1. What are the causes of unreliability? Explain briefly.

 The unreliability that an engineering system can experience can be classified into five
general categories.
1) Design mistakes: Among the common design errors are failure to include all important
operating factors, incomplete information on loads and environmental conditions, erroneous
calculations, and poor selection of materials.
2) Manufacturing defects: Although the design may be free from error, defects introduced at
some stage in manufacturing may degrade it. Some common examples are:
(1) poor surface finish or sharp edges (burrs) that lead to fatigue cracks and
(2) decarburization or quench cracks in heat-treated steel.

Elimination of defects in manufacturing is a key responsibility of the manufacturing

engineering staff, but a strong relationship with the R&D function may be required to achieve
it. Manufacturing errors produced by the production work force are due to such factors as
lack of proper instructions or specifications, insufficient supervision, poor working
environment, unrealistic production quota, inadequate training, and poor motivation.

3) Maintenance: Most engineering systems are designed on the assumption they will receive
adequate maintenance at specified periods. When maintenance is neglected or is improperly
performed, service life will suffer. Since many consumer products do not receive proper
maintenance by their owners, a good design strategy is to design products that do not require
maintenance.
4) Exceeding design limits: If the operator exceeds the limits of temperature, speed, or another
variable for which it was designed, the equipment is likely to fail.
5) Environmental factors: Subjecting equipment to environmental conditions for which it was
not designed, such as rain, high humidity, and ice, usually greatly shortens its service life.

2. What do you mean by finite element modeling? Explain with an example.

 FEM is an approximation method that subdivides a complex problem space, or domain, into
numerous small, simpler pieces (the finite elements) whose behavior can be described with
comparatively simple equations. FEM was originally developed for engineering analysis to
model and analyze complex systems in mechanical, civil, and aeronautical engineering. It has
 as its foundation the basic concepts of mechanics, such as Newton’s laws of motion,
conservation of mass and energy, equilibrium, and the laws of thermodynamics.

FEM can be used, for example, to determine the structural mechanics of different parts of a
bridge under different loading conditions, the heat flow through an engine part, or the
distribution of electromagnetic radiation from an antenna.
Finite element modeling is divided into three phases: preprocessing, computation, and
post processing. The preprocessing phase involves importing the geometry of part from a
CAD model, simplifying it by deleting nonstructural features and using symmetry to reduce
computation time. Meshing the geometry into elements is crucial, with most FEA software
providing an automatic method. The mesh can be structured or unstructured, depending on
the geometry. The preprocessing phase also involves determining the load and support
conditions, boundary conditions, and selecting the constitutive equation for describing the
material. Computation is performed by FEA software, which renumbers nodes in the mesh
to minimize computational resources and generates stiffness matrix for each element. Post
processing operations are needed to convert displacement vectors into strains and stress
values. FEA software is increasingly combined with an optimization package for iterative
calculations to optimize critical dimensions or shapes.

3. What are the factors to be considered while designing for heat treatment? Explain shortly.
 When designing for heat treatment, consider the following factors:
1) Heating rate: The rate of heating depends on the heat conductivity of the steel, the condition
of the steel, and the size and cross-section of the steel.
2) Soaking period: The soaking period is how long you keep the metal at the appropriate
temperature. This depends on the chemical analysis and mass of the metal.
3) Cooling rate: The cooling rate depends on the metal itself and the medium for cooling. The
choices you make in cooling are important factors in the desired properties of the metal.
4) Quenching: Quenching is when you rapidly cool metal in air, oil, water, brine, or another
medium. Usually, quenching is associated with hardening because most metals that are
hardened are cooled rapidly with quenching.
5) Atmosphere: The atmosphere of the heating furnace affects the condition of the steel being
heat-treated.
6) Time-temperature cycle: The time-temperature cycle has three components: heating, soaking,
and cooling. Individual cases can differ, but certain fundamental objectives are there.
7) Purpose of heat treatment: Heat treatment is used to either make metal stronger or more
malleable, more resistant to abrasion or more ductile.
8) End-use: All heat treatments involve heating and cooling metals, but there are three main
differences in process: the heating temperatures, the cooling rates, and the quenching types
that are used to land on the properties you want.
9) Specifications: It is vital to identify the process in the specifications for your cut-off metal
parts to optimize manufacturability and get the results you want.
10) Packaging: Ensure that heat-treated metal parts will be packaged properly to avoid distorting
or damaging the parts during transportation.

