERNANCE

 Emergence of powerful monarchies (Mahajanapadas)
 Kingship based on hereditary succession
 Sabha (council of elders) and Samiti (assembly of people) for
decision-making
 Sabha becoming more aristocratic in nature
 Rise of powerful monarchies like Magadha under the Nandas
and Mauryas

 SETTLEMENTS & URBANIZATION

 Development of fortified cities and urban centres

 Planning and construction of cities with well-defined roads
and public spaces
 Presence of royal palaces, administrative buildings, and
public marketplaces
 Increased specialisation in crafts and trade
 Shift towards urban lifestyle and growth of urban populations

 TECHNOLOGY & SKILLS

 Advancements in iron technology, leading to the Iron Age

 Iron tools and weapons used in agriculture and warfare
 Continued expertise in metalworking, including bronze and
copper
 Development of urban infrastructure like water reservoirs and
canals
 Skill in pottery, weaving, carpentry, and other crafts

 LITERARY WORKS & PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT

 Compilation and preservation of the Vedic texts

  Emergence of early philosophical and speculative thought
 Upanishads exploring concepts of Brahman, Atman, and
liberation (moksha)
 Early seeds of philosophical systems like Vedanta and
Sankhya

 DECLINE & TRANSITION

 Gradual transition to the post-Vedic period and the rise of

new religions and philosophies
 Decline of Vedic rituals and the emergence of alternative
religious practices
 Rise of Jainism and Buddhism challenging traditional Vedic
beliefs
 Emergence of regional states and new dynasties
 Transformation of the political, social, and religious
landscape

BUDDHISM
- Founded by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE

 LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA & EARLY BUDDHIST

TEACHINGS

 Gautama Buddha's birth in Lumbini, Nepal (563 BCE)

 His renunciation of worldly life and search for enlightenment
 Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya
 Sermon of the First Turning of the Wheel of Dharma in
Sarnath
 Four Noble Truths: Existence of suffering, its cause,
cessation, and the Eightfold Path
 Middle Way: Avoidance of extremes and moderation in all
aspects of life
 Emphasis on mindfulness, compassion, and non-attachment

 THREE JEWELS & CORE TEACHINGS

 Three Jewels (Triple Gem): Buddha, Dharma, Sangha

 Buddha as the enlightened teacher and guide
 Dharma as the teachings and path to liberation
 Sangha as the monastic community and spiritual support
system
 Core teachings: , Eightfold Path, and Three
Marks of Existence

 BUDDHIST SCHISMS & COUNCILS

1. First Buddhist Council (483 BCE): Compilation of Buddha's

teachings,
Rules of Monastic order: Sutta Pitaka & Vinay Pitaka
(Tripitaka), Rajgir
2. Second Buddhist Council (383 BCE): Debate over monastic
discipline, Vaishali
3. Third Buddhist Council (250 BCE): Compilation of
Abhidhamma (philosophical texts), Patliputra
4. Fourth Buddhist Council (78 AD): Kundalvan, Kashmir
 Mahasanghika and Sthaviravada schism: Differences in
monastic practices and doctrines
 Emergence of different Buddhist schools: Theravada,
Mahayana, Vajrayana, Zen
 EIGHTFOLD PATH OF BUDDHA

 Right View: Understanding the nature of reality and the Four

Noble Truths
 Right Intention: Cultivating wholesome and compassionate
intentions
 Right Speech: Speaking truthfully, kindly, and avoiding
harmful speech
 Right Action: Engaging in ethical conduct and avoiding harm
to oneself and others
 Right Livelihood: Pursuing a livelihood that is honest and
non-harming
 Right Effort: Cultivating wholesome qualities and abandoning
unwholesome ones
 Right Mindfulness: Being present, aware, and attentive to the
present moment
 Right Concentration: Cultivating focused and tranquil states
of mind through meditation

 BUDDHIST LITERATURE

 Tripitaka (Pali Canon): Collection of Buddha's discourses

(Sutta), Vinaya (monastic rules), and Abhidhamma
(philosophical analysis)
 Mahayana Sutras: Vast collection of scriptures emphasising
compassion and bodhisattva ideal
 Tibetan Buddhist Texts: Kangyur (translated words of the
Buddha) and Tengyur (commentaries by Indian and Tibetan
scholars)
 Zen Teachings: Koans, dialogues, and writings of Zen
masters
 Jataka Tales: Stories of Buddha's previous lives and moral
lessons
 Commentaries and Treatises by Buddhist scholars (e.g.,
Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, Dogen)

 BUDDHIST PRACTICES & RITUALS

 Meditation (Dhyana): Mindfulness, concentration, and insight

practices
 Observance of moral precepts (e.g., non-violence, honesty,
compassion)

 BUDDHIST MONASTIC COMMUNITY

 Monastic Sangha: Community of monks (bhikkhus) and nuns

(bhikkhunis)
 Importance of monastic discipline (Vinaya)
 Roles of monastics in preserving and spreading Buddhist
teachings
 Monastic education and training in Buddhist scriptures and
practices

 SPREAD OF BUDDHISM & BUDDHIST ART

 Early spread to Northern India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and

Central Asia
 Ashoka's patronage and propagation of Buddhism in ancient
India
 Silk Road trade route facilitating the spread to China, Korea,
and Japan
  Buddhist art: Sculptures, paintings, and architectural
monuments (stupas, viharas)
 Symbolism in Buddhist art (e.g., lotus, Buddha statues, wheel
of Dharma)

ASPECT/EVENT SYMBOL

The footprint of the Buddha, symbolizing his

Buddha's Footprints
physical presence and spiritual guidance.

A wheel with eight spokes, representing the

Dhamma Wheel Noble Eightfold Path and the Buddha's teachings

(Dhamma).

