Form Four

PHYSICS FORM FOUR GBHS DEIDO
MODULE I: ENERGY, APPLICATION AND USES
TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this module, leaners should be able to:
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of heat
 Measure temperature
 Construct and calibrate a prototype thermometer
 Explain the effects of climate change
REAL LIFE SITUATION
NAHO is a city-dweller of DOUALA, he wore a black dress on a hot sunny day, he felt heat
and was seriously sweating. He also read from a scientific review that in hot climate area like
northern Cameroon, civil engineers recommend to paint the outer walls of buildings with white
or shiny colours, he also noticed that a bar of iron gets warm faster than a graphite rod. He is
not understanding all these observations. You are called as a science student to lift up all his
misunderstandings, also suggest the kind of dress he could have put on and indicate why.
CHAPTER 1: THERMOMETRY
1) CONCEPT OF HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is a scalar quantity
and its SI unit is kelvin (K).
It may also be defined as:
 The average kinetic energy of particles in a body.
 A physical property of the body which determine the direction of flow of heat from one
body to the other when they are brought in thermal contact.
The internal energy of a body is the sum of its molecular potential energy and kinetic energy.
Heat is the energy which is transferred from one body to another because of a temperature
difference between them. It flows from the hotter body (higher kinetic energy) to the colder
body (lower kinetic energy) until the two bodies are at the same temperature.
Two bodies in contact and at the same temperature are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
When a body is heated, the temperature increases because the kinetic energy of its molecules
increases, the internal energy also increases.
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2) MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE: THERMOMETRY

Thermometry is the science of the measurement of temperature. The temperature of a body is
measured using a thermometer. There are so many types of thermometers and each has a
thermometric substance and a thermometric property;
A thermometric property is a physical property that varies continuously with temperature.
A good thermometric property has the following properties:
 It is sensitive: a small change in temperature produces a great change in the physical
property.
 It is accurate: for bodies at the same temperature, the property should be the same
 It is reproducible: the change in physical property can be easily repeated for a body at
a similar temperature
 It is unique: the physical property differs from one measuring property to another, this
causes different thermometers to give different readings for bodies at the same
temperature except at the fixed points.
A thermometric substance is a substance that has a property which changes with temperature
and is reproducible.
A good thermometric substance:
 Has a low heat capacity: it takes short time for heat to flow through it.
 Is a good thermal conductor: it allows heat to pass through it easily.
The table below shows some common thermometers, the thermometric substance and the
thermometric property.
Thermometer Thermometric substance Thermometric property
Liquid-in-glass Mercury or coloured alcohol Length of Mercury column
or stem
Constant volume gas Gas at constant volume Pressure of gas
(Hydrogen, Helium…)
Bimetallic A bimetallic strip (Brass and Relative expansion between
Invar…) the two metals
Thermocouple Two dissimilar metal wires E.m.f at the junction of the
(Iron and Copper…) two dissimilar metal wires
Temperature scales
A temperature scale is a continuous range of numbers used to indicate levels or degrees of
hotness. Some common temperature scales include:
a) The Celsius or Centigrade scale: it measures temperature in degree Celsius (°C). The
lower fixed point on this scale is 0 °C and the upper fixed point is 100 °C. It is related
to Kelvin scale by 𝑻°𝑪 = 𝑻𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
E.g: convert 37 °C to K and 298 K to °C
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b) Fahrenheit scale: it measures temperature in degree Fahrenheit (°F). The lower fixed
point here is 32 °F and the upper fixed point is 212 °F. It is related to Celsius scale as:
𝟗 𝟓
𝑻°𝑭 = 𝟓 (𝑻°𝑪 ) + 𝟑𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑻°𝑪 = 𝟗 (𝑻°𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐)
E.g: convert 57 °F to °C and 43 °C to °F
c) The absolute or thermodynamic scale: it measures temperature in Kelvin (K). Its
lower fixed point is 273 K and the upper fixed point 373 K
0 K = - 273 °C is called the absolute zero where all substances have minimum internal
energy and zero kinetic energy.
3) CALIBRATING A THERMOMETER USING FIXED POINTS
A fixed point is a temperature at which a physical event is expected to take place. At the fixed
points, all the thermometric properties do not vary and so show the same value, but between
the fixed points, they vary differently.
Examples of fixed points are:
 Lower fixed point or ice point: it is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard
atmospheric pressure (0 °C = 273 K = 32 °F)
 Upper fixed point or steam point: it is the temperature of steam from pure boiling
water at standard atmospheric pressure (100 °C = 373 K = 212 °F)
To calibrate or graduate an unmarked thermometer, the steps below are necessary:
 A thermometric property is chosen
 The unmarked thermometer is placed in pure melting ice until the thermal equilibrium
is attained, the point is marked to indicate 0 °C.
 The thermometer is next placed in steam above pure boiling water, at the thermal
equilibrium, the point is marked to indicate 100 °C
 The length between the two marked points is measured with a ruler. This is called
fundamental interval. A strip of paper of this length is cut and 100 equal divisions of
the length marked on it to represent steps of 1 °C.
 The scale is now attached onto the thermometer; it is therefore calibrated or graduated.
If the values of the thermometric property at the fixed points are known, then the temperature
at any value of the thermometric property can be determined using the formula:
𝑿𝟎 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑿𝜽 − 𝑿𝟎
𝜽= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 °𝑪 {𝑿𝜽 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑿𝟎
𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 = 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑿𝟎

Example: the ice point and steam point of mercury-in-glass thermometer are found to be 3 cm
and 73 cm marks respectively.
a) What is the fundamental interval of this thermometer?
b) Determine the temperature in °C of a body in contact with the thermometer when the
length of Mercury thread is 12 cm
4) SOME TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
a) Liquid-in-glass thermometer
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It uses the fact that most liquids expand when heated. It is made up of a liquid in a thin glass
tube (capillary tube); this liquid expands when temperature rises and contracts when
temperature falls. Mercury and coloured Alcohol are the fluids usually used in Liquid-in-glass
thermometer.
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
The laboratory liquid-in-glass thermometer have a range from -10 °C to 110 °C or from 0°C to
100 °C. The thermometric property is the length of liquid thread.
If the length of mercury column at ice point is 𝒍𝟎 and at steam point is 𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 , then the length 𝒍𝜽
at an unknown temperature 𝜽 may be found from the equation
𝒍𝜽 − 𝒍𝟎
𝜽= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 °𝑪
𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍𝟎
Some features of this thermometer are:
 Sensitivity: it is the change in length per unit change in temperature. It is then sensitive
when it gives a large change in reading for a small change in temperature. The fine bore
increases its sensitivity
 Responsiveness: it refers to how fast the thermometer can respond to change in
temperature. It has a thin walled bulb for quick response to heat or temperature changes.
 It has a blackened bulb for easy absorption of heat since black bodies are good heat
absorbers
 Range: this is the difference between the minimum and the maximum temperatures a
thermometer can measure. The longer the range, the lower its sensitivity
 Linearity: it is the uniform expansion of the liquid column with temperature
 The safety bulb prevents the explosion of the thermometer when the liquid over
expands.
Assignment:
i) Give two advantages and two disadvantages of using alcohol as a thermometric substance
in a liquid-in-glass thermometer
ii) Give two advantages and two disadvantages of using mercury as a thermometric
substance in a liquid-in-glass thermometer
iii) Give three reasons why water is not used as thermometric substance in a liquid-in-glass
thermometer
b) Clinical thermometer
It is a special type of a liquid-in-glass thermometer used specifically to measure temperature of
humans.
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Clinical thermometer
It has a short range from 35 °C to 42 °C for greater accuracy. It has a constriction near the bulb
to prevent the back flow of Mercury or coloured alcohol as soon as the thermometer is removed
from the human body and therefore reading can be taken at a convenient time.
Some differences between a clinical thermometer and a lab thermometer are given by the table
below:
Clinical thermometer Laboratory thermometer
Has a short range from 35°C to 42 °C Has a long range from – 10 °C to 110 °C
Has a constriction Has no constriction
More accurate, it measures up to 0.1 °C Less accurate as it measures up to 1 °C
c) Other types of thermometers

 Bimetallic thermometer: It makes use of the fact that metals expand and contract at
different rates when heated or cooled respectively. They are using a long thin bimetallic
strip wound into a spiral spring. One end of the spring is fixed to the housing of the
device while the other end is attached to a needle. As the coil expands or contracts, it
turns the needle fixed at the centre of a dial round scale as shown below.
Bimetallic thermometer
 Thermocouple thermometer: It consists of two wires of different metals joined
together at the ends to form two junctions. When one junction is at higher temperature
than the other, an induced p.d is generated. This p.d is proportional to the temperature
difference and produces a deflection on a Milli-voltmeter which converts the reading
into temperature and displayed it.
 Constant volume gas thermometer: its thermometric property is the change in
pressure of a fixed mass of gas held at constant volume.
A gas thermometer is very sensitive, accurate and has a very wide range from – 270 °C
to 1500 °C. They are often used to calibrate all the other thermometers and also to check
their accuracy.
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They are:
- Cumbersome or bulky
- Inconvenient and slow in respond
Constant volume gas thermometer

 Thermistor thermometer: it uses a change in resistance of a semiconductor material
as thermometric property. It is small in size, very sensitive and has a rapid response to
fluctuating temperature.
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CHAPTER 2: CALORIMETRY
Calorimetry is the science of determining the change in thermal energy of system by measuring
the heat exchange by system and its surrounding.
1) HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Heat capacity of a body is the quantity of heat energy required to cause a unit rise in its
temperature. That is
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂 𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 (𝑸)
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑪) =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝚫𝜽)
𝑸 𝑸
⇒𝑪= = 𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = 𝑪𝚫𝜽 = 𝑪(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )
𝚫𝜽 𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏
Its SI unit is J/K. It is also measured in J/°C.
Specific heat capacity of a body is the quantity of heat energy required to cause a unit rise in
the temperature of a unit mass of the body. Given as
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂 𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 (𝑸)

𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒄) =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒎) ∗ 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝚫𝜽)
𝑸 𝑸
⇒𝒄= = 𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄𝚫𝜽 = 𝒎𝒄(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )
𝐦𝚫𝜽 𝒎(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )
Its SI unit is 𝐉 𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 𝐊 −𝟏. It is also measured in 𝐉 𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 °𝐂 −𝟏
The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg −1 K −1 this means 4200 J of thermal energy is
required to produce a 1 K rise in temperature of a 1 kg mass of water.
The heat capacity and a specific heat capacity are related as follow:
𝑸 𝑪
𝒄= = 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑪 = 𝒎𝒄
𝐦𝚫𝜽 𝒎
The heat capacity and a specific heat capacity depend both on the mass of substance and the
type or the nature of the substance.
- Water has a high specific heat capacity and so will take a very long time to warm up.
- Metals have a low specific heat capacities and so will take short time to warm up.
- Gases have higher specific heat capacities than liquids; while liquids have higher value
than solids.
Flow of heat energy and energy conservation
Heat energy always flows between two bodies of different temperatures. This heat flow is from
the higher to the lower temperature until the thermal equilibrium is attained.
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The law of conservation of energy shows:

Thermal energy lost by the hot object = Thermal energy gained by the cold body
The thermal energy supplied by an electric heater can be calculate if the power P is known and
is left on for a time period t.
Thermal energy supplied by the heater (E) = Power rating (P) * Time (t)
𝑰 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
That is E = P t or E = V I t where: {
𝑽 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Examples:
1) In order to warm water for bath, 10 kg of water at 100 °C is mixed with 20 kg of water
at 19 °C. Assuming the final steady temperature of the mixture is 𝜃
a) Write down an expression for the heat lost by the hot water
b) Write an expression for the heat gained by the cold water
c) Calculate the final steady temperature 𝜃. Given: specific heat capacity of water 4200
J kg −1 K −1 . State any assumption made
2) An electric kettle of mass 0.5 kg contains 2 kg of water at 27 °C. The kettle is rated at
2000 W.
a) What is the temperature of the water after 2 min?
b) How long would it take the water in the kettle to start to boil at 100 °C
The specific heat capacity of water 4200 J kg −1 K −1 and that of the material of the kettle
is 880 J kg −1 K −1
Measurement of specific heat capacity of a solid
Procedure
 Two holes are drilled in the solid to contain the heater and the thermometer
 The mass (𝑚𝑠 ) of the liquid is measured using a balance
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 The initial temperature (𝜃1 ) of the solid is recorded from the thermometer
 A steady current is supplied by the electric heater and the stopwatch is started
immediately
 After a convenient time t of heating, the heater is switch off and the final temperature
(𝜃2 ) , Ammeter reading (I) and voltmeter reading (V) are recorded
Calculations: Assuming no energy is lost, electrical energy supplied by the heater equals to
𝑰𝑽𝒕
heat gained by the solid: 𝑰 𝑽 𝒕 = 𝒎𝒔 𝒄𝒔 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) ⇒ 𝒄𝒔 = (𝜽 )
𝒎𝒔 𝟐 −𝜽𝟏
Where 𝑐𝑠 is the specific heat capacity of the solid

Precautions: The block is insulated or lagged to minimize heat loss to the surrounding by
conduction
Measurement of specific heat capacity of a liquid
Procedure:
 The mass (𝑚𝑙 ) of the liquid and 𝑚𝑐 of the calorimeter are measured using a balance
 The liquid is poured into the lagged calorimeter and its initial temperature 𝜃1 is recorded
from the thermometer
 A steady current is supplied by an electric heater and the stopwatch is started
immediately
 After a convenient time t of heating, the heater is switch off and the final temperature
(𝜃2 ), Ammeter reading (I) and voltmeter reading (V) are recorded
Calculations: Assuming no energy is lost, electrical energy supplied by the heater equals to
𝑰𝑽𝒕
heat gained by the liquid: 𝑰 𝑽 𝒕 = 𝒎𝒍 𝒄𝒍 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) ⇒ 𝒄𝒍 = (𝜃 )
𝒎𝒍 2 −𝜃1
Where 𝑐𝑙 is the specific heat capacity of the liquid

Precautions
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 The calorimeter is lagged to minimize heat loss to the surrounding by conduction

 The liquid is stirred gently to ensure uniform heat distribution in the calorimeter
Examples:
1) A 25 W immersion heater was placed in 100 g of a liquid and the temperature of the
liquid rose to 20 °C in 4 minutes. Calculate
a) The specific heat capacity of the liquid
b) The heat capacity of the liquid
2) Two liquids A and B have specific heat capacities of 140 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 and 2600 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
respectively. State and explain which of the liquids is likely:
a) A metallic liquid
b) Preferable to cool a hot object
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CHAPTER 3: EFFECT OF HEAT, THERMAL EXPANSION AND CHANGE OF

STATE
A) THERMAL EXPANSION
Thermal expansion of a material is the increase in size of the material when it is heated.
Thermal contraction is the reduction in size of a material when it is cooled down.
Expansion is highest in gases, then liquids and lowest in solids.
1) THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
When a solid expands when being heated, it becomes less dense as its volume increases but the
mass remains constant.
The linear expansivity of a solid is the expansion of a unit length of the solid when temperature
rises by 1 K. Its SI unit is 𝐾 −1
Some problems associated with solid expansion are:
 Railway tracks have gaps at the overlapping joints to make allowance for expansion in
summer or else the rails would buckle
 The concrete road-way segments of a bridge are separated by gaps. This necessary
because concrete expands with the increase in temperature.
Using expanding solids: The Bimetallic strip
A bimetallic strip is designed to bend when heated. The strip is made of two metals joined or
riveted firmly together. One metal expands more rapidly than the other.
Examples:
 Brass – Iron (Brass with high expansion capacity and Iron with low expansion
capacity)
 Copper – Invar (Copper with high expansion capacity and Invar with low expansion
capacity)
Bimetallic strip
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At normal room temperature, the bimetallic strip is straight. When heated, brass expands more
than the Invar. Then the strip bends with brass outside. When it is rather cooled, the Brass
contracts more than Invar, then the strip bends with the brass inside.
The bimetallic strip has many applications such as: the bimetallic thermometer, the bimetallic
thermostat.
2) THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Liquids expand much more than solids when heated, while some liquids expand more than the
others.
The setup shown below can be used to demonstrate expansion in liquids
When the flask containing the liquid is placed in the bowl of hot water, the level of the liquid
slightly falls down because the flask expands before heat gets through the liquid and the liquid
level begins to rise. Therefore, the liquid in the flask expands when heated.
As application of expansion in liquids, the liquid in thermometers expand and contract when
temperature changes.
3) EXPANSION OF GASES
When the temperature of a gas is increased, the molecules gain kinetic energy and move faster
colliding with the walls of its containers and pressure is exerted on the container walls. As the
temperature decreases, the molecules move slowly, hitting the walls less often and gas pressure
decreases. The volume of the gas increases as the temperature increases at constant pressure.
B) CHANGE OF STATE
When heat is supplied to a body or removed from it, one of the following may occur: Its
temperature changes or its state changes.
Changes of phase happen at constant temperature and include: Melting, freezing, vaporization,
condensation, sublimation and deposition.
a) Melting and boiling
Melting is the change of state from a solid to a liquid at constant temperature. Melting point
of a substance is the temperature at which the substance changes from a solid to a liquid.
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Meanwhile, the change of state from liquid to solid without a change in temperature is called
freezing. Freezing occurs at a constant temperature called freezing point. For a particular
material, the freezing point is equal to the melting point.
Boiling is the change of state from a liquid to a gas at constant temperature. Boiling point is
the constant temperature at which a liquid boils.
 The presence of impurities in a substance lowers its melting or freezing point
 Increase in pressure raises the boiling point and lowers the freezing point.
b) Evaporation and boiling
Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to gas without boiling. It can occur at all
temperature unlike boiling which occurs only at the boiling point.
Some differences between evaporation and boiling are presented in the table below:
Evaporation Boiling
Occurs at all temperatures Occurs at the boiling point
Bubbles do not appear Bubbles are formed
The liquid may cool down No temperature change occurs
Occurs only at the surface of the liquid Takes place in the whole bulk of the liquid
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation

 Temperature: the rate of evaporation increases with temperature
 Surface area of the liquid: the bigger the surface area over which evaporation occurs,
the greater the rate of evaporation
 Moving air or wind: evaporation is faster when wind is blowing over the surface of the
liquid
 Humidity of the air: evaporation is faster in dry air than in humid air.
c) Heating and cooling curve
 Heating curve
The increase in the temperature of a body when heated can be represented by a temperature –
time graph (heating curve)
An ice at - 20 °C is heated at constant rate until it becomes a gas. The figure below shows how
the temperature of the ice increases with time.
The flat portions BC and DE show that temperature is constant and so the substance is changing
phase. This happens only during melting of the ice cube at 0°C and during boiling at 100 °C.
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 Cooling curve
The graph below shows the cooling curve of Naphthalene that melts at 80 °C.
The temperature remains constant at BC as the Naphthalene freezes.

