ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: Long Bone Structure

Diaphysis Central shaft Compact bone

SKELETAL SYSTEM
● Bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. Epiphysis Ends Spongy bone

● Framework of the body Epiphyseal Plate Growth plate Bet. diaphysis

and epiphysis
Functions SPMSP
1. Body Support Medullary cavity - large cavity in the diaphysis; contains red
2. Organ Protection or yellow marrow
3. Body Movement Articular cartilage - covers epiphyses reduces friction
4. Mineral Storage
5. Blood cell Production Layers of a Bone
1. Periosteum - connective tissue; outer surface;
Extracellular Matrix contains blood vessels and nerves
● Composed of connective tissue (cartilage, tendons, 2. Endosteum - connective tissue; internal surface;
ligaments, bones) lines cavities (medullary); contains osteoblasts and
● Consists of proteoglycans - water-trapping osteoclasts
proteins, helps cartilage be smooth and resilient
● Collagen - provides flexibility but resists pulling or Types of Bones Tissue
compression 1. Compact Bone Tissue
a. Outer part of diaphysis (long bones) and
Cartilage Extracellular Matrix thinner surfaces of other bones
● Contains collagen and proteoglycans (tough and b. Osteon - structural unit of compact bone
smooth) i. Lamella - rings of bone matrix
● Excellent shock absorber ii. Lacunae - spaces between
lamellae
Bone Extracellular Matrix iii. Canaliculus - tiny canals;
● Contains collagen and minerals - Calcium and transport nutrients and remove
Phosphate waste
● Mineral components give bone compression iv. Central canal - center of osteon;
(weight-bearing) strength contains blood vessels
● Hydroxyapatite - calcium phosphate crystals (bone v. Osteocytes
mineral) 2. Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue
● Osteogenesis imperfecta - brittle bone disease (rare; a. Located at the epiphyses of long bones and
too little or poor quality collagen) center of other bones
 b. Has trabeculae - interconnecting rods and Endochondral Ossification - bone formation within hyaline
spaces that contain marrow cartilage that’s replaced by bone; result to compact
c. Has no osteons and spongy
a. Formed in primary ossification center, which is
Bone Cells bone formation in the diaphysis of a long bone
Osteoblasts - bone-building cells; prod. collagen and b. A secondary ossification center is bone formation
proteoglycans; secrete hydroxyapatite in the epiphysis
Osteocytes” - mature cells; “ cell bodies are housed in
Steps
lacunae (bone matrix) and “ cell extensions in
1. Cartilage model foundation. Chondrocytes build
canaliculi
cartilage models. Chondroblasts to chondrocytes.
Osteoclasts - bone-destroying cells
Surrounded by perichondrium.
Bone reabsorption - breakdown of bone; goes back to the
2. Bone collar formation. Osteoblasts produce compact
blood
bone on the surface = bone collar.
a. Osteoclasts access the bone matrix
a. (1) Interstitial and appositional cartilage
b. Osteoclasts form attachment structures in the bone
growth.
surface (makes sealed compartments under the
b. (2) Chondrocytes absorb some of the
osteoclasts)
cartilage matrix and hypertrophy.
c. Osteoclasts develop ruffled border (specialized
c. Chondrocytes initiate formation of
reabsorption-specific area)
hydroxyapatite crystals in the cartilage
matrix
Bone Formation
d. Calcified cartilage
Ossification - formation of new bone by osteoblasts
3. Primary ossification center formation. Osteoblasts
Intramembranous Ossification - bone formation within
invade calcified cartilage and transform the calcified
connective tissue; result to compact and spongy
cartilage of the diaphysis into spongy bone.
a. Begins in ossification centers and trabeculae
Osteoclasts remove bone from the center of the
radiate out of the centers
diaphysis to form the medullary cavity and cells
b. Usually two or more ossifications exist in each flat
within
skull and mature skull bones result from fusion of
4. Secondary ossification center formation. Created
these centers as they enlarge
by osteoblasts into the epiphysis. Same process in
c. Fontanels - “soft spots” membrane-covered spaces
ossification but no enlargement of epiphysis.
bet. The developing skull bones that have not yet
5. Original cartilage is almost completely ossified
been ossified
and remaining cartilage is articular cartilage.
Perichondrium becomes periosteum.
Bone Growth 1. Hematoma formation
Length a. Hematoma - blood clot in the bone (can be
● Occurs in the epiphyseal plate seen as a bruise on the skin)
● Occurs through endochondral ossification b. Homeostasis - blood clotting in the vessels
● Chondrocytes increase in number on the epiphyseal that leakes
side of the epiphyseal plate 2. Callus formation
● Chondrocytes enlarge then die a. A fibrous network between 2 fragments
● Cartilage matrix becomes calcified (connective tissue formation)
● Enlarged cells in the cartilage are removed by 3. Callus ossification
osteoclasts; dying chondrocytes are replaced by a. Osteoblasts enter the callus and form
osteoblasts spongy (cancellous) bone
● Osteoblasts start forming bone by depositing bone b. 4-6 weeks after injury
lamellae on the surface of the calcified cartilage = 4. Bone remodeling
produces bone on the diaphyseal side of the a. Osteoclasts destroyed dead bone
epiphyseal plate b. Cancellous bone is remodelled to become
compact and cancellous
Width
c. Restore medullary cavity
Appositional Growth - growth in width or diameter
● Deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone Bone Fractures
or other connective tissue Severity
● Osteoblast deposit new bone matrix on to the 1. Open - open wound extends to the site of the
surface of the bones between the periosteum and the fracture or a fragment of bone protrudes through the
existing matrix skin
2. Closed - simple fracture; skin is not perforated
Bone Remodelling 3. Complicated fracture - soft tissue around the closed
● Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts (calcium fracture are damaged
and collagen) Other Types
○ Calcium = brought back to the bloodstream 1. Incomplete - does not extend completely across the
● Deposition of new bone by osteoblasts bone
● Occurs in all bones 2. Complete - bone is broken into at least 2 fragments
● Responsible for changes in bone shape, bone repair, 3. Greenstick - incomplete fracture on the convex side
adjustment of bone to stress, and calcium ion of the curve of the bone
regulation 4. Hairline - incomplete fracture
5. Comminuted - bone breaks into more than 2
Bone Repair fragments
 6. Impacted - one fragment is driven into the spongy ○ Promotes activation of calcitriol in the
portion of the other fragment kidney
Direction ○ Increases reabsorption of calcium in small
1. Linear - parallel to the length of the bone intestine
2. Transverse - right angles to the length Calcitriol
3. Spiral - helical course around the bone ● Steroid hormone from vit. D