A tree under which the Buddha attained

Bodhi Tree enlightenment. It symbolises spiritual awakening

and enlightenment.
 A dome-shaped structure containing relics or

remains of the Buddha or other revered figures.

Stupa
Symbolises the Buddha's final passing into

Nirvana.

The lotus represents purity, enlightenment, and

Lotus Flower the potential to rise above suffering, as it grows

from muddy waters but remains pristine.

The wheel of Dhamma, symbolising the Buddha's

Dharmachakra first sermon and the turning of the wheel of

truth. Represents the path to liberation.

The hand gestures of the Buddha (mudras)

Buddha's Three
symbolize various moments in his life, such as
Gestures
teaching, meditation, and reassurance.
 Represents offerings made by devotees to the

Offering Bowl Buddha and the Sangha, signifying generosity

and devotion.

The begging bowl used by Buddhist monks

Alms Bowl during alms rounds. Signifies renunciation and

reliance on the community for sustenance.

The Dhammapada is a revered text containing

Dhammapada (Buddhist
the teachings and sayings of the Buddha, used as
Text)
a guiding principle for practitioners.

Hinayana Buddhism

Aspect Mahayana Buddhism (Theravada)

 Hinayana means
Mahayana means "Great
Definition "Lesser Vehicle" or
Vehicle"
"Small Vehicle"

Focus on personal
Emphasis on attaining
Goal enlightenment
Buddhahood for all beings
(Arhatship)

Focus on Gautama
Recognizes multiple Buddhas
Buddhas Buddha as the primary
and Bodhisattvas
Buddha

Bodhisattvas are highly

Less emphasis on
revered and play an active role
Bodhisattvas Bodhisattvas and their
in helping others achieve
role
enlightenment
 Compassion is valued,
Emphasis on universal
Compassion but less emphasis on
compassion and altruism
universal compassion

Expanded canon with Follows the Pali Canon

Scriptures
additional Mahayana Sutras (Tipitaka)

Emphasis on the Bodhisattva Focus on individual self-

Enlightenment
path, striving to benefit all liberation and personal
Path
sentient beings development

Language of Some Mahayana scriptures Theravada scriptures

Scriptures are in Sanskrit are in Pali

Slightly more flexible monastic Strict adherence to

Monastic Rules
rules monastic rules
 Predominant in Sri
Predominant in East Asian
Lanka, Myanmar,
Followers countries (e.g., China, Japan,
Thailand, Cambodia,
Korea)
Laos

Lay practitioners can actively Lay practitioners are

View of Lay
participate in the Bodhisattva encouraged to support
Practitioners
path the monastic Sangha

JAINISM
Founded by Lord Mahavira in the 6th century BCE

 LIFE OF LORD MAHAVIRA & JAIN TENETS

 Lord Mahavira's birth in Kundagrama (Vaishali, present-day

Bihar, India) in 599 BCE
 Renunciation and spiritual pursuit at the age of 30
 Attainment of Kevala Jnana (omniscience) after 12 years of
intense meditation
 Sermon of the First Discourse (Sutrakritanga) at
Jambhiyavalli
 Jain principles: Non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya),
non-stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacharya), and non-
 possessiveness (aparigraha); 4 principles derived from earlier
Tirthankara but Celibacy was added to the list by Mahavira.
 Belief in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) and
the liberation of the soul (moksha)

 THREE JEWELS & FUNDAMENTAL TEACHINGS

 Three Jewels (Ratnatraya): Right faith (Samyak Darshan),

right knowledge (Samyak Jnana), and right conduct (Samyak

Charitra)
 Five Vows (Mahavratas): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth),

Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and

Aparigraha (non-attachment)
 Doctrine of Karma: Belief in the accumulation of karma

through actions and its influence on future rebirths

 Jain ethics: Compassion towards all living beings,

vegetarianism, and environmental stewardship

 JAIN COSMOLOGY & PHILOSOPHY

 Belief in an eternal and uncreated universe with cycles of time

 Six substances (dravyas): Jiva (soul), Ajiva (non-living
matter), Punya (merit), Papa (demerit), Asrava (influx of
karma), and Samvara (cessation of karma)
 Theory of karma: Different types of karma determining one's
experiences and destiny
 Doctrine of non-absolutism (Anekantavada) and relativity of
truth
 Syadvada: Theory of multiple perspectives and non-one-
sidedness

 FIVE GREAT VOWS OF JAIN MONKS & NUNS

 Monastic Sangha: Ascetic community of monks (Sadhus) and

nuns (Sadhwis)
 Five Great Vows (Mahavratas): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya
(truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and
Aparigraha (non-attachment)
 Strict adherence to ascetic lifestyle, self-discipline, and
detachment from worldly attachments
 Practices of fasting, meditation, self-control, and study of Jain
scriptures (Agamas)

 JAIN SCRIPTURES & LITERATURE

 Agamas: Canonical scriptures containing the teachings of

Lord Mahavira
 Angas: Commentaries and explanations on the Agamas
 Tattvartha Sutra: Jain philosophical text by Acharya
Umaswati
 Prakrit and Sanskrit texts by Jain scholars and philosophers
 Jain poetry and literature: Writings by Jain poets and
scholars

 JAIN SYMBOLS & ICONOGRAPHY

 Jain emblem: Ahimsa (hand with a raised palm)

  Tirthankara images and statues: Depicting enlightened beings
in various postures (asanas)
 Symbolism of Jain art: Serene expressions, non-violence,
auspicious symbols (swastika), and Jain cosmology

 JAIN CONTRIBUTIONS & IMPACT

 Influence on Indian philosophy, ethics, and religious practices
 Promotion of non-violence, compassion, and environmental
sustainability

ASPECT SVETAMBAR DIGAMBAR

Sky-clad (naked) monks

believe in the practice of

White-clad monks and
Clothing nudity as a form of
nuns wear white clothes.
austerity. Nuns wear

white clothes.