4. What is mathematical modeling? Explain with suitable examples.

 In mathematical modeling the components of a system are represented by idealized elements
that have the essential characteristics of the real components and whose behavior can be
described by mathematical equations. A model is an abstraction of the real world.
The following is a listing of the general steps required to build a symbolic design model.
1) Problem statement: Decide what it is you need to learn.
2) Select the engineering design option space: What design decision is the model expected to
help you make? This helps you focus on which physical elements are to be represented and
which others can be set aside. In this step, decide which parameters will be design variables
and which will be held constant.
3) Define the boundaries of the model: Lay out the boundaries separating the modeled domain
from the rest of the physical situation. Find available information to support building the
model. Determine what physical laws are pertinent to the problem.
4) Assumptions: Clearly describe the assumptions made to simplify the analysis. Construct the
model and verify the model.
5) Analysis: Determine how the equations of the model will be solved to produce meaningful
output.
6) Validate the model: The analytical or numerical results obtained from the model must be
compared with available experimental data.

5. Explain design for assembly with suitable examples.

 Design for assembly is a method for evaluating the ease of assembly of a product. Since
virtually all products are assembled out of many components and assembly takes time, that it
costs money, there is a strong incentive to make products as easy to assemble as possible.
Design for assembly guidelines are:
1) Overall component count must be as minimum as possible. the part count is evaluated by
estimating the minimum number of components possible and comparing the design being
evaluated to this minimum.
2) Make minimum use of separate fasteners: use captured fasteners as far as possible. Captured
fasteners are those that remain loosely attached to a component even when unfastened0. Try
to use as many fasteners as possible of one standard, which helps with the minimum number
of tools.
3) Design the product with a base component for locating other components. Try to use a single
base on, which all the other components are assembled.
4) Avoid the base to be repositioned during assembly: Once the base is positioned precisely full
assemble is carried out on this position only. On large products, repositioning may be time
consuming and costly.
5) Make the assembly sequence efficient: To carry out assembly:
a) list all the components and processes involved in the assembly process.
b) list the connections between components and generate a connection diagram.
c) select a base component.
d) recursively add the next component
e) identify subassemblies.
6) Avoid component characteristics that complicate retrieval. Gaskets, tubing, springs, pins,
wiring components are hard components to retrieve and handle. When possible, make
components as few, as short, and as stiff as possible. Three component characteristics make
retrieval difficult. They are – tangling, nesting, and flexibility.
7) Design components for a specific type of retrieval, handling, and inspection. Examples are
the question of how plastic chairs are stacked, transported, and retrieved. Avoid components
jammed.
Assembly efficiency is also low if a component must be inserted in an awkward spot.
Keeping enough room for tool insertion to mate and design to see that tool engagement and
motion is much easier.

OR,
Design for Assembly (DFA) is a methodology that focuses on optimizing product design and
assembly processes to make manufacturing easier, faster, and more cost-effective.
Design for Assembly Principles:
1) Minimizing Part Count: Good products have fewer parts, making them more durable, easier
to manufacture, repair, and maintain. The lower part count reduces assembly time and costs.
2) Modular Design: Incorporating modular assemblies simplifies production, making products
easier to repair and customize while increasing utility and life cycle.
3) Built-in Fasteners: Designing parts with built-in fasteners like snap fits or adhesive fasteners
speeds up assembly by eliminating the need for additional components like screws or bolts.
4) Part Symmetry: Symmetrical designs aid in easy orientation during assembly or visibly
asymmetric parts can be easily picked out and oriented.
5) Mistake-Proofing: Including features that prevent incorrect part installation helps streamline
the assembly process and reduce errors.
6) Use of Standard Parts: Utilizing standard parts simplifies assembly processes as they are
familiar to workers and automated systems.
7) Reasonable Tolerances: Applying reasonable tolerances ensures parts fit together correctly
during assembly.
By adhering to these principles throughout the product development phase, manufacturers
can achieve lower overall manufacturing costs, increased revenue potential, and improved
customer satisfaction through efficient assembly processes.