C) LATENT HEAT AND SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT
a) Latent heat
It is defined as the thermal energy absorbed or released by a substance to change its state without
a change in temperature. It is measured in joule (J)
b) Specific latent heat
It is the thermal energy absorbed or released when a unit mass of substance changes from one
state to another at a constant temperature.
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 (𝑸)
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 (𝒍) =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒎)
𝑸
⇒𝒍= ⇒𝑸=𝒎𝒍
𝒎
DJATSA IDRISS 14
The specific heat capacity is measured in J kg −1

Specific latent heat of fusion (𝒍𝒇 ) is the thermal energy required to change the state of a unit
mass of a substance from solid to liquid without a change in temperature. That is
𝑸
𝒍𝒇 = ⇒ 𝑸 = 𝒎 𝒍𝒇
𝒎
It is measured in J/kg. The specific latent heat of fusion of water is 3.36 ∗ 105 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Specific latent heat of vaporization (𝒍𝒗 ) is the thermal energy required to change the state of
a unit mass of a substance from liquid to gas without a change in temperature. That is
𝑸
𝒍𝒗 = ⇒ 𝑸 = 𝒎 𝒍𝒗
𝒎
It is measured in J/kg. The specific latent heat of fusion of water is 2.26 ∗ 106 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Example:
The graph below shows the cooling curve of a 0.5 kg of a gas at 110 °C that is losing heat
energy at constant rate.
a) In which state is the substance in the region

i) BC and ii) CD
b) Explain what is happening from B to C
c) If the substance is losing heat energy at the rate of 500 J/s, what is the specific latent
heat and latent heat of vaporization of the substance?
c) Cooling effect: Applications of latent heat
 Ice cubes are more effective in cooling a drink than an equal mass of cold water. When
ice melts, a large amount of latent heat is absorbed and this lowers the temperature of
the drink
 The freshness of foodstuffs (fish, meat) can be maintained by placing them in contact
with ice, since ice has a high latent heat and so absorbs a large quantity of heat from the
foodstuffs as it melts.
 In a hot weather, our bodies feel cool and comfortable after sweeting because latent heat
of vaporization is absorbed from the body when sweat evaporates.
DJATSA IDRISS 15
CHAPTER 4: THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER
There are three methods of thermal energy transfer from one place to another namely:
conduction, convection and radiation.
1) CONDUCTION
Thermal conduction is the movement of heat from one point of a material to another without
the actual movement of matter between the two points.
If one end of an iron rod is held and the other end placed in a flame, it is noticed that after a
short time, the rod becomes warm to the hands. Heat moves through the rod by conduction.
When one end of a material is heated, the molecules at the end vibrate due to the increase in
kinetic energy, neighbouring molecules also vibrate and the process continues and as result, the
heat energy is transferred throughout the material.
In metals, the process in increased by free mobile electrons, these electrons gain extra kinetic
energy.
Conduction takes place in solids, liquids and gases.
a) Good thermal conductors
These are materials which allow heat to pass through easily. Most good thermal conductors
have free mobile electrons. Examples include all metals (Aluminium, Copper, Iron, Mercury…)
and graphite.
Thermal conductor’s uses
 Cooking utensils are made of metals because they are good conductors of heat and
then conduct heat to the food inside the pot.
 The cooling fins of refrigerators are made of thermal conductors so that heat released
is conducted away
 Mercury is used as thermometric liquid because it is a good conductor of heat
b) Poor thermal conductors (Thermal insulators)
These are materials through which heat flows slowly. They lack free mobile electrons and
sorely entirely on molecular vibrations for heat conduction. Examples include most non-metals
(wood, glass, plastics…), almost all liquids (except Mercury) and gases.
Thermal insulator’s uses
 Handles of some cooking pots are made of insulators to avoid burning while holding
them
 Wool and cork are used for heat insulation in refrigerators, calorimeters…
 Woollen clothes are used in winter to keep the body warm
 Table mats are made of insulators so that hot plates and dishes will not damage the
table surface.
DJATSA IDRISS 16
c) Experiment to show that different materials conduct heat at different rate
Procedure
 The rods of different materials but with the same dimensions are coated at the end
with the same quantity of Vaseline and placed on the tripod as shown
 The other free ends of the rods are heated simultaneously when the temperature of
the coated end reach the melting point of the Vaseline, the Vaseline drop off.
Observation / conclusion
It is observed that the Vaseline on the rods falls off at different times, this is because the rods
conduct heat at different rates.
2) CONVECTION
It is the process in which thermal energy is transferred from one place to other in a fluid by
movement of heated fluid particles. It takes place only in liquids and gases (fluids).
When a liquid in a vessel is heated from the bottom, the liquid just above the flame becomes
warmer, expands and thus becomes less dense and rises while being replaced by the colder
liquid from the top. This circulation of liquid is called convection current, which rapidly
carries heat from the bottom to the top
Convection current
DJATSA IDRISS 17
Applications of convection
 The wind blow is due to the convection currents in the atmosphere
 The land breeze and sea breeze are due to convection of air: during the day, the land
is heated to a higher temperature than the sea, the air above the land expands and
becomes less dense, it rises while colder air from the sea flows in to take its place, a
cold breeze then blows from the sea towards the land called a sea breeze. During the
night, the land also cold down to a lower temperature than the sea, the air the sea
becomes less dense, rises and is replaced by cold denser air from the land, a cold
breeze then blows from the land to the sea called land breeze
 Domestic cooking and boiling
 Home heating
 Convection currents cause ventilation at home
3) RADIATION
Radiation is the transfer of heat from one point to another by means of electromagnetic waves.
It takes place without the aid of an intervening medium.
All objects give off radiant heat, but the hotter the object is, the more radiant heat it gives off.
Heat energy from the sun reaches us on earth by radiation.
Absorption and emission of thermal radiation
When thermal radiation falls on the other bodies, it is partly reflected and partly absorbed. The
amount of heat that a body can absorb by radiation depends on:
 The temperature of the body: the higher the temperature, the higher the rate of
emission of thermal radiation
 The surface area of the body: the larger the surface area, the higher the rate of
emission
 The nature of the surface
- Dull dark surfaces are the best emitters, shiny surfaces are the poorest emitters
- Blackened surfaces are good absorbers of radiation than polished surfaces which rather
are good reflectors.
Applications of radiation
 The bottoms of cooking utensils are blackened so that they absorb maximum heat
from the fire
 People wear white or light coloured clothes in summer so that they absorb the least
heat from the sun.
 During winter, people put on dark coloured clothes which absorb heat from the sun
and keep the body warm
 Thermopiles, solar cells and other thermoelectric materials convert radiant heat into
electrical energy.
DJATSA IDRISS 18
MODULE II: WAVES
 Measure the speed of sound in air
 Know the importance of resonance
 Appreciate the use of refraction to explain why sound is better heard on a cold day than
a hot one
REAL LIFE SITUATION

TOKO’s father heard from a scientific investigation TV channel that there are several methods
used to determine the depth of an ocean or a quite deep water well. Unfortunately, while
listening to some of these methods, an emergency called him out of his house. He is really
curious and excited to learn about this. As a science student, he calls you for help in this regard.
You are therefore called upon to present succinctly and precisely a method in order to satisfy
his curiosity.
CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF WAVES
1) DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES

A wave is a disturbance produced in a medium or space in which energy are transferred from
one point to another without the transfer of matter.
Waves are classified into three categories based on:
 Their medium of transmission: mechanical or electromagnetic waves
 Their mode of propagation: transverse and longitudinal
 The way they transfer energy: progressive and stationary waves
a) Mechanical and electromagnetic waves
Mechanical waves are waves that require a material medium for their transmission. They
cannot move through a vacuum.
E.g: Sound waves, water waves, seismic waves…
Electromagnetic waves are waves that don’t necessarily require any medium for their
transmission. Therefore, they can either travel in material medium or in a vacuum.
DJATSA IDRISS 19
E.g: Gamma rays, X-rays, UV rays, Microwaves, Radiowaves…

b) Transverse and longitudinal waves
Transverse waves are waves in which the vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of the
wave motion.
E.g: Water waves and all electromagnetic waves.
Transverse wave
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the vibrations are parallel to the direction of the waves.
They are characterized by high density regions called compression and low density regions
called rarefaction.
E.g: Sound waves
Longitudinal wave
c) Progressive waves and stationary waves
Progressive wave is a wave that travels continuously in a medium without any disturbance or
obstruction.
Stationary wave results from the superposition of two progressive waves of equal amplitude
and frequency travelling at the same speed but in opposite direction.
2) THE WAVE PROFILE OR WAVEFORM
There are two types of graph that are generally used when describing waves: displacement –
distance and displacement – time graphs.
DJATSA IDRISS 20
Displacement – distance graph
Displacement – time graph

3) WAVE TERMINOLOGY
a) Amplitude (a)
It is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium or rest position. It is measured in metre
𝟏
(m). 𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 (𝐚) = (𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐂𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐓𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡)
𝟐
b) Wavelength (𝝀)
It is the distance travelled by a wave for one complete cycle. It is measure in metre (m).
It is also defined as the distance between two successive crests or troughs in transverse waves.
c) Period (T)
It is the time taken by a wave for one complete oscillation or cycle. It is measured in second
(s).
d) Frequency (f)
It is the total number of complete oscillations per unit time. It measured in Hertz (Hz).
𝟏 𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇) = ⇒𝒇= .
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 (𝑻) 𝑻
DJATSA IDRISS 21
e) Wave speed (v)

It is the distance travelled by a progressive wave per unit time.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝
𝐖𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 (𝐯) = 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧
In one period (T),

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝜆)
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑣) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑇)
𝝀
⇒𝒗= 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝒗 = 𝝀 𝒇
𝑻
f) Phase
Points in a wave are in phase if they are travelling in the same direction and having the same
relative displacement from each other.
E.g: From the diagrams above, the points in phase are: O and D, B and F, D and H, A and E, C
and G.
g) Wave front
A wave front is a section (line or surface) in a wave motion in which all the vibrations there are
in phase.
4) WAVE PROPERTIES
A) Ripple tank
This is the instrument used in the laboratory to study the properties of waves which include:
reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference. It consists of a transparent tray containing
water, having a light source and a white screen (below to receive the wave images)
 Pulses of ripples are obtained by dipping a finger in the water for circular ripples and a
ruler for straight ripples.
 The ripples on the screen can easily be studied by a handheld device below the water
tray (and above the screen) called stroboscope
DJATSA IDRISS 22
Ripple tank
B) Wave properties demonstrated by the Ripple tank
a) Reflection
It is the sending back of a wave in the same medium when the wave meets or strikes a plane
surface.
During reflection:
 The amplitude of the wave is reduced because part of the wave energy is absorbed by
reflecting surface
 The wavelength and speed remain unchanged because the wave is moving in the same
medium
 The frequency remains unchanged since the source producing the wave has not changed.
The laws of reflection:
 The angle of incidence equal to the angle reflection (𝑖 = 𝑟)
 The incident and reflected waves at the point of incidence lie on the same plane as the
normal
b) Refraction
It is the change in the direction of a wave as it moves from one medium to another due to a
change in the speed of the wave.
DJATSA IDRISS 23
During refraction:
 The amplitude of the wave reduces because part of the wave energy is lost as the wave
changes medium
 The wavelength changes due to a change in the speed of the wave
 The frequency remains unchanged since the source producing the wave has not changed.
When the wave fronts are parallel to the boundary, there is no change in direction but there is
change in medium.
When the wave fronts are incident at an angle to the boundary, there is a change in direction
and a change in medium.
Refraction of water wave from deep to shallow water