Accept a smaller set of

Scriptures Accept a larger set of Jain Jain scriptures, written

scriptures, including texts
only in Ardhamagadhi.
 written in Ardhamagadhi

and other languages.

Do not believe in the

Belief in
Allow the ordination of ordination of female
Female monks, considering it
female monks (sadhvis).
Monks impossible due to the
requirement of nudity.

Claim to follow the

Originated from the
original teachings of Lord
teachings of Sthulabhadra,
Sect Origin Mahavira and believe that
after the Jain Council of
their sect predates the
Vallabhi (3rd century CE).
Svetambar tradition.

Reject the use of images

Allow the creation and
Art and for worship, as they
worship of images of
Images believe Lord Mahavira
Tirthankaras.
forbade it.
 Smaller in numbers and
Sect More numerous and
mainly found in South
Population widespread.
India.

EVENT BUDDHA MAHAVIRA

Place of Kundagrama (Vaishali),

Lumbini, present-day Nepal
Birth India

First Sarnath, present-day Uttar Magadha, present-day

Sermon Pradesh, India Bihar, India

Kushinagar, present-day Pawapuri, present-day

Death
Uttar Pradesh, India Bihar, India
 Philosophy Buddhism Jainism

16 MAHAJANAPADAS

Important Important

Mahajanapada Capital Present-day City Ruler River

Bhagalpur,
Anga Champa Champa Unknown Ganga
Bihar

Maharashtra
Assaka/Asmaka Potana/Potali Potana/Potali Unknown Godavari
and Telangana
 Western Chanda
Ujjayini/
Avanti/Malava Madhya Ujjayini Pradyota Narmada
Mahishmati Pradesh Mahasena

Bundelkhand

Chedi/Soyambaka Shuktimati region, Uttar Shuktimati Shishupala Yamuna

Pradesh

Gandhara/Taksha Pakistan and Ambhi

Taxila Taxila Indus
shila Afghanistan (Porus)

Parts of

Afghanistan,
Kamboja/Kumbha Rajapura Rajapura Unknown Swat
Pakistan, and

Punjab

Varanasi/Kas
Kashi/Varanasi Varanasi/Kashi Uttar Pradesh Prasenajit Ganga
hi
Kaushambi/Kosa Allahabad,
Kausambi Kausambi Udayana Yamuna
mbi Uttar Pradesh

Haryana and
Kuru/Indo-Aryan Hastinapura Hastinapura Sudas Yamuna
Delhi

Bimbisara,
Rajagriha/Pata Rajagriha,
Magadha Bihar Ajatashatr Ganga
liputra Pataliputra
u

Matsya/Virat Alwar,
Virat Nagari Virat Nagari Unknown Chambal
Nagari Rajasthan

Uttarakhand
Panchala/Ahichatr Ahichatra/Kam Ahichatra, Chetaka,
and Uttar Ganga
a pilya Kampilya Drupada
Pradesh

Surasena/Mathura Mathura Uttar Pradesh Mathura Kamsa Yamuna

Vatsa/Kaushambi Kaushambi Uttar Pradesh Kaushambi Udayana Yamuna

Arabian
Vrishni/Dwarka Dwarka Gujarat Dwarka Krishna
Sea

MAGADHA DYNASTY
 Magadha Dynasty was one of the most powerful dynasties in
ancient India.

 HARYANKA DYNASTY (600 BCE - 413 BCE)

 Founded by Bimbisara, who expanded Magadha's territory

and made Rajagriha the capital.

 BIMBISARA

 Expanded Magadha's territory through conquest and

alliances.
 Established Rajagriha as the capital.
 Became a patron of Gautama Buddha.
 First ruler to be killed by his son for throne
 Annexed Anga to avenge his Father’s defeat.
 First king to have a standing Army

 AJATASHATRU:

 Further expanded Magadha's territory.

 Conquered the city of Vaishali and engaged in wars with
Kosala.
 Constructed a fortress at Pataliputra.
 Killed his father for throne
 Developed various Military Instruments; Mahashilakantaka,
and Rathmoosala

 UDAYIN

 Shifted Capital from Rajagriha to Pataliputra

 Nagadashaka- Last Haryanka Ruler

 SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY (412 BCE - 345 BCE)

 Founded by Shishunaga after overthrowing the Haryanka

dynasty.

 SHISHUNAGA:

 Shifted the capital from Pataliputra to Vaishali.

 First Brahmin ruler of Magadha Empire
 Defeated Pradyota Dynasty of Avanti

 KALASHOKA

 Also known as Kakarvarna (a/c to Puranas)

 Shifted capital from Vaishali to Patliputra
 Second Buddhist Council during his Reign

 NANDA DYNASTY (345 BCE - 321 BCE)

 Founded by Mahapadma Nanda after overthrowing the

Shishunaga dynasty.

 Mahapadma Nanda:

 took the title of Ekarat

 Conquered Panchala, Kuru, Asmaka, Surasena
 Effective Taxation system and maintained a large Army
 Nanda dynasty witnessed a period of consolidation and
centralization of power.
 Dhana Nanda:

 Last ruler of the Nanda dynasty.

 Pataliputra remained the capital and a major economic and

political centre.
 Overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya

 MAURYA DYNASTY (321 BCE - 185 BCE)

Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who overthrew the Nanda
dynasty with the help of Chanakya

 Chandragupta Maurya:

 Expanded the Mauryan Empire through military campaigns.