6. How can mechanical systems be made reliable? Explain with necessary examples.
 Reliability is the probability that a system, component, or device will perform without failure
for a specified period under specified operating conditions.
Mechanical systems can be made reliable through several means:

1) Redundancy: Incorporating backup components ensures continued functionality if a primary

component fails. For instance, in aircraft, redundant hydraulic systems are employed to
maintain control in case of failure.
2) Regular Maintenance: Scheduled inspections and upkeep prevent issues before they occur.
Examples include oil changes in engines and calibration of sensors.
3) Quality Materials: Using high-grade materials reduces wear and tear, prolonging the system's
lifespan. For example, aerospace-grade aluminum in aircraft structures enhances durability.
4) Design Simplicity: Complex designs increase the likelihood of failure. Streamlining designs
reduce potential points of failure, like in the case of simplified gear mechanisms in
machinery.
For instance, in automotive engineering, using durable engine components and
conducting routine oil changes extend the lifespan of the vehicle.

7. What are the factors to be considered while designing for forging? Explain briefly.
 The forging design is to arrive at a shape called “Net Shape” so that negligible machining is
needed after forging. The following aspects are considered in the design of forging
components:
1) If the blanks are to be produced by flat die forging intersection of two or more cylindrical
elements should be avoided. Intersection of cylindrical and flat surface should also be
avoided.
2) Sections should not be so thin as to restrict the flow of metal. Thin walls in forging reduce
die life, since forging cools rapidly and resistance to metal flow is increased.
3) Maximum flash thickness should not be more than 6.4 mm or less than 0.79 mm on average.
4) The blank must be shaped, tapered, as to allow its easy removal from the die. Thus, the
grooves and recesses in blanks can be arranged only along the direction of the die working
movement.
5) It is desirable to maintain all adjacent sections as uniform as possible. Rapid changes in
section should be avoided. Laps and cracks are most likely where metal flow changes
because of large differences in the bulk of the section. To prevent the defects, generous radii
must be provided at those locations.
6) For the semi finishing die the depth of the cavity should be more than the component
thickness and for the finishing die, gutter should be provided for flow of excess material
available from the earlier step.
7) The parting line (the plane of separation between the upper and lower halves of a closed die )
should usually pass though the maximum periphery of the forging to spread the metal
laterally than to force it to fill deep, narrow die impressions.
Dies are expensive and usually rule out forgings for small quantities. The casting would be
cheaper for less than about 300 pieces.
8. What is the importance of dimensionless numbers in modeling? Explain with examples.
 Dimensionless numbers hold significant importance in modeling for several reasons:
1) Minimizing Experimentation: Dimensionless numbers allow researchers to minimize the
number of experiments required to obtain needed information in physical modeling
experiments. By identifying and analyzing dimensionless parameters, engineers can focus on
key variables and conduct fewer experiments while still capturing essential information.
2) Concise Representation: Dimensionless numbers represent a way of concisely presenting
complex physical phenomena. By combining multiple dimensional variables into a single
dimensionless parameter, researchers can simplify the problem and communicate it more
effectively.
3) Insightful Understanding: Dimensionless numbers provide insight into the behavior of
physical systems. They help identify similarities and differences across different scenarios,
facilitating a deeper understanding of underlying principles and mechanisms.
Some dimensionless numbers and their significance:
 Reynolds Number: It compares inertia force to viscous force, indicating the predominance of
inertia forces in flow systems.
 Froude Number: This ratio of inertia force to gravitational force is essential for describing
free surface flows, such as ship resistance or flow over spillways.
 Weber Number: It compares inertia force to surface tension and is crucial for understanding
phenomena like droplet formation or capillary flow of water in soils.
 Mach Number: This ratio of inertia force to elastic force helps describe high flow velocities,
like in aerodynamics for jet planes or missiles.
 Euler’s Number: It compares pressure force to inertia force and is significant in scenarios
with pressure gradients, such as flow through pipes or discharge through orifices.
9. What are the differences between linear and geometric programming methods of
optimization? Explain.