Generally, when a wave moves from medium 1 to medium 2.
𝒗𝟏 𝒗 𝒗 𝝀
= 𝝀𝟐 ⇒ 𝒗𝟏 = 𝝀𝟏 (Since frequency is constant)
𝝀𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1

Where {
𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒗 𝝀
⇒ 𝒏 = 𝒗 𝟏 = 𝝀𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
c) Diffraction
It is the spreading out of waves as they pass through narrow apertures or around obstacles.
Diffraction is significant when the size of the aperture is comparable than the wavelength of
the wave. When the size of aperture is far bigger than the wavelength of the wave, diffraction
only occurs at the edges of the aperture
DJATSA IDRISS 24
During diffraction:
 The speed and wavelength doesn’t change if the wave is moving in the same medium.
 The frequency remains unchanged since the source producing the wave has not changed
 The amplitude of the diffracted wave is less than that of the incident wave because the
energy is distributed over a larger area.
d) interference
It is the superposition of two or more similar waves from identical sources. For interference to
occur, two coherent sources of waves are required that is:
 Have a constant phase difference
 Be of the same frequency
There are two types of interference namely: constructive interference and destructive
interference.
Constructive interference: it occurs when the waves interfering; are in phase. As a result, the
amplitude of the resultant wave is twice that of each of the interfering waves.
Destructive interference occurs when the waves interfering are; out of phase and as such
cancel out the effect of each other. As a result, the amplitude of the resultant wave is zero.
DJATSA IDRISS 25
Example:
1) The trace of a sound notes produced by a tuning fork is registered on a CRO. It travels
6 vibrations in 1.2 𝑥 10−1 𝑠 and vertical distance of 4 cm between crest and trough.
a) Sketch a displacement time graph for the note
b) Determine
i) The period
ii) The frequency
iii) The amplitude of the note
c) The vibrations have a speed of 20 m/s, determine the wavelength of the waves.
2) The figure below shows a wave profile of a vibrating guitar string
a) Calculate the wavelength of the wave

b) Calculate the amplitude of the wave
It took 0.02 s for the crest to move from Y and Z
c) Calculate the frequency of vibration of the string
d) Calculate the speed of the wave
5) STATIONARY WAVES
a) Definition
A stationary or standing wave results from the superposition of two progressive waves trains
of equal amplitude and frequency travelling at the same speed but in opposite direction.
b) Production of stationary waves on the slinky
The slinky with one end fixed is stretched out on flat surface. The free end is continuously
moved up and down at right angles to the spring to generate a progressive transverse wave.
When the wave is reflected at the fixed end, the reflected wave interferes with the incident wave
to produce a stationary wave.
Stationary wave
Features of stationary waves:
 No energy is transferred from particle in stationary waves
 The points of zero displacement are called nodes (N), the distance between the two
𝝀
consecutive nodes is 𝒅𝑵𝑵 = 𝟐 ⇒ 𝝀 = 𝟐 𝒅𝑵𝑵
DJATSA IDRISS 26
 The points of maximum displacement are called anti-nodes (A), the distance between
𝝀
the two consecutive antinodes is 𝒅𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐 ⇒ 𝝀 = 𝟐 𝒅𝑨𝑨
𝝀
The distance between the node and an adjacent antinode is 𝒅𝑵𝑨 = 𝟒 ⇒ 𝝀 = 𝟒 𝒅𝑵𝑨
c) Harmonics and overtones

The fundamental frequency (𝒇𝟎 ) is the minimum frequency of a stationary wave for a given
system or arrangement.
Harmonics are frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency. That is
𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇) = 𝒏𝒇𝟎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 …
For example, 𝑓 = 𝑓0 , 2 𝑓0 , 3 𝑓0 , …
Then the fundamental frequency is the first harmonic.
Overtones are frequencies greater than the fundamental that is 𝑓 = 2 𝑓0 , 3 𝑓0 , …
Then the first overtone may be the second or third harmonic
DJATSA IDRISS 27
CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic Waves or EM Waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations
between an electric field and a magnetic field.
1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.
They travel in vacuum or free space with a velocity 3.0 x 108 m/s
They are transverse in nature and therefore can be plane polarized
They do not necessarily require any material medium for propagation
They obey the inverse square law that is: the intensity of EM waves is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the source
They obey the wave equation 𝑣 = 𝜆 𝑓
2. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (wavelengths) of electromagnetic
radiations. The electromagnetic spectrum is commonly divided into seven regions in order of
decreasing wavelength or increasing energy and frequency. The common designation from low
frequency to high frequency or from long wavelength to short wavelength are Radio waves,
Microwaves, Infrared (IR) ray, Visible light, Ultraviolet (UV), X-rays and Gamma (γ) –
rays.
EM WAVES, their production and their characteristics

Radio waves: Produced by the oscillation of electrons in an aerial of a Radio or TV set.
Can be diffracted around obstacles or hills due to their long wavelength
Microwaves: produced by inversion and rotation of molecular arrangement
Produces a heating effect when absorbed
Infrared radiation: produced by low energy changes in the electronic structure of
atoms
Produces a heating effect on the screen
Visible light: produced during atomic transitions
Stimulates the retina and promotes photosynthesis
Ultraviolet radiation: produced during atomic transitions
Cause fluorescence when absorbed by certain materials
X-rays: produced when fast moving electrons are stopped by a metal target
Carries much energy and strongly absorbed by high density materials like bones
Gamma rays: produced during radioactive decay
Are very penetrating, carries much energy and least ionizing.
DJATSA IDRISS 28
The table below shows various regions or EM spectrum with source and wavelength ranges
of different EM waves.
Type of EM Source Wavelength Detected by Uses
Waves
Radio waves  Radio and TV 10 𝑡𝑜 104 𝑚  TV and Radio receivers  In FM radio
transmitters or aerials  In police walkie-talkie
Microwaves  Microwaves ovens 10−2 𝑚  RADAR  Cooking in microwaves
 Masers  Microwave receiver ovens
 Resonant or tuned  Used in RADAR
cavities communication
 Used in telemetry
Infrared  Molecules of hot 10−4 𝑚  Thermopile  For domestic heating
bodies  Photographic film  Switching beams for
 Sun  LDR remote control
 Photodiode  For stellar evolution
Visible Light  Incandescent solids  Eye  Stimulates the retina
 Fluorescent lamps 7𝑥10−7 𝑡𝑜 4𝑥10−7 𝑚  Photocell  Initiates photosynthesis in
 Hot objects  Photographic film plants
 LED  LDR  Used in optics and optic
fibre
Ultraviolet  Electrical discharge or 10−8 𝑚  Fluorescent screen  To catalyse chemical
spark  Photocell reactions
 Sun  Photographic film  Detection of forgeries
 Very hot objects  In microscopy
X-rays  High energy electrons 10−10 𝑚  Ionization chamber  Take x-rays pictures
suddenly stopped by  Photographic film  To treat skin disorders
a metal target  Photocell  In x-ray crystallography
 Pulsars
Gamma rays  Radioactive nuclei 10−12 𝑚  GM tube  Kill cancerous cells
 Nuclear reactions  Photographic film  Sterilise medical
 Ionization chamber equipments
 Find flaws in metals
DJATSA IDRISS 29
CHAPTER 3: SOUND WAVES
1) NATURE OF SOUND AND PRODUCTION OF SOUND