 A/c to Jain texts, Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainsim and

went to Shravana BElgola with Bhadrabahu and committed

Sallekhana (death by slow Starvation)
 Defeated Selcus Nicator and married his Daughter Helena

 Bindusara

 Also known as Amitrochates (slayer of enemies) or

Amitraghat.
 Antiochus I (Syrian King) sent Deimachus as an ambassador

to his court.
 Joined Ajivika Sect

 Taranath (a Tibetian Monk) states that he won 16 states

 Appointed Ashoka Governor of Ujjain and Taxila

  Ashoka the Great:

 Transformed the empire with his Buddhist teachings and

principles of Dhamma.
 Pataliputra continued as the capital, known for its grandeur
and administration.
 Maurya dynasty witnessed significant advancements in
governance and infrastructure.
 Initiated military campaigns to expand the empire.
 After the Battle of Kalinga, he renounced violence and

embraced Buddhism.
 Promoted welfare activities, including the construction of

hospitals and public works.

 CULTURAL & SOCIAL HISTORY

 Spread of Buddhism: Ashoka played a pivotal role in the

propagation of Buddhism within and beyond India.

 Sent missionaries to various regions to spread the teachings of

Buddhism.
 Built stupas and monasteries as centres of Buddhist learning

and worship.
 Patronage of Art & Architecture: Mauryan rulers were patrons

of art and architecture.

 Construction of grand structures like the Great Stupa at Sanchi

and the Ashokan Pillars.

 Society & Administration: The Mauryan Empire had a well-

organised administrative system.

 Divisions into provinces (Mahajanapadas) and districts

(Janapadas) for effective governance.

 Officials such as Mahamatyas and Rajukas supervised the

administration.
 ADMINISTRATION:

 Prime Minister (Mahamatra): Assisted the king in governance

and decision-making.
 Chief Treasurer (Samaharta): Managed the empire's finances.
 Chief Justice (Maha Dandanayaka): Ensured justice and
maintained law and order.
 Superintendent of Public Works (Sannidhata): Overlooked
construction and maintenance of public infrastructure.

 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES:

 Ashokan Edicts: Inscriptions on pillars and rocks, providing

insights into governance, policies, and religious principles.
 Sanchi Stupa: A magnificent Buddhist monument, showcasing
Mauryan architectural style.
 Excavations at Pataliputra: Unearthed ruins of the Mauryan
capital, providing insights into urban planning and lifestyle.

 ECONOMIC HISTORY

 Trade & Commerce: The Mauryan Empire was known for its

flourishing trade networks.

 Trade routes connected India with the Mediterranean region and

Southeast Asia.
 Pataliputra, the capital, served as a major trading centre.
 Agriculture: Agriculture was the backbone of the Mauryan

economy.
 Irrigation systems were developed, contributing to increased

agricultural productivity.

 RELIGIOUS HISTORY

 Ashoka's Policy of Dhamma: Ashoka embraced Buddhism and

promoted a policy of Dhamma (righteousness).
 Encouraged moral conduct, non-violence, and respect for all
religions.
 Edicts were inscribed on pillars and rocks, propagating Dhamma
and outlining ethical principles.
 Ashokan Edicts: Ashoka's edicts were inscribed in various parts
of the empire.
 They provided insights into Ashoka's governance, social
policies, and religious tolerance.

 DECLINE OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

 Factors Leading to Decline:

 Weak Successors: Weak rulers and succession disputes

weakened the empire.

 Regional Revolts: Provinces started asserting independence,

leading to fragmentation.

 Economic Drain: Costly military campaigns and bureaucratic

expenses strained the treasury.

 External Invasions: Foreign invasions by the Greeks, Sakas,

and Parthians destabilised the empire.

Edict

Number Description Key Points

Emphasises non-
Major
Prohibition of animal sacrifice, violence and
Rock
especially during festive seasons. compassion towards
Edict I
animals.

Encourages healthcare,

Major Medical treatment of humans agricultural

Rock and animals, planting of fruits, development, and

medicinal herbs, and digging of mentions southern
Edict II
wells. Mentions the Pandyas,
regions of the empire.
 Satyapuras, and Keralaputras of

South India.

Generosity to Brahmins. About Promotes generosity

Major
Yuktas, Pradeshikas, and and the dissemination
Rock
Rajukas who spread Dhamma of Dhamma through
Edict III
every five years. appointed officials.

Prioritizes Dhamma
Dhammaghosha (sound of
Major (righteousness) over
Dhamma/righteousness) over
Rock war and emphasises
Bherighosha (sound of war).
Edict IV the king's sense of
King Ashoka's duty.
duty.

About Dhammamahamatras and

Major
treating slaves right. A cadre of Establishes Dhamma
Rock
officials appointed to spread officials responsible for
Edict V
Dhamma. promoting Dhamma
 and ensures fair

treatment of slaves.

Demonstrates Ashoka's

concern for the well-

Major King's desire to know about his
being of his subjects
Rock people's conditions and welfare
and the
Edict VI measures.
implementation of

welfare measures.

Encourages religious

Major Tolerance towards religions tolerance and welfare

Rock among all sects and welfare initiatives, not only in

Edict VII measures for the public. his kingdom but also in

neighbouring regions.
 Highlights the

significance of
Major Ashoka's first Dhamma Yatra to
Ashoka's religious
Rock Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree.
pilgrimage and the
Edict VIII Importance of Dhamma tours.
value of Dhamma

tours.

Discourages extravagant

Major ceremonies and

Condemns popular ceremonies
Rock emphasises the
and stresses moral conduct.
Edict IX importance of moral

behaviour.