4. Oblique - obliquely in relation to the length ● Work with PTH to increase osteoclast activity for

5. Dentate - rough, toothed, broken ends bone reabsorption

6. Stellate - breakage lines radiating from the central ● Assists PTH in preventing excretion of calcium in

point through urine

Calcitonin
● Secreted from C cells in thyroid gland when blood Ca
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
is too high
● Bone - Major storage site for calcium
● Rapidly lowers Ca by inhibiting osteoclast activity
● Movement of calcium determines blood levels of
calcium
SKELETAL ANATOMY (206 bones)
● Calcium - critical physiological regulator of many
● Upper limbs, lower limbs, two girdles
processes
○ Skeletal muscle contraction
Bone Shapes
○ Stimulation and regulation of cardiac
1. Long - longer > wide; upper and lower limbs
muscle contraction
2. Short - wide = long; wrist and ankle
○ Exocytosis of cellular molecules
3. Flat - thin & flat; skull and sternum
● Calcium →moves into bone as osteoblasts→ build
4. Irregular - does not fit into the other categories;
new bone
vertebrae and facial bones
● Calcium →moves out of bone as osteoclasts→
break down bone
Bone Anatomical Terms
● Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid
1. Foramen - hole
hormone, calcitriol, and calcitonin
Parathyroid Hormone 2. Fossa - depression