Sound is a form of energy that can be detected by the ear. Humans hear only sounds with
frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 KHz. These are the limits of audibility.
Production of sound
Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Sound can be produced by the following methods:
 By vibrating strings (guitar, violin…)
 By vibrating air (flute, trumpet…)
 By vibrating membranes (drum)
 By vibrating plates (cymbals…)
Nature of sound
 Sound wave is longitudinal: it moves in the same direction as the vibration in the
medium
 Sound is progressive: it travels continuously in a medium
 Sound is a mechanical wave: it can only travel through a material medium and not
through vacuum.
The bell jar experiment
This experiment is used to demonstrate that sound waves requires a material medium to travel
and so it cannot travel through vacuum but light waves do.
Procedure:
 The power supply is switched on and the hammer is seen continuously vibrating and
hitting the gong producing sound.
 When the air inside the bell jar is gradually removed using a vacuum pump, the sound
gets fainter and fainter until no sound is heard once the air is completely removed.
Conclusion:
DJATSA IDRISS 30
 The hammer is continuously hitting the gong and no sound is heard shows that sound
cannot travel through a vacuum.
 The hammer is seen continuously, shows that light travels through a vacuum.
Precautions:
 The bell jar is well sealed with a rubber bung to prevent air from entering the jar when
air is being removed.
 The bell assembly is hung on a rubber cord and supplied with electricity through
flexible wires which will absorb vibrations rather than transmit them to the outside.
2) PROPERTIES OF SOUND.
Sound waves undergo all the properties of waves (reflection, refraction, diffraction and
interference) except polarization.
a) Reflection
Sound waves are reflected when they strike a hard surface. The laws of reflection of light are
obeyed during the reflection of sound.
An echo is a reflected sound wave from a hard surface. An echo has a lower amplitude and
energy than that of the original sound because part of the incident energy is absorbed by
reflecting surface.
Reverberation occurs when the echo time is too short and the echo overlaps with the original
sound to make the original sound to appear prolonged.
b) Refraction
Sound waves also undergo refraction when they move from one medium to another. Sound
travels faster in warm air than in cold air. Therefore, sound waves are refracted away from the
normal when they travel from cold to warm air. This explains why sounds appear louder at
night than during the day. At night, the upper layers of air are warmer than the layers near the
earth, sound from the earth is refracted back to the earth. However, during the day, the layers
near the earth are warmer, sound is refracted away from the earth and lost into the upper air
layers.
c) Diffraction and sound waves
Sound waves are diffracted round wide openings such as doorways because their wavelength
is comparable with the width of the opening. Sound can be heard around corners due to
diffraction.
d) Interference
Interference of sound waves can be demonstrated using two loudspeakers connected to the same
signal generator.
DJATSA IDRISS 31
When a microphone is moved along AB, a distance from speakers, a series of alternate loud
and soft sounds are gotten.
 A soft sound is heard because the waves from the loudspeakers are in anti-phase, so
they interfere destructively.
 A loud sound is heard because the waves from the loudspeakers are in phase, so they
interfere constructively.
3) CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
There are three characteristics of sound namely: Pitch, loudness and quality or timbre.
a) Pitch
The pitch of a sound depends on its frequency. Sound of low frequency are said to be low pitch,
whereas sounds of high frequency are said to have high pitch.
b) Loudness
The loudness of sound depends on its amplitude. The higher the amplitude, the louder the
sound. The loudness of a sound also depends on:
 The mass of air set into vibration: The larger the mass of air set into vibration, the
louder the sound. Sound from a loudspeaker is louder than sound from a phone earpiece
because the loudspeaker has a large cone which sets a large mass of air into vibration.
 Distance from the source: loudness of sound decreases with distance from the source
c) Quality or timbre
The quality of a musical sound depends on the mixture of frequencies present in it. Usually,
musical notes are made up of many frequencies.
Fundamental mode is the simplest mode of vibrations of a vibrating system
Fundamental frequency is the frequency produced by an object vibrating in its fundamental
mode. A musical note can be pure or impure
 A pure note is sound note of a single frequency (fundamental frequency). A pure note
has no overtones. Turning forks and signal generators produce pure sound notes.
DJATSA IDRISS 32
 An impure note is sound note consisting of the fundamental frequency and overtones.
Sound notes with a higher number of overtones are richer in quality. Impure notes are
produced by many musical instruments like, guitar, piano, flute…
4) SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound depends on many factors which include:
 Nature of material (medium) through which sound travels: sound travels slowest in
gases, faster in liquids and fastest in solids.
 Temperature: as temperature increases, the speed of sound in air increases.
 Humidity of air: sound travels faster in humid air than in dry air.
 Wind direction: when sound moves in the direction of wind, its speed increases. Its
speed decreases when moving in the opposite direction of wind.
Measurement of the speed of sound in air
a) Echo method
Procedure:
 Person A having a wooden block and person B having a stopwatch stand at a distance d
from a high wall.
 Person A claps wooden blocks so that the next clap coincides with the arrival of the
echo from the previous clap
 Person B with a stopwatch records the time t between n claps which is the time between
n claps and their echoes
Calculations:
𝑡
 Average time between claps interval, 𝑇 = 𝑛
 Distance travelled by sound for each clap 𝐷 = 2𝑑
𝐷 2𝑛𝑑
 Speed of sound is 𝑉 = =
𝑇 𝑡
Precautions: the distance from the two persons to the high wall should be long enough to
produce a reasonable echo time
b) Reciprocal firing method
DJATSA IDRISS 33
Procedure:
 Two persons A and B each with a gun and a stopwatch stand on two separate hills.
 The distance d between the two hills is measured using a measuring tape.
 Person A fires his gun and person B with his stopwatch records the time interval 𝑡1
between seeing the flash and getting the sound.
 Person B fires his gun and person A with his stopwatch records the time interval 𝑡2
between seeing the flash and getting the sound.
Calculations:
𝑡1 +𝑡2
 Average time interval: 𝑡 = 2
𝑑 2𝑑
 Speed of sound: 𝑉 = =𝑡
𝑡 1 +𝑡2
Precaution: the experiment is carried out in a calm weather so that the wind doesn’t reduce the
accuracy of the results obtained.
DJATSA IDRISS 34
CHAPTER 3: FORCED VIBRATIONS AND RESONANCE
1) VIBRATION IN STRINGS
When a string under tension and fixed of both ends is plucked, progressive transverse waves
travel to both ends, reflect and superimpose to form a stationary wave.
Factors affecting the frequency of vibration of a stretched string
a) The length of the vibrating string
The frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the string provided the tension of the
string and thickness are kept constant. Therefore, the longer the length of the string, the lower
𝟏
the frequency. 𝒇 ∞ ⇒ 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟐
𝒍
b) The tension in the string

The frequency is directly proportional to the square root of tension in the string provided the
length and thickness are kept constant. Then, the greater the tension in the string, the higher the
𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
frequency 𝒇 ∞ √𝑻 ⇒ =
√𝑻𝟏 √𝑻𝟐
c) The thickness or the mass per unit length

The frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit length of the
spring provided length and tension are kept constant. That is the thinner the string, the higher
1
the frequency. 𝑓 ∞ ⇒ 𝑓1 √𝜇1 = 𝑓2 √𝜇2
√𝜇
Therefore, combining the three factors, we obtain:
𝒍 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝟏 𝑻
𝒇 = 𝟐𝒍 √𝝁 where { 𝑻 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 Tapez une équation ici.
𝝁 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
2) PORCED VIBRATIONS AND RESONANCE

a) Free oscillations or vibrations
It occurs when a system is displaced from its equilibrium position and left to vibrate on its own,
the system is said to be undergoing natural oscillation and its frequency is called natural
frequency. The amplitude, frequency and energy of oscillations remain constant.
b) Forced oscillations or vibrations
Forced vibration occurs when a system is maintained in vibration by an external driving force.
The frequency of the driving force is called driving or forcing frequency.
c) Resonance
Resonance occurs when an external driving agent drives a system to vibrate at its natural
frequency. During resonance, the system vibrates at its maximum amplitude and so the energy
gained by the system is maximum.
DJATSA IDRISS 35
Desirable applications of resonance

Tuning of the radio circuit in a radio set: Radio wave signals reach the aerial of a radio
but is picked by causing an internal electrical circuit to vibrate at its natural frequency.
Diving from diving board: the diver jumps up and down on the diving board at board’s
natural frequency. The board is then set into resonance and the increase in the amplitude
of the springboard sends the diver into the required height
In the washing machine: the rotating drum causes the cloth in the machine to vibrate at
its natural frequency throwing off dirt particles.
Undesirable applications of resonance
Soldiers need to break their steps when marching across a bridge since their marching
frequency may become equal to the natural frequency of the bridge and may cause the
bridge to collapse
Collapsing of factory chimneys, tall building, trees during hurricanes: they are set to
vibrate at their natural frequencies by the wind.
d) Speed of sound in air using the resonance tube method
 Vibrating air columns
Wind instruments such as the flute produce sound notes because the air inside the instrument is
forced to vibrate at its natural frequency to resonate. When air is blown into a pipe, stationary
waves are set up. The diagram below shows some modes of vibration of the air column in a
pipe.
 Experiment to determine the speed of sound in air using the resonance tube
method
Procedure:
A turning fork of frequency f, is struck and brought close to the open end of a resonance
tube inserted into a beaker of water.
The tube is gently raised from the water until a loud sound is heard. The first resonance
length (𝑙1) is measured using a ruler.
DJATSA IDRISS 36
With the vibrating turning fork again in place, the resonance tube is further raised until
a loud sound is heard again. The second resonance length (𝑙2 ) is measured using a ruler.
Calculations:
𝜆
At the first resonance; 𝑙1 + 𝑐 = 4 (1) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 = 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3𝜆
At the second resonance; 𝑙2 + 𝑐 = (2)
4
By subtracting the equation (1) from (2) we have 𝝀 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )

Therefore the speed of sound in air is given by: 𝒗 = 𝟐𝒇 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
DJATSA IDRISS 37
MODULE III: ELECTRICAL ENERGY
 Be capable of comparing the relative conductive or insulative properties of materials
 Name substances which become negatively or positively charged when rubbed
 Understand the role of e.m.f in the flow of electrical current
 Be able to interpret circuit diagrams
 Understand house wiring and the use of fuse
 Be able to appreciate and regulate electrical consumption at home
REAL LIFE SITUATION
AKO is a form four student of GBHS BANDJOUN, he noticed that when rubbing a pen on his
hairs, the pen attracts small pieces of paper and he didn’t understand why. He is also using a
battery as a power source on which we can read (10000 Ah, DC output, 1 A output) and this
battery is charged in the power source from the company ENEO. He has two electrical irons
and notices that when the battery is fully charged and for the same time of functioning, one
electrical iron discharged the battery faster than the other. He is not getting why this. You look
at the labels marked on these electrical irons and you read (1500 W – 50 Hz) and (2000 W –
50 Hz) respectively. In addition, he has an electrical appliance for which the maximum current
allowed is 1.5 A in order to avoid any failure to occur in the appliance. It is known that the
current available can reaches the value of 4 A and he is looking for a mean to protect this
appliance from the undesired effects of high current.
As a science student, you are called in helping AKO to resolve all the problems that he is facing.
DJATSA IDRISS 38
CHAPTER 1: ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics is the study of electricity at rest. It is also referred to as static electricity.

1) ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electric charge is a property of electrons and protons by which they exert electric forces on
one other.
There are two types of electric charges namely positive and negative charges.
The net charge (Q) acquired by a body either due to excess electrons or protons is given by:
𝒏 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑸 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 {
𝒆 = ±𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (+) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
More generally, charges cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be transferred from one body
to another. The net charge on a neutral body is zero.
The rate of flow of electric charges (electrons) across any cross sectional area of a conductor
constitutes an electric current
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 (𝑸)
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰) = ⇒𝑸=𝑰𝒕
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
Charge is a scalar quantity. It can be measured using a coulomb metre. The SI unit of charge
is coulomb (C).
One coulomb is the quantity of electric charge which passes through a section of a conductor
in one second when the current flow through it is one ampere.
Example: a body has a charge of + 4.6 𝜇𝐶
a) Explain whether or not it has an excess or deficiency of electrons
b) Calculate how many excess or deficient electrons the body has
2) ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
a) Electrical conductors
Electrical conductors are materials in which electrons can move through easily. A conductor
will become charged only if it is held with an insulating handle, otherwise, electrons are
transferred between the conductor and the ground via the person’s body.
An electrical conductor can be a good or poor electrical conductor.
 Good electrical conductors include all metals, graphite and Mercury
 Poor electrical conductors include, earth, human body, water, semiconductors at room
temperature…
DJATSA IDRISS 39
 If the conductor is insulated (not earthed), there will be a movement of electrons within
the conductor so that the electric charge is widely spread as possible. The electric charge
is distributed on the surface of the conductor.
 If the conductor is earthed (there is a conducting path between the conductor and the
earth), electrons will move to or from the earth to neutralize the conductor
b) Electrical insulators
Electrical insulators are materials in which electrons cannot move through. Some examples
include, rubber, plastics, Perspex, polythene, glass, dry air, cotton, wool…
3) BASIC LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS AND COULOMB’S LAW
Experiments has shown that there is a force (electrostatic force) between charged objects. The
force is attractive if they carry different kinds of charges [(-) and (+)], meanwhile the force is
repulsive if they carry the same kind of charges [(-) and (-) or (+) and (+)]
Then like charges repel, unlike charges attract
Coulomb’s law of electrostatics

It states that “the force between two charged bodies is directly proportional to the product
of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them”
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝑲 𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
That is 𝑭 ∞ ⇒𝑭=
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
DJATSA IDRISS 40
𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠

Where { 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠
Factors affecting the magnitude of the force between two charged bodies
 The distance between the bodies: the closer the bodies are, the stronger the force.
 The quantity of charge on each body: the larger the quantity of charge on each body,
the stronger the force.
4) CHARGING OR ELECTRIFICATION OF A MATERIAL
Charging a material means making the material to either gain or lose electrons. There are two
types of charged materials: positively charged materials and negatively charged materials.
 A positively charged material contains more protons than electrons
 A negatively charged material contains more electrons than protons
a) Charging by friction (Rubbing)
This means making the material to either gain or lose electrons by rubbing it with dry soft
materials like cotton, wool, cloth, hair… If a glass rod is rubbed with a dry cloth for example,
the glass rod loses electrons and becomes negatively charged.
The following table shows how some insulating materials become charged when rubbed with
woollen cloth:
Materials How electrons are Charged acquired Charge acquired by
transferred by materials cloth
Ebonite, Polythene, From cloth to Negative Positive
rubber materials
Glass, Perspex From materials to Positive Negative
cloth
b) Charging by induction
Electrostatic induction is the separation of charges in a neutral conductor when a charged rod
is brought closed to, but not touching the conductor. The attraction of an uncharged object by
a charged object near it, is due to electrostatic induction.
i) Charging an insulated neutral conductor permanently by induction
Induced charges are usually not permanent, when the charging body is removed, the induced
charges disappear. However, it is possible to charge an insulated conductor permanently by
induction
To charge the conductor positively, a negatively charged rod is brought closed to it. In step b),
positive charges are induced near the rod and in step c), electrons flow to the earth.
DJATSA IDRISS 41
ii) Charging a pair of neutral conductors by induction and both acquiring the same
sign of charge
iii) Charging a pair of neutral conductors by induction and both acquiring the
opposite sign of charge
c) Charging by contact
DJATSA IDRISS 42
If a charged conductor is brought into contact with an uncharged conductor, charges will be
shared between the two conductors. Therefore, the uncharged conductor will be charged by
contact.
 Sharing of electrons cannot occur between insulators in contact, since charges cannot
flow through an insulator.
 Two conductors with the same quantity of opposite charges brought in contact will
become neutral
 It is not possible for two conductors brought in contact to acquire opposite kind of
charges.
5) GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
A gold leaf electroscope can be used to detect the presence of electric charge and determine
whether the charge is positive or negative.
A gold leaf electroscope consists of a metal cap on a metal rod at the foot of which is a metal
plate with a gold leaf foil attached. The rod is held by an insulating plastic plug in a case with
glass sides to protect the leaf from draughts or dust.
Electroscope
a) Charging a gold leaf electroscope
 When a gold leaf electroscope is uncharged, the gold leaf remains collapsed
 On charging the electroscope, the metal cap receives the same kind of charge as on the
charging body and transfers it to the gold leaf and the plate.
 To discharge the electroscope, touch the cap with the hand. The charges acquired will
leak to the earth via the body.
i) Charging the electroscope by contact
DJATSA IDRISS 43
A charged rod is rolled continuously and firmly across the edge of the cap. The leaf rises and
stays up even when the rod is removed.
 To charge an electroscope negatively, a polythene rod is rolled on its cap
 To charge an electroscope positively, a Perspex rod is rolled on its cap.
ii) Charging the electroscope by induction
The sign of the charge received by the electroscope is opposite to that of the inducing charge.
b) Experiments with the gold leaf electroscope

i) To detect the presence of charge on a body
The body is brought close to, but not touching the cap of the electroscope
If the leaf rises or diverges from the plate, then body is charged
If the leaf remains at rest, then the body is uncharged
ii) To determine the type of charge on a charged body
If the electroscope is negatively charged and a charged body is brought close the cap, if
the leaf rises from the plate, then the body is negatively charged
If the electroscope is positively charged and a charged body is brought close the cap, if
the leaf rises or diverges from the plate, then the body is positively charged
The results can be summarized by the following table:
Charge on electroscope Charge brought near cap Effect on leaf
+ + Leaf rises further
- - Leaf rises further
+ - Leaf falls
- + Leaf falls
+ or - Uncharged body Leaf falls
iii) To identify insulators and conductors

The electroscope is charged. The cap of the charged electroscope is touched with different
materials (insulators and conductors) and the results noted
If the leaf falls rapidly, then the material is a good conductor
DJATSA IDRISS 44
If the leaf falls slowly, then the material is a poor conductor

If the leaf doesn’t alter, the material is good insulator
Precautions with electroscope experiments
 Experiments are carried out in dry air or weather
 The cap of the charged electroscope should not be touched with the hand to prevent
charge leakage through the body to the earth.
 The cap of a charged electroscope should always be covered when not in use to prevent
discharge by ionized air, background radiations…
6) HAZARDS OF ELECTROSTATICS CHARGING

 Lightning: a large charge build-up in the clouds due to the friction between water and
air molecules results in the ionization of the air. The ionized air provides a path for
conduction of electrons to the ground through tall pointed objects. It can damage
buildings and harm people. Lightning conductors can be placed at the top of tall
buildings to allow electrons to flow steadily from the air to the ground.
 Fire in aircrafts: an excessive build-up of charges due to friction with air can lead to
explosion or a fire in aircrafts. Tyres are made slightly conductive rubber to discharge
the aircraft when it touches down.
7) SOME APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS
 Spray printing
Steps:
- A fixed electric potential difference is maintained between the pain spray nozzle and
the object to be painted (the nozzle negatively charged and the object positively
charged)
- As the paint leaves the nozzle, the droplets are charged.
- Since the droplets have the same charge, they repel each other so that the paint spreads
out evenly
- The paint droplets are all attracted to the positively charged object and stick strongly to
its surface.
Electrostatic painting process

 Photocopier: it is used in computer printers to distribute toner or ink to go at the
right place
DJATSA IDRISS 45
Steps:
- Positive charges are arranged in a pattern to be copied on the surface of an insulator
drum.
- Negatively charged toner powder is sprinkled on the drum
- Only the portions of the drum with positive charges allow the toner powder to stick to
it to form the image.
- The resultant pattern is then transferred onto the paper and fixed permanently by heat.
DJATSA IDRISS 46
CHAPTER 2: CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1) ELECTRIC CURRENT
a) Definition
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charges (electrons) across any cross sectional
area of a conductor.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 (𝑸)
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰) = ⇒𝑸=𝑰𝒕
Electric current is a scalar quantity; it is measured using an ammeter. The SI unit of current is
ampere (A).
If n electrons each of charge 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪, pass through a conductor in a given time t,
𝒏𝒆
then, 𝑸 = 𝒏 𝒆 ⇒ 𝑰 = 𝑡
Direction of current flow

By convention, the direction of current is from positive terminal of a cell or battery through the
outer circuit to the negative terminal which is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
When two charged bodies at different electric potentials are connected by a metal wire, the
electric charges (electrons) will flow from the body at lower potential to the one at higher
potential.
Potential difference = Higher potential – Lower potential

b) Types of electric current
i) Direct current (DC)
It is a current that flows in one direction only. Some sources of direct current include: a cell or
a battery, DC generator.
DJATSA IDRISS 47
ii) Alternating current (AC)

It is a current that flows and reverses after equal time intervals. Some sources of alternating
current include: Power house generators, car generators…
Frequency of AC
It is the number of complete alternations or cycles per unit time. Its unit is hertz (Hz). The main
1
supply by ENEO in Cameroon is an AC and has a frequency of 50 Hz and period 𝑇 = 𝑓 =
0.02 𝑠.
Root mean square (rms) values of current and voltage
The peak value of an AC is its maximum value
The root mean square value of an AC is the direct current that will produce the same heating
effect as the AC.
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒕 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝑨𝑪 =
√𝟐
Therefore,
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 (𝑰𝟎 ) 𝑰𝟎
𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒕 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 ) = that is 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ⇒ 𝑰𝟎 =
√2 √𝟐
√𝟐 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 (𝑽𝟎 ) 𝑽𝟎
𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒕 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 ) = that is 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ⇒ 𝑽𝟎 =
√2 √𝟐
√𝟐 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
Advantages of AC over DC
 AC can be stepped up and down using transformers while DC cannot.
 AC is cheaper to generate and easier to transmit than DC
 There is less power loss during AC transmission, since the voltage can be stepped up,
lowering the current and reducing power loss due to heating.
Advantages of DC over AC
 Some household devices need only DC to function such as amplifiers, piano, Radio and
TV sets.
 AC cannot be used in electroplating
DJATSA IDRISS 48
C) Effects of an electric current