Encourages humility and

Major Disapproves of the individual's
promotes the pursuit of
Rock desire for fame and glory and
Dhamma over personal
Edict X stresses on Dhamma.
ambition.
 Advocates Dhamma as

a guiding principle,
Major Dhamma as the best policy,
respect for elders, and
Rock respect for elders, and concern
compassionate
Edict XI for slaves and servants.
treatment of slaves and

servants.

Acknowledges officials

responsible for
Major Mentions Mahamattas in charge
women's welfare and
Rock of women's welfare and tolerance
reiterates religious
Edict XII towards others' dhamma.
tolerance towards

diverse beliefs.

Reflects on the brutal

Major Mentions victory over Kalinga
Kalinga War, Ashoka's
Rock and Ashoka's Dhamma victory
remorse, and his
Edict XIII over Greek Kings.
conversion to Buddhism.

Mentions interactions
 with Greek kings and

regional rulers.

Summarises the intent

and significance of the

Major
rock edicts in
Rock Purpose of rock edicts.
spreading Dhamma
Edict XIV
and moral principles

throughout the empire.

 There are only 4 places where Ashoka has used his name

1. Maski

2. Brahmagiri (Karnataka)

3. Gujjara (MP)

4. Nettur (AP)

 IMPORTANT EDICTS AND INSCRIPTION OF ASHOKA

 Edict/Inscription Remarks

Ashoka urges the Sangha members to

Allahabad – Kosam/Queens
avoid causing divisions. It also contains
Edict/Kausambi or Schism Edict
Samudragupta's inscription.

Famous bilingual edict in Greek and

Kandahar Inscription
Aramaic.

Kalinga Edicts (Bhauli and Mentions the phrase 'All men are my

Jaugada) children.'

Site of all 14 major rock edicts and two

Sannati Inscription (Karnataka)
separate Kalinga edicts.
 Mentions exemption from bali and

Rummindei Inscription (Nepal) reduced taxes for Lumbini, the

birthplace of Buddha.

Girnar Rock Inscription of Mentions the Sudarshan lake constructed

Rudradaman (Kathiawar) during Chandragupta Maurya's reign.

Indicates Ashoka's gradual turn towards

Minor Rock Edict 1
Buddhism after 2.5 years in power.

Ashoka expresses his deep faith in the

Minor Rock Edict 3 Buddha, dhamma, and Sangha and

recommends Buddhist texts for monks.

Inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi
Written in Kharosthi script.
and Mansehra

 Ashoka’s Contemporary King

1. Antiochus II - Syria
 2. Plotemy II - Egypt

3. Antigonus- Macedonia
4. Magas- Cyrene/ Cyrenaica

 POST-MAURYAN DYNASTIES (185 BCE - 321 CE)

 After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, Magadha saw the rise
of several smaller dynasties.

 Shunga Dynasty (185 BCE - 72 BCE):

 Pushyamitra Shunga established the dynasty.

 Followed Brahminism
 Important Rulers:

 Bhagavata

 During his reign Heliodorus (Greek ambassador of Antialcidas)

erected Besnagar Pillar (Garuda Pillar)

 Vasumitra

- Defeated Greek king Menander

- Conversation between Menander and Nagsen is compiled into a
book “Milindapanha”

 Devbhuti

o A/c to Harshacharita, Devbhuti was murdered on the instructions

of Vasudeva.

 Kanva Dynasty (73 BCE - 28 BCE)

 Established by Vasudeva Kanva after the fall of the Shungas

o Probably the descendents of Rishi Kanva
o Simuka (Satvahana) overthrew last ruler Susharman

 SATAVAHANAS

 Founded by Simuka
 Capital- Pratistanpura (Near Godavari bank); later shifted to
Amaravati
 As known as Andhras a/c to Puranas but this name doesn’t
appear in Satavahana inscription.
 Gautamiputra Satakarni was a powerful ruler; the Nashik
inscription mentions their achievement.
 Junagarh inscription mentions that Vashishthiputra Pulumavi
married the daughter of Rudradaman I.
 Satavahanas along with Ikshvakus were patrons of Amravati
school of Art.
 INDO- GREEKS

Construction of Great Wall of China; Scythians were pushed back;

moved towards neighbouring Parthians and Greeks; Greeks
invaded India.

 first to introduce Gold coin in India

 Introduced Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India

 SAKAS/ SCYTHIANS

- replaced Indo- Greeks and controlled large parts of India &

Afghanistan

- Five Branches of the Shakas

1. Afghanistan
2. Punjab (Capital- Taxila)
3. Mathura
4. Western India (Kshatrapas)- ruled until the 4th century AD.
 5. Upper Decccan region.

- Moga/ Moa/ Maues - first Saka king in India

Two important line of Kshatrapas rulers are:

1. The Kshaharatas: Important ruler- Nahapana

2. The Kardamakas: Important ruler- Rudradaman I

 Rudradaman I

- Repaired Sudarshan Lake

- Junagarh inscriptions and Girnar inscription

 Parthians

- Originally belonged to Iran; occupied a smaller portion of north-

western India.
- Most famous ruler- Gondophernes; during his reign St. Thomas

 KUSHANS

 Also known as Yuechis/ Yuexhi or Tocharians

 Yuechi tribe was divided into 5 clans out of which Kushans
came from Steppes of North Central India
 settled in lower Indus basin and parts of Gangetic basin
 Kadphises I/ Kujula Kadphises laid the foundation of Kushan
Empire
 Wima Kadphises II/ Vima Kadphises succeeded him
 He issued large number of Gold coins
 Most Popular King- Kanishka

Kanishka
 Issued number of gold coins with high metallic purity
 Purushapura/ Peshawar was first capital

 Mathura was the second capital

 Took the title of Devputra

 Rabatak Inscription (Afghanistan) give information about his

rule
 controlled Silk route

 gave patronage to Buddhism

 Vasudeva was the last king of the dynasty

Impact of Central Asian Contacts

 Shakas and Kushans didn’t have their own script or any

organised religion, so they adopted these from India

 In Cavalry, Shakas and kushans used toe stirrups, reins, and

saddles.
 Introduced turban, tunics, trousers, and heavy long coat.