10. What is meant by design for casting? Explain shortly.

 To design casting that works adequately and economically is the duty of design engineer. The
principles that must be observed for good casting design are:
1. The pattern can be drawn satisfactorily from the sand and a good casting made only if its
sides are tapered away from the parting line (most metals and alloys shrink when they
solidify)
2. Tolerances of + / 1.5 mm for dimensions up to about 300 mm are standard commercial
practice for sand casting. Tolerances vary with other types of casting and can be referred to
from Data Book.
3. Metal structure is affected by shape of casting section – solidification of molten metal
always proceeds from the mould face, forming unbalanced crystal grains that penetrate the
mass, at right angles to the plane of cooling surface. A single section presents uniform
cooling and greatest freedom from mechanical weakness. When two or more sections
conjoin, mechanical weakness is induced at the junction and free cooling is interrupted,
creating a “ hot spot”. A well-designed casting brings the minimum number of sections
together and avoids acute angles.
4. Design all sections as nearly uniform in thickness as possible and proportion dimensions of
inner wall correctly.
5. Design ribs and brackets for maximum effectiveness. Ribs have two functions:
(a) to increase stiffness
(b) to reduce weight – if too shallow in depth or too widely spaced, they are ineffective.
6. Bosses, lugs and pads should not be used unless necessary.

11. Explain shortly the reliable method of minimizing the product/machine failure.
 The reliable method of minimizing the product/machine failure are:
1) Margin of Safety: Designing with a margin of safety accounts for variability in material
strength and loading conditions, reducing the probability of failure.
2) Derating: Operating equipment below its maximum capacity reduces stress and extends its
lifespan, increasing reliability.
3) Redundancy: Implementing redundancy, either through parallel redundant designs or standby
units, ensures continued operation even if one component fails.
4) Durability: Selecting high-performance materials and designing for resistance to factors such
as corrosion, erosion, and fatigue increases system longevity and reduces maintenance costs.
5) Damage Tolerance: Designing for damage tolerance involves detecting and mitigating cracks
and flaws to prevent catastrophic failure, typically through non-destructive evaluation
techniques.
6) Ease of Inspection: Designing structures for easy inspection facilitates the detection of flaws
and maintenance, reducing the risk of undetected issues leading to failure.
7) Simplicity: Simplifying components and assemblies reduces the chance for errors and
increases reliability, as complex systems are more prone to failure.
8) Specificity: Being specific in material characteristics, manufacturing processes, and
maintenance procedures increases reliability by ensuring consistency and facilitating easy
replacement of components.
12. What are the types of models in design? Explain shortly.
 A model may be either descriptive or predictive. A descriptive model enables us to
understand a real-world system or phenomenon; an example is a sectioned model of an
aircraft gas turbine. Such a model serves as a device for communicating ideas and
 information. However, it does not help us to predict the behavior of the system. A predictive
model is used primarily in engineering design because it helps us to both understand and
predict the performance of the system.
The types of models can be classified as:
(1) static or dynamic: A static model is one whose properties do not change with time; a
model in which time-varying effects are considered is dynamic.
(2) deterministic or probabilistic: In the deterministic-probabilistic class of models there is
differentiation between models that predict what will happen. A deterministic model
describes the behavior of a system in which the outcome of an event occurs with certainty. In
many real-world situations the outcome of an event is not known with certainty, and these
must be treated with probabilistic models.
(3) iconic, analog, or symbolic: An iconic model is a physical model that looks like the real
thing but is a scaled representation. Analog models are models that are based on an analogy,
or similarity, between different physical phenomena. Symbolic models are abstractions of the
important quantifiable components of a physical system that use symbols to represent
properties of the real system.

13. Discuss the reliability theories for design. Explain the purpose of doing hazard analysis and
fault free analysis.
 Reliability is the probability that a system, component, or device will perform without failure
for a specified period under specified operating conditions. The discipline of reliability
engineering basically is a study of the causes, distribution, and prediction of failure.

If R(t) is the reliability with respect to time t, then F(t) is the unreliability (probability of
failure) in the same time t. Since failure and non-failure are mutually exclusive events,
 R(t)+F(t)=1………. (i)
If N0 components are put on test, the number surviving to or at time t is N s(t), and the number
that failed between t=0 and t=t is Nf(t).

Ns(t)+Nf(t)=N0 …………. (ii)

From the definition of reliability,

N s (t) N f (t)
R(t)= =1−
N0 N0

The hazard rate, or instantaneous failure rate, is the number of failures per unit

time per the number of items exposed for the same time.

dN f (t)
∗1
dt
h ( t )=
N s (t)

In more statistical terms we also can defi ne the hazard rate (t) as the probability that

a given test item will fail between t1 and t1 + dt1, when it already has survived to t1 .