 Heating and lighting: the lamp lights because the filament inside is made white hot by
the current
 Magnetic: a compass is deflected when it is placed near the wire because a magnetic
field is produced around any wire carrying a current
 Chemical: bubbles of gas are given off at the wires in the acid because of the chemical
action of the current. This process is known as electrolysis
2) POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d) AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (e.m.f)
a) Potential difference (p.d)
The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is defined as the amount of
work done in moving a unit charge from one point to the other point.
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝑾) 𝑾
𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑽) = ⇒𝑽= ⇒ 𝑾 = 𝑸𝑽
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 (𝑸) 𝑸
p.d is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Volt (V). p.d is measured using a voltmeter.
The voltage across the terminals of a battery when it is supplying current is called potential
difference or terminal voltage.
b) Electromotive force (e.m.f)
E.m.f of a source is defined as the amount of other forms of energy converted to electrical
energy per unit charge flow leaving the source.
It is also defined as the rate of the electrical power it generates to the current it delivers.
𝑷
That is 𝑬. 𝒎. 𝒇 (𝑬) = ⇒𝑷=𝑬𝑰
𝑰
E.m.f as a p.d is also a scalar quantity of SI unit Volt (V)

Any device that provides electric current is called a seat or source of e.m.f. A current source
converts some forms of energy (chemical, mechanical, heat…) to electrical energy. Some
examples include:
 Cells or batteries which convert chemical energy into electrical energy
 Electric generators convert mechanical energy electrical energy
 Thermocouples convert heat energy into electrical energy
 Solar cells convert light energy into electrical energy.
The p.d across a source is always less than the e.m.f because voltage drops in overcoming
internal resistance.
Therefore, e.m.f is also the p.d across the battery terminals when the battery is not supplying
current.
Example: a current of magnitude 0.1 A flows through a radio set for 2 minutes
a) Calculate the charge that has passed through the radio set in this time
b) Calculate the number of electrons that passed a point in the radio circuit in this time if
𝑒 = 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶
DJATSA IDRISS 49
3) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTRIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

a) Electric circuits
An electric circuit is a complete conducting path consisting of connecting wires and other
electrical components along which an electrical current flows from one terminal of the power
source to another. Some electrical circuit symbols are given below:
b) Electric circuit diagrams

Electrical circuits are represented by drawing circuit diagrams which indicate how different
components in a circuit have been connected by using electrical symbols.
 Opened circuit: it is an incomplete conducting path joined to a power source. When
the switch is switch off, the circuit becomes opened and the circuit stops the flow of
current.
 Closed circuit: it is a complete conducting electric path joined to a power source
through which current flows continuously. When a switch is turned on, the circuit
becomes closed and current flows.
DJATSA IDRISS 50
4) CONNECTION OF AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS IN CIRCUITS
 Ammeter: an ammeter is always connected in series with other circuit components

since it measures the current flow in a circuit. Therefore, an ammeter should have a very
low resistance so that negligible energy is dissipated in it. An ideal ammeter is one
which has zero resistance.
 Voltmeter: a voltmeter is always connected in parallel to a circuit component, since it
measures the p.d across a circuit component. For this reason, a voltmeter should have a
very large resistance to avoid the voltmeter to draw a current from the circuit. An ideal
voltmeter has infinite resistance.
5) ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
a) Definitions
Electrical resistance (R) is a measure of the opposition to current flow through a device or
conductor. A good conductor has a low resistance and a poor conductor has a high resistance.
The SI unit of electrical resistance is ohm (𝛀)
A resistor is an electrical component that offers resistance to current flow in an electrical
circuit.
A Rheostat is a variable resistor used in controlling the amount of current flowing in a circuit,
that is, it varies current flowing in the circuit.
b) Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor
i) The length (l) of the conductor
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length provided temperature and
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
thickness are kept constant. 𝑹 ∞ 𝒍 ⇒ =
𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟐
ii) Cross-sectional area (A) of the conductor (or thickness of the conductor)
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross sectional area provided
𝟏
temperature and length are kept constant. 𝑹 ∞ 𝑨 ⇒ 𝑹𝟏 𝑨𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 𝑨𝟐
iii) Nature of the material

The resistance of a conductor depends of the material from which it is made.
 Silver is the best conductor but is expensive, copper the next best is cheaper and is used
for connecting wires
DJATSA IDRISS 51
 The heating elements of electrical heating appliances such as electrical iron, water iron
are made of alloys (nichrome…) because they have much higher resistivity than pure
metals and don’t undergo oxidation.
iv) Effect of temperature (𝜽)
 The resistance of all pure metals increases as temperature increases and decreases on
lowering the temperature
 The resistance of semiconductors decreases as temperature increases
 The resistance of insulators and alloys is almost unaffected by temperature.
Combining the above factors, we obtain:
𝒍 𝒍
𝑹∞ ⇒𝑹=𝝆
𝑨 𝑨
Where 𝝆 is the resistivity of the material considered. It depends on the nature of the substance
and temperature. Its unit is ohm-metre (𝛀 𝒎)
c) Resistor colour code
Modern resistors have four bands printed round them. The resistance of the resistor can be
determined using this colour code as follows:
o The first two colour bands give the first two significant figures of resistance
o The third band gives the decimal multiplier
o The last band indicates the tolerance or the percentage accuracy in percent about the
indicated value.
Colour Figure Multiplier
Black 0 100
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103 Colour Tolerance
Yellow 4 104 Gold 5%
Green 5 105 Silver 10 %
No colour 20 %
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Example: Calculate the resistance of a resistor having the following colour bands.
i) Brown, Orange, Black, Gold ii) Orange, Blue, Orange, Silver
d) Ohm’s law
It states “the current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across its ends provided temperature and other physical
factors remain constant”
That is 𝑽 ∞ 𝑰 ⇒ 𝑽 = 𝑰 𝑹
Where R is the constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor.
DJATSA IDRISS 52
Ohmic conductors are materials that obey ohm’s law, for these materials, a graph of V against
I gives a straight line through the origin. Example: Pure metals
Non Ohmic conductors are materials that don’t obey Ohm’s law, for these materials, the graph
of V against I gives a curve. Example: Lamp filament, semiconductor diode.
Experiment to investigate the V – I characteristic of a metallic conductor
Procedure:
 The metallic conductor under investigation is connected in the circuit as shown above
 The switch is closed and the ammeter reading I and voltmeter reading V are noted
 The rheostat is adjusted in steps to vary the current I flowing in the circuit. For each
value of I, the corresponding value of the voltage V is noted.
 A graph of V against I is plotted, the graph is a straight line passing through the origin,
showing that the resistance of the conductor remains constant.
Calculation:
The resistance of the conductor is the slope of the graph: 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑹) = 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆
Precaution:
The temperature of the conductor is kept constant throughout the experiment. This can be done
using a long thin conductor.
Note: The slope of current (I) against voltage (V) gives the inverse of resistance:
𝟏 𝟏
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = ⇒ 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑹) =
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑹) 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆
DJATSA IDRISS 53
e) Connection of resistors in electric circuits

i) Series connection
Resistors connected in series have:

 The same current through them and
 Different voltages across them.
Analysis: Supplied voltage 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 ⇒ 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝐼 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
Therefore, the total resistance is 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
𝑽
The total current in the circuit is given as 𝑰 = 𝑹
𝑉 𝑹𝒏
𝑉1 = 𝐼 𝑅1 = 𝑅 𝑅1 and more generally 𝑽𝒏 = 𝑽 known as the principle of potential divider
𝑹
ii) Parallel connection
Resistors connected in parallel have:

 The same p.d across them and
 Different currents through them
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Analysis: Total current supply 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
1 2 3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Therefore, the total resistance is 𝑹 = 𝑹 + 𝑹 + 𝑹
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹 𝑹
For two resistors in parallel, 𝑹 = 𝑹 + 𝑹 ⇒ 𝑹 = 𝑅 𝟏+𝑅𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 1 2
Advantages of parallel connection of bulbs over series connection

Parallel connection Series connection
Failure of one bulb has no effect on the others Failure of one bulb breaks the circuit
Bulbs can be switched on and off Bulbs cannot be turned on or off separately
independently
DJATSA IDRISS 54
Bulbs need low voltage since the total Bulbs need high voltage to light up since the
resistance is low total resistance is high
Bulbs shine brightly since they have the same Bulbs shine less brightly since they have
voltage different voltages
Examples:
a) The figure below shows a circuit operated using a 12 V battery
i) Calculate the value of R

ii) Calculate the voltmeter reading across the 4 Ω resistor
iii) Explain why the voltmeter and the ammeter are connected as shown
b) The figure below shows a closed electric circuit
i) Name the meters X and Y

j) Calculate the reading of each meter
k) State the effect on the total current if the 3 Ω resistor burns.
6) ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY
a) Electrical power
Electric power is the electric work done per unit time.
It is also defined as the rate at which electrical energy is consumed.
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑾)
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝑷) = ⇒𝑾=𝑷𝒕
Electric power is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is watt (W).
𝐼𝑉𝑡
Elsewhere, 𝑊 = 𝑄 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑊 = 𝐼 𝑡 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑃 = 𝑡
⇒𝑷=𝑽𝑰
DJATSA IDRISS 55
Similarly, 𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑉 = 𝐼 (𝐼 𝑅) ⇒ 𝑷 = 𝑹 𝑰𝟐
𝑉 𝑽𝟐
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑉 = 𝑉 (𝑅 ) ⇒ 𝑷 = 𝑹
Power rating of some electrical appliances