● Secreted by parathyroid gland 3. Process - projection

● Direct effects to bone cells and kidney 4. Condyle - smooth, rounded end; knuckle

○ Osteoblasts and osteocytes regulation 5. Canal or Meatus - canal-like passageway

○ Promotion of bone deposition 6. Tubercle - lump of bone; knob

○ Stimulates reabsorption of calcium from 7. Tuberosity - rounded bone projection

urine in kidney, less calcium excretion

● Indirect effects to small intestine
Axial Skeleton c. Tympanic part - external auditory
● Skull (brain), vertebral column (spinal cord), canal/meatus
thoracic cage (vital organs) d. Petrous part - internal auditory canal
● Forms central axis of the body 5. Sphenoid - unpaired
6. Ethmoid - unpaired
Skull
● 22 bones and the braincase and the face Facial Bones
○ 8 bones cranial cavity 1. Maxilla - upper jaw (paired)

○ 14 facial bones 2. Palatine - lateral wall of nasal cavity (paired)

● 4 principal sutures 3. Zygomatic - cheek bones (paired)

○ Coronal 4. Lacrimal - medial surface of eye orbits (paired)

○ Sagittal 5. Nasal - bridge of nose (paired)

○ Lambdoid 6. Vomer - nasal cavity midline (unpaired)

○ Squamous 7. Inferior nasal conchae (paired)

● Calvaria - often removed to view the interior of the 8. Mandible - lower jawbone (only moveable) (unpaired)

skull
Hyoid bone
● Unpaired, u-shaped bone that is not part of the skull
Cranial Bones
and has no direct bony attachment to the skulls or
1. Frontal - unpaired
other bones
a. Connected to the parietal bones by coronal
● Provides an attachment for some tongue muscles
suture
● Attachment point for important neck muscles that
2. Parietal - paired
elevates the larynx
a. Connected to occipital bone by lambdoid
suture
Vertebral column
3. Occipital - unpaired
● Central axis of the skeleton
a. Foramen magnum - brainstem opening
● Adults - 26 bones grouped into five regions
connects to spinal cord
● Infant - 33 to 34 bones
b. Posterior cranial fossae - support
cerebellum
Functions of Vertebral Column SPAPP
c. Occipital condyles - point of articulation bet.
1. Support body weight
Skull and 1st cervical vertebrae
2. Protects the spinal cord
4. Temporal - paired
3. Allow spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
a. Connected to the skull by squamous sutures
4. Provide the site for muscle attached
b. Squamous part - meets parietal bone
5. Provides movement of the head and trunk
General Features 4. Sacrum (1) - curves posteriorly
1. Vertebral body - solid, bony disk that supports the a. Stable support for lower limbs
body’s weight b. Initially 5 sep. sacral bones fused during
2. Vertebral arch - protects spine adolescence
a. Vertebral foramen - houses spinal cord 5. Coccyx (1) - curves posteriorly
b. Vertebral canal - contains the entire spinal a. Tailbone
cord and cauda equina b. Terminal point of the vertebral column
c. 2 halves - pedicle (attached to body) and c. 3-5 semi fused vertebrae
lamina (posterior of v. foramen)
3. Transverse process - extends laterally from each side Thoracic Cage (25 bones)
of the arch bet. lamina and pedicle ● Protects vital organs

4. Spinous process - junction bet. 2 laminae ● Intercostal space - after 3 intercostal spaces from

5. Intervertebral foramina - where 2 vertebrae meet the clavicle on the left, there is a POINT OF

6. Intervertebral notches - forms foramen in pedicles MAXIMAL IMPULSE

adjacent vertebrae
7. Vertebral processes - movement and additional 1. Sternum - breastbone (1)

support 2. True ribs - attached directly to the sternum by

a. 2 superior and inferior articular processes costal cartilage (1-7)

8. Articular facet - overlap and articulation of vertebral 3. False ribs - attached directly to the sternum by

processes cartilage ( branches out from 7th rib) (8-10)