They also used cap, helmet, and boots

 Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a

large numbers
 Their rule also saw the beginning of Feudatory organisation

 Kushans adopted Pompous titles; to legitimise their royal

authority and strengthen the idea of the divine origin of

Kingship
 Kushans introduced the Satrap System, which saw hereditary

dual rule (father & son jointly ruled at same time).

 led to the rise of several schools of art of Gandhara and

Mathura School of Art.

 Gandhara/ Greco- Roman School of Art

 developed during the first century AD.
 Famous for the portrayal of Buddha in a spiritual state, eyes
half- closed in meditation

 Mathura School of Art

o developed during the Shunga period; reached its zenith

during the Gupta period.
o Red sandstone was primarily used
o At Sanchi, Bharhut, Gaya, Buddha was depicted as a symbol
of either two footprints or wheels.

 Sangam Age
 -South of Krishna River, three Kingdoms existed: Pandyas,
Cholas, and Cheras.
 Sangam= meeting point of Tamil Poets
 Three Sangams held in South India:

1. First Sangam at Old Madurai (believed that Gods & legendary

sage attained it; no literary sources available
2. Second Sangam - Kapatpuram/ Kapadapuram (large number
of poets attained this; Tolkappiyam- only book available
3. Third Sangam - Madurai

 Sources for Sangam Age

1. Sangam Literature
2. Ashokan Inscriptions
3. Megasthenes

 CHERAS

 Also known as Kerala Putras

 Present day Kerala and part of Tamil Nadu
 Important Kings- Nedunjeral Adan (AKA Adhiraja),
Senguttuvan
 Senguttuvan

 AKA Red Chera

 Introduced Pattini cult

 His brother Ilango Adigal wrote “Silappatikaram”, and Adigal

adopted Jainism.
 CHOLAS

 Present day Tirunchi district (Southern Andhra)

 around 2nd century BC, Elara, chola ruler, conquered Sri
Lanka and ruled for 50 years.
 Capital from Uraiyur to Puhar was shifted by Karikala.
 Karikala founded Puhar (Kaveripattnam)
 Karikala defeated a confederacy of Cheras and Pandyas in
the Battle of Venni
 cholas had an efficient Navy.

 PANDAYA

 Southern Tamilnadu

 Great Patrons of poets and scholars

 Pandayas were first mentioned by Megasthenes, Sangam

literature mentions them

 A/c to Megasthenes Pandaya kingdom was famous for Pearls.

 First know king: Nedunjeliyan

 Battle of Talaiyalanganam: Pandaya king defated combined

force of Cheras, cholas and five other chieftains.

 Sangam Literature
 Agattiyam: first known book on Tamil Grammar; written by
Sage Agathiyar.
 Tolkappiyam: Grammar
 Thirukkural : Deals with Philosophy
 - Two epics: 1. Silappadikaram 2. Manimekalai

 Economic Life:

1. Agriculture: The primary occupation of the people was

agriculture, with fertile plains, abundant rivers, and a
favourable monsoon climate supporting the cultivation of
crops like rice, millets, pulses, sugarcane, and cotton.

2. Trade and Commerce: Flourishing trade links with the Roman

Empire, Southeast Asia, and East Africa were established.
Major ports like Muziris and Arikamedu facilitated maritime
trade.

3. Urbanisation: The growth of urban centres, such as Madurai

and Uraiyur, contributed to economic prosperity and cultural
exchange

 Gupta Dynasty (240 CE - 550 CE)

 Fall of Mauryan Empire:- rise of regional kingdoms like

Satvahanas in Deccan, Kushans in the north; on the ruins of

Kushans, emerged Gupta Empire.
 Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushans, their

earlier empire was on the fertile plain of Gangetic basin.

 This age is known as Golden Age or Classical Age
  Order of Kings:

 Srigupta- Ghatotkacha- Chandragupta I- Samudragupta -

Chandragupta II - Kumaragupta I - Skandagupta

 Sri Gupta

 Founder of Gupta Dynasty; used the title of Maharaja

 Ghatotkacha

 Adopted title of Maharaja

 Chandragupta I

 First important King of Gupta dynasty

 Adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja (king of Kings)

 Empire included parts of Modern Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and

Bengal; capital: Patliputra

 Married Kumaradevi, princess of Lichchhavi clan of Nepal.

 Samudragupta

 Expansion of empire to a great extent

 Follower of God Vishnu

 AKA Lichchhavi- dauhitra in Allahabad Pillar Inscription

(Prayag Prashasti) by Harisena.

 court language: Sanskrit

 Performed Ashvamedha Yajna

 A/c to Chinese records, he allowed Meghavarman (king of

Ceylon) to build a monastery in Bodhgaya.