Referring to Fig. 14.4,

f (t) f (t)
h ( t )= = =P ¿)
1−F ( t ) R (t)

14. What are the general steps required in the model building process? Explain in short.
The following is a listing of the general steps required to build a symbolic design model.
1) Problem statement: Decide what it is you need to learn.
2) Select the engineering design option space: What design decision is the model expected
to help you make? This helps you focus on which physical elements are to be represented
 and which others can be set aside. In this step, decide which parameters will be design
variables and which will be held constant.
3) Define the boundaries of the model: Lay out the boundaries separating the modeled
domain from the rest of the physical situation. Find available information to support
building the model. Determine what physical laws are pertinent to the problem.
4) Assumptions: Clearly describe the assumptions made to simplify the analysis. Construct
the model and verify the model.
5) Analysis: Determine how the equations of the model will be solved to produce
meaningful output.
6) Validate the model: The analytical or numerical results obtained from the model must be
compared with available experimental data.

15. What do you mean by multivariable search methods? Explain lattice search methods in short.
 Multivariable Search Methods is when the objective function depends on two or more
variables, the geometric representation is a response surface (Fig. 15.12 a). It usually is
convenient to work with contour lines produced by the intersection of planes of constant y
with the response surface and projected on the x1x2 plane (Fig. 15.12 b).

Lattice Search: In the lattice search,

which is an analog to the single-variable
search, a two-dimensional grid lattice is
superimposed over the projections of the
contours (Fig. 15.13). In the absence of
 special knowledge about the location of the maximum, the starting point is selected near the
center of the region, at point 1. The objective function is evaluated for points 1 through 9
surrounding point 1. If point 5 turns out to be the largest value, it becomes the central point
for the next search. The procedure continues until the location reached is one at which the
central point is greater than any of the other eight points. Frequently, a coarse grid is used
initially and a finer grid is used after the maximum is approached.
16. What are the considerations taken while designing sheet metal forming? Explain briefly.
 The considerations taken while designing sheet metal forming are:
1) Since the die cost depend upon the length and the intricacy of the contour of the blank,
simple blank contours should be used whenever possible. Blanks with sharp corners are
expensive to produce.
2) The layout of the blanks on the sheet should be such as to minimize scrap loss. The usual
tolerance on the blanked parts is + / 0.08 mm.
3) When holes have to be punched (a) diameter of the holes should not be less than the
thickness of the sheet or a minimum of 0.6 mm (b) the minimum distance between holes or
between a hole and the edge of the sheet, should be at least equal to the sheet thickness.
4) It is advisable to make the line of bend perpendicular to the rolling direction of the sheet.
5) Wall thickness must be kept uniform. If not, all transitions must be streamlines by generous
radii at the thick, thin junctions.
6) For cup shaped metal forming by impact extrusion the thickness of the bottom near the wall
must be 15 % more than the thickness of the wall itself to prevent shear failure and the inside
bottom should not be wholly flat. To avoid the possibility of the punch skidding on the billet
only 80 % of it, at the most, can be flat.

17. What are the factors to be considered while designing for safety in design? Write in short.
 When designing for safety, it is crucial to consider various factors to ensure the well-being of
users and prevent accidents. Here are key factors to consider based on the search results:
1) Human Factors: Design with human factors in mind, such as user interface design and
ergonomics, to prioritize user well-being, comfort, and security.
2) Risk Mitigation: Identify and mitigate potential risks and hazards associated with the
product, system, or environment to prevent accidents and injuries.
3) Compliance and Regulations: Ensure compliance with safety regulations and standards to
meet legal requirements and avoid liabilities.
4) Cost Reduction: Address safety concerns early in the design process to save costs related to
product recalls, accidents, and legal issues.
5) Risk Assessment: Conduct thorough risk assessments to identify hazards and implement
appropriate controls for safety.
6) Expertise: Ensure designers possess the necessary knowledge and capability to assess
product safety effectively
7) Communication: Facilitate effective communication among designers, manufacturers,
suppliers, installers, and users to apply safe design principles
8) Universal Design: Embrace universal design concepts to make products accessible and
usable by a wide range of users.