9. Intervertebral disks - separates vertebrae 4. Floating ribs - not attached to the sternum (11 & 12)

Regions (Meal Time) Appendicular Skeleton (64 bones)

1. Cervical (7)- curves anteriorly; greatest range of Pectoral Girdle
motion 1. Scapula - shoulder blade (2)

a. Atlas 2. Clavicle - collar bone (2)

● 1st vertebra
Upper Limb Bones
● Holds head
1. Humerus - upper limb (2)
b. Axis
2. Ulna - forearm (attached to the humerus first) (2)
● 2nd vertebra
3. Radius - forearm (2)
● Rotates head
4. Carpals - wrist (16)
2. Thoracic (12) - curves posteriorly
a. Straight Line To the Palm - proximal
a. Heart and lungs
b. Here Comes The Thumb - distal
3. Lumbar (5) - curves anteriorly
5. Metacarpals - hand (palm) (10)
a. Support body weight
6. Phalanges (28)
Pelvic Girdle (2 - Hip Bones and Sacrum) Functional Classification
1. Pelvis - pelvic girdle and coccyx I. Synarthrosis
a. Male - more massive = greater weight and ● Non-movable joint
size of male body ● Skull bones
b. Female - broader and larger, more rounded
that can facilitate delivery of newborn II. Amphiarthrosis
c. True pelvis and false pelvis ● Slightly movable joint
d. Pelvic inlet - opening to true pelvis ● Bet. vertebrae
e. Pelvic outlet - inferior opening of true pelvis
2. Ischium - inferior and posterior region III. Diarthrosis
a. Iliac crest - most superior border of ilium ● Freely movable joint
3. Ilium - most superior region Knee, elbow, and wrist
a. Ischial spine - site of ligament attachment
Structural Classification
4. Pubis - anterior of pelvic girdle
I. Fibrous joint
5. Acetabulum - hip socket (joint)
● United by fibrous connective tissue

Lower Limb Bones 1. Sutures - fibrous joints bet. bones of the skull

1. Femur - thigh (2) a. Fontanels - soft spot; wide sutures in

2. Patella - kneecap (2) newborns; flexibility in delivery

3. Tibia - large lower leg (2) 2. Syndesmoses - held together by ligaments; connects

4. Fibula - small lower leg (2) radius and ulna

5. Tarsals - ankle (14) 3. Gomphoses - pegs fitted into sockets and held in

a. Tiger Cub Needs MILC place by ligaments; tooth and socket

6. Metatarsals - foot (10)

7. Phalanges - toes (28) II. Cartilaginous
● United by means of cartilage

Articulations/ Joints 1. Synchondroses - hyaline cartilage

Classification 2. Symphysis - fibrocartilage

● Structural - fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial,

according to the major connective tissue type that III. Synovial

binds the bones together and whether a fluid-filled ● Joined by a synovial fluid cavity

joint capsule is present ● Most joints of appendicular skeleton

● Functional - degree of motion as synarthroses, ● Freely movable

amphiarthrosis, and diarthroses

Types
1. Plane - 2 flat bone surfaces of about equal size
(slight gliding motion)
2. Saddle - 2 saddle shaped oriented at right angles;
tumb
3. Hinge - convex cylinder corresponding to concavity
in the other; knee and elbow
4. Pivot - cylindrical bony process that rotates within a
ring; radius and ulna
5. Ball-and-socket - ball and socket adjacent; shoulder
and hip joints
6. Ellipsoid - modified ball-and-socket; ellipsoid than
spherical

Movements
1. Uniaxial
2. Biaxial
3. Multiaxial

Types of Movement
1. Flexion - bending
2. Extension - straightening
3. Abduction - away from the midline
4. Adduction - toward the midline
5. Pronation - rotation of the forearm; palms down
6. Supination - rotation of the forearm; palms up
7. Rotation - movement of a structure about the long
axis

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints

1. Decreased collagen production
2. Loss of bone density
3. Degenerative changes
*All decreasing, losing, or degenerating. No opposite*