 Chandragupta II
  Ramgupta succeeded Samudragupta; Saka ruler attacked him

& defeated him. Ramgupta made peace by surrendering his

wife Dhruvadevi; Chandragupta II was infuriated by this, he
defeated Saka ruler, killed his brother Ramgupta and married
Dhruvadevi.
 Married Kubernaga

 Married his daughter Prabhavati to vakataka king Rudrasen II

 Known as Vikramaditya

 Nine jewels in his court

Name Designation Important Works

Abhijnanasakuntalam (The

Poet and Recognition of Shakuntala),

Kalidasa
Playwright Raghuvamsha, Meghaduta,

Kumārasambhava

Panchasiddhantika (Five
Astronomer and
Varahamihira Astronomical Canons), Brihat
Astrologer
Samhita, Brihat Jataka
 Amarakosha (A Sanskrit
Amarasimha Lexicographer
Thesaurus)

Dhanvantari Nighantu (Ayurvedic

Dhanvantari Physician
Pharmacopoeia)

Prakrita Prakasa, grammer of

Vararuchi Grammerian
Prakrit language

Shanku, Kahapanaka, Vetal Bhatta, and Ghatakarapara

 Kumaragupta I
 Known as Maharajadhiraja, Paramadvaita, and Paramabhattaraka

 Founded Nalanda university

 performed Asvamedha Yajna

 Skandagupta
 defeated Hunas and repulsed them successfully

 Gupta Administration
o King is the head of state

o Decentralised administration
o Clearly defined rule of succession

o Empire divided into Bhukti, bhukti into vishyas, vishyas into

vithis, Vithis into gram

 Army: largely dependent on infantry archers; military

organisation: feudal in nature

 Judiciary: most developed during ancient time, clear demarcation

of Civil & Criminal Law

o Revenue came from Agriculture (1/6th of the produce)

 Society
 divided into four Varnas- Brahamans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,

Shudras
 Economic and social status of Shudras & women improved a bit

but higher class women had no access to independent sources of

livelihood.
 Male dominating society, widow remarriage was allowed

 Art & Craft

 Sultanganj, Bihar- 2m high Bronze Image of Buddha ( Mathura

school of Art)
 Vishunu sculptures in Udayagiri rock-cut cave

 Dhamek Stupa at Sarnath

 Buddhist cave in Ajanta

 Dasavatara Temple in Deogarh

 Literature
 Sanskrit was the official language

 This age saw rise of various Prakrit forms- Suraseni in Mathura,

Ardha-Magadhi in Awadh, etc

 Siddhasena laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas.

 Arya Deva and Arya Asanga were most notable Buddhist writers
 Chandrogomia composed a book on Grammar named Chandra

Vyakaranam.

 Reason for Decline

 Huna invasion

 Gradual decline in Economic prosperity

 Decentralised administration

 Rise of Feudatories

 Weak successors

 Comparison between Mauryan and Gupta Empire

Mauryan

Aspect Empire Gupta Empire Similarities

Covered a

larger extent of Primarily Both empires

the Indian centred in were centred in
Geographical
subcontinent, northern and the Indian
Location
including
central India subcontinent.
present-day

India, Pakistan,
 Bangladesh,

and

Afghanistan

Centralised Decentralised
Both empires had
administration administration
administrative
Administration with a highly with regional
systems to govern
organised and local
their territories.
bureaucracy governance

Chandragupta Chandragupta
Shared the name
Maurya, I,
"Chandragupta"
Emperors Ashoka the Samudragupta,
among their
Great, Chandragupta
emperors.
Bindusara, etc. II, etc.

Thriving trade Flourishing Both empires had

Economy
and commerce, trade and robust economies

extensive road commerce, with a focus on

 networks, development of trade and

taxation system guilds, gold commerce.

coins

Ashoka Religious Both empires

promoted tolerance; exhibited

Buddhism; revival of religious

Religion
religious Hinduism as the tolerance and

tolerance dominant accommodated

prevailed religion multiple faiths.

Rich Sanskrit Both empires

Ashoka's
literature, contributed to the
inscriptions in
Literature including plays, development of
Prakrit
poetry, and literature in
language
scientific texts ancient India.
 Pillars with Both empires left
Elaborate
inscriptions, a significant
temple
Art and rock-cut caves, architectural
architecture,
Architecture stupas, and legacy and
sculptures, and
palace patronised the
Ajanta Caves
complexes arts.

Internal Both empires

Invasion of
conflicts, faced challenges
Hunas (White
external such as invasions
Decline Huns), regional
invasions, and and internal
fragmentation,
economic conflicts that led
and weak rulers
decline to their decline.

 Post- Gupta Era

 with the decline of Gupta empire several small political powers
emerged

In North India

1. The Maitrakas
2. The Maukharis
3. The Gaudas
 4. The Hunas
5. Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
In south India

1. Ikshvakus
2. Chalukyas of Badami
3. Pallavas of Kanchi
4. The Kadamba Kingdom
5. The Kalabhras

 Pushyabhuti Dynasty
 Feudatories of the Guptas

 AKA Vardhana Dynasty

 Prabhakarvardhan was the fourth king of the dynasty, who

made the dynasty powerful and strong. Defeated Hunas

 Rajavardhana succeeded him but was murdered by

Shashanka. Thus Harshavardhana (Harsha) Became king of

Thanesar
 Hsuan Tsang visited India and wrote Si-Yu-Ki

 Banabhatta (Court poet of Harsha) wrote Harshacharita

 Harsha himself was a great scholar and poet, wrote

Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarshika

 followed Tolerant religious philosophy; followed Shaivism but

later converted to Mahayana Buddhism

 Administration became Feudal and decentralised

 Organised Religious assemblies in the 5th year of his reign at

Prayaga, convened an assembly at kannauj to honour Husan

Tsang
 A/c to Hsuan Tsang Kannauj has became important city

replacing Patliputra
 Miscellaneous
1. POTTERY OF DIFFERENT CULTURES

Culture Period Pottery Types

7000-2600 Red Ware, Black-on-Red

Mehrgarh Culture
BCE Ware

Indus Valley 2600-1900 Painted Grey Ware, Black

Civilization BCE Polished Ware

Ochre Coloured 2000-1500 Ochre Coloured Pottery

Pottery Culture BCE (OCP)

Northern Black Polished

1200-600
Early Iron Age Cultures Ware, Painted Grey Ware
BCE
(PGW)
 1000-300 Black and Red Ware, Red
Megalithic Cultures
BCE Ware

10000- Microlithic tools, No specific

Mesolithic Cultures
2000 BCE pottery tradition

1400-700 Jorwe Ware (Reddish-brown

Jorwe Culture
BCE pottery)

1500-500 Malwa Ware (Red and black

Malwa Culture
BCE pottery)

2500-1500 Ahar-Banas Ware (Red and

Ahar-Banas Culture
BCE black pottery)

3800-3200 Hakra Ware (Plain and

Hakra Ware Culture
BCE painted pottery)
 9000-4800 Bagor Ware (Red and black
Bagor Culture
BCE pottery)

4600-
Sothi-Siswal Sothi-Siswal Ware (Red and black
3500
Culture pottery)
BCE
  GUPTA ART & ARCHITECTURE

1. Temple Architecture:

 Gupta temple architecture laid the foundation for the Nagara style,

which became dominant in later periods.

 Temples were generally constructed using stone, and brick was used

for smaller shrines.

 The temples were square or rectangular in plan, with a sanctum at the

centre and an entrance porch (mandapa) leading to the sanctum.

 Elaborate doorways and intricately carved pillars were common

features.

2. Sculpture:

 Gupta sculptures were characterised by their grace, naturalism, and

idealisation of human forms.
 The art of stone carving reached its zenith during this period, with
highly skilled craftsmen producing exquisite sculptures.
 Buddha and Bodhisattva figures were prevalent, often depicted in
various postures like the seated Buddha, standing Buddha, and
reclining Buddha.

3. Buddha Images:

 The Gupta period saw a shift from aniconic representations of

Buddha to anthropomorphic images of the Buddha.
  Buddha statues were made of stone or bronze, showcasing the
Buddha in a calm and meditative state with elongated earlobes and a
serene smile.

4. Wall Paintings:

 Wall paintings adorned the walls of temples and caves.

 Fresco paintings showcased scenes from the Jataka tales (stories of
Buddha's previous lives) and mythological narratives.

5. Cave Architecture:

 The Gupta period witnessed the continuation of rock-cut architecture,

which began in earlier centuries.
 The Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Odisha are prime examples of
Gupta cave architecture, featuring intricately carved facades and
pillared halls.

6. Ajanta Caves:

 The Ajanta Caves, dating back to the Gupta period, are one of the most
remarkable achievements of Indian art.
 These caves are renowned for their exceptional rock-cut Buddhist
monuments, including monastic complexes and prayer halls.
 The caves also house exquisite mural paintings depicting the life and
teachings of Buddha.

7. Coinage Art:
 Gupta coins were minted with high-quality artwork, showcasing
portraits of kings, deities, and various symbols.
 The use of gold coins during the Gupta period exemplified the empire's
economic prosperity.

8. Metalwork:

 Gupta artisans excelled in metalworking, crafting intricate bronze

figurines and statues.
 The famous Nataraja statue, depicting Shiva as the cosmic dancer, is
an iconic example of Gupta metalwork.

Mughal Art and Architecture

The Mughal Empire (c. 1526 CE - c. 1857 CE) was a significant period in

Indian history marked by the confluence of Persian, Islamic, and

indigenous Indian artistic traditions. Mughal art and architecture,

characterised by grandeur, opulence, and attention to detail, left an

indelible mark on India's cultural landscape.

1. Indo-Islamic Architecture:

 Mughal architecture combined elements of Islamic and Indian

architectural styles, creating a unique Indo-Islamic fusion.
 The use of red sandstone and marble, intricate carvings, and calligraphy
were prominent features.
 Domes, minarets, and arches were common architectural elements.
2. Mughal Gardens:

 The Mughals introduced the concept of Charbagh, a four-part garden

layout, into India.
 These gardens were laid out in a square or rectangular shape and
featured water channels, fountains, and lush greenery.
 Famous examples include the Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar and the
Mehtab Bagh in Agra.

3. Forts and Palaces:

 Mughal forts, such as the Red Fort in Delhi and Agra Fort, were
massive structures built for defensive and administrative purposes.
 Palaces within these forts showcased exquisite craftsmanship and
luxurious living spaces.

4. Taj Mahal:

 The Taj Mahal, built by Emperor Shah Jahan, is the most iconic
monument of Mughal architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 This marble mausoleum was constructed in memory of Emperor Shah
Jahan's wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
 The Taj Mahal's symmetrical design, intricate marble inlays, and the
central dome are renowned worldwide.

5. Humayun's Tomb:

 Humayun's Tomb in Delhi is one of the earliest examples of Mughal

architecture in India.
 It served as a prototype for later Mughal architectural wonders,
including the Taj Mahal.

6. Jama Masjid:

 The Jama Masjid in Delhi is one of the largest and most beautiful
mosques in India.
 It boasts a massive courtyard, three domes, and two minarets.

7. Miniature Paintings:

 Mughal miniature paintings were highly refined, characterized by

intricate detailing and vibrant colours.
 Themes included portraits of emperors, scenes from the royal
court, religious events, and literary works.
 Notable artists during this period included Basawan, Daswanth,
and Mansur.

8. Calligraphy:

 Persian and Arabic calligraphy adorned the walls and facades of

Mughal buildings.
 Quranic verses and praise for the emperor were common
inscriptions.

9. Inlay Work:

 Pietra dura, or marble inlay work, was extensively used in

Mughal architecture.
  Precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into marble
surfaces to create intricate floral and geometric patterns.

10. Literature and Manuscripts:

 The Mughal court patronized fine calligraphy and illustrated

manuscripts.

 Illustrations and miniatures were made for books and

manuscripts, showcasing refined artistic skills