Every electrical appliance has a label on which we can read the power rating. The power rating
of an electrical appliance tells us the rate at which electrical energy is consumed by the
appliance. For example, a power rating of 100 W, on the bulb means that it will consume
electrical energy at the rate of 100 Joule per second.
Some common power ratings are given as follows: Electrical bulb (5 W – 100 W); Radio set
(80 W); Electric fan (100 W), TV set (120 W) and Electric iron (1500 W – 2500 W)
b) Electrical energy
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒅(𝑬) = 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝑷) 𝒙 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏(𝒕) ⇒ 𝑬 = 𝑷𝒕
Commercial unit of electrical energy: kilowatt-hour
The SI unit of electrical energy is joule (J). For commercial purposes, we use a bigger unit
called kilowatt-hour (kwh).
𝑱
𝟏 𝒌𝒘𝒉 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾)(𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒔) = 𝟑, 𝟔𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 ( ) (𝒔) = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱
𝒔
How to calculate the cost of electrical energy consumed:
Kilowatt-hour is the unit of electrical energy for which we pay to ENEO. One unit of electricity
(1 Kwh) costs from 50 F CFA to 94 F CFA
To calculate the cost of electricity consumed by an electrical appliance, we proceed as follows:
 Multiply the power of the appliance in Kilowatt by the time in hour for which the
appliance has been used to obtain the total electrical energy consumed in kwh
 Knowing the cost of 1 unit of electricity, we can find out the total cost.
Examples:
a) Suppose that ENEO supplies electricity to its customers at a unit cost of 75 F CFA. How
much will a client who uses an electric iron rated 1500 W for 2 hours every day for 30
days’ pay to the company?
b) An electric kettle with a heating element rated at 2 KW is connected to a 250 V source.
Calculate
i) The current that would flow when the element is connected to the 250 V supply
ii) The resistance of the element
iii) The heat produced by the element in 1 minute
iv) The cost to use the kettle for 5 hours, if the cost of electricity is 65 frs a unit.
7) ELECTRICAL HOUSE WIRING
a) Flex of three colour coded wires
 The live (L) wire (brown): it delivers AC voltage from the power stations. It is
therefore dangerous and capable of giving a serious electric shock. In Cameroon, the
voltage of live wire alternate between + 340 V and -340 V.
DJATSA IDRISS 56
 The neutral (N) wire (blue): it is earthed at the local power station by connecting it to
a metal plate buried in the ground. Therefore, its voltage is 0 V. touching it doesn’t give
a shock.
 The earth or ground (E) wire (green or yellow): it is a protective device which
protects users from electric shocks by conducting leakage current to earth when an
appliance is faulty. It connects the metal body of the appliance to the earth.
b) Fuse
It is a piece of thin resistant wire with a fairly melting point which protects the appliances in
the circuit and the users.
In case of a fault develops and a current higher than the normal flows in the circuit, the fuse
wire overheats and melts, thus breaking the circuit. A fuse is connected in the live wire.
The fuse value is the maximum current that a fuse can withstand. It is usually marked on the
fuse and usually slightly greater than the current normally flowing in the circuit. If the normal
current in the circuit is 5 A, then the fuse value must lie between 5.5 A and 7 A.
c) Miniature circuit breakers
Circuit breakers automatically switch off the circuit to protect the household wiring from
excessive current flow. It contains an electromagnet which when the current exceeds the rated
value of circuit breaker, it putts off a switch and breaks the circuit.
Advantages of circuit breakers over fuses
 Circuit breakers are easily resettable after a fault, but a fuse is totally damage after a
fault and can only be replaced.
 Circuit breakers have less reaction time than fuses
Advantages of fuses over circuit breakers
 Fuses are easily replaceable that circuits breakers when damaged
 Fuses are very small and circuit breakers are bulky.
d) Switches
They are used to close and open a circuit. They are always fitted in the live wire.
e) The three pin plug
Different appliances are usually connected in to the main circuit using plugs. The stud at the
right is for live wires, the left for neutral wire and the centre for the earth wire.
f) The ring main circuit
 From the poles situated in our streets, the main supply is delivered to our homes using
two insulated wires: live (L) and neutral (N) wires
 In the ring circuit, the L, N and E wires are on separate rings around the wall of the
house with both ends connected to the distribution box.
 The two wires coming out of the meter are connected to a main switch
DJATSA IDRISS 57
Advantages of the ring main circuit over linear circuit

 It reduces the risk of overloading a circuit since several sockets are in use
 It is less expensive as less material used. One cable supplies many outlets
 There are two conducting path to each socket and so, thinner cable can be used.
 Sockets in the ring circuit are connected in parallel and can be switched on and off
independently without affecting any other one.
8) HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY AND PRECAUTIONS
a) Hazards of electricity
 Touching a live wire, shocks and can lead to death
 Short-circuiting due to damaged wiring or overloading of the circuit can cause electrical
fire.
b) Precautions in the use of electricity
 If a person touches a live wire or if an electrical fire starts, the main switch should be
turned off.
 The person who happens to touch a live wire should provide an insulated support
 All high power electrical appliances should be given earth connections to avoid electric
shock.
 All the switches should be put in the live wire of the AC circuit.
9) CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
A CRO is an electronic instrument that works on the principle of deflection of electrons in an
electric field.
Functioning:
 The heater at the cathode stimulates the emission of electrons and a high voltage
between the cathode and the anode causes the electrons to flow in the form of a narrow
beam.
 The deflection system consists of two roughly parallel plates X and Y deflects the beam
when the voltages are supplied at the Y-plate.
 When the electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright spot is seen on it. An
AC voltage applied at the Y-plate, causes the electron beam to move up and down
DJATSA IDRISS 58
continuously. The waveform is displayed if the time-base (which is connected across

the X-plate) is then switched on.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Uses of a CRO:
 To measure potential difference: when an AC is applied at the Y-input of a CRO, the
peak voltage of the displayed waveform is given by:
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒙 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
- The y-sensitivity (gain control setting) is adjustable and is measured in Volt per
division (𝑽 𝒅𝒊𝒗−𝟏 )
- The time base setting is measure in second per division (𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒗−𝟏 )
 To measure period and frequency:
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 (𝑻) = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒙 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝟏
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚(𝒇) =
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 (𝑻)
DJATSA IDRISS 59
CHAPTER 3: INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
1) DEFINITIONS
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical resistivity or conductivity lies between those of
conductors and insulators.
Circuit components like diodes, transistors, operational amplifiers are made of semiconductors
materials.
 Their resistance decreases as temperature increases. They become better conductors as
temperature increases.
 Electric current in them is due to the movement of free mobile electrons and holes.
They are called charge carriers. Holes behave as particles with a positive charge equal
in magnitude to the electronic charge
 Their conductivity can greatly be improved by the addition of a small amount of suitable
impurity. The process is called doping. The impurity atoms are called dopants. Doping
increases either the number of free electrons or holes.
Semiconductors commonly used are silicon and germanium. These are tetravalent atoms with
four electrons at their outermost shell (four valence electrons)
At 0 k (absolute zero) all the valence electrons are firmly bound to the atom and the
semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
2) TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors can be classified as pure or intrinsic semiconductors and impure or
extrinsic semiconductor
a) Intrinsic semiconductors
An intrinsic semiconductor is made from a pure semiconductor material. Examples include
silicon and germanium. Electrical conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor is due to thermally
generated charge carriers (electrons and holes). In this case, the number of holes is equal to the
number of electrons. When temperature increases, the conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor increases because more electron-holes pairs are produced.
b) Extrinsic semiconductors
An extrinsic semiconductor is produced by the addition of a small amount of impurity atoms
into an intrinsic semiconductor. The charge carrier with a greater number are referred to as
majority charge carrier while those with a smaller number are referred to as minority charge
carrier.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors:
i) N-type semiconductor
DJATSA IDRISS 60
A N-type semiconductor has electrons as majority charge carriers and holes as minority charge
carriers. That is; it has more free electrons than holes.
A N-type semiconductor is obtained by the addition of a small quantity of pentavalent atoms
into the crystal lattice of an intrinsic semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent atoms include:
Phosphorus, antimony and arsenic.
The added pentavalent atoms are called donor atoms because they donate free electrons.
ii) P-type semiconductor
A P-type semiconductor has holes as majority charge carriers and electrons as minority charge
carriers. That is, it has more holes than free mobile electrons.
A P-type semiconductor is obtained by the addition of a small quantity of trivalent atoms in the
crystal lattice of an intrinsic semiconductor such as boron, aluminium, indium and gallium.
The added trivalent atoms are referred to as acceptor atoms because they accept free electrons
to fill the holes in the incomplete bonds.
3) APPLICATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE: RECTIFICATION
Rectification is the conversion of AC to DC by the use of diodes.
A diode is a device that allows the flow of current in one direction only (forward biased mode)
a) Half-wave rectification
It is the conversion of AC to DC using a single diode.
 For one half of the time, the voltage is zero and the power available from a half wave
rectified supply is reduced.
 The output voltage is always positive
DJATSA IDRISS 61
b) Full-wave rectification
It is the conversion of AC to DC using more than one diode.
The resulting output across the load (R) is full wave rectified.
 During the first half, current flows through diode 2, downwards through 3; current
cannot flow through diodes 1 and 4 since they are reversed biased.
 During the second half, current flows through diode 4, downwards through R and
through 1; current cannot flow through diodes 2 and 3 since they are reversed biased.
DJATSA IDRISS 62
MODULE IV: PROJECTS AND ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING
 Realise a model plan
 Realise a cross-section of a device
 Read a plan or a construction sheet
TECHNICAL DRAWING
1) TECHNICAL DRAWING
a) Definition
Technical drawing, drafting or drawing is the act and discipline of composing drawings that
visually communicate how something functions or is constructed.
To make the drawing easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of
measurement, notation system, visual styles and page layout. We have to distinguish artistic
drawing from technical drawing since artistic drawing are subjectively interpreted while
technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning.
Sketching is a quickly executed, freehand drawing that is usually not intended as a finished
work. In general, it is a quick way to record an idea for later use.
b) Drawing equipments
 Drawing board: the drafting paper is attached and kept straight on it.
 Pencil: they come in different harnesses and freehand drawing is generally done using
the range of 2B (softer) to 2H (harder) pencil.
 Drawing pen: for permanent lines
 Protractor: to draw accurate angle
 Compass: to draw circles and curves
 T-square: to draw parallel lines and right angles
 Ruler: to draw and measure the length of lines
 Template: contains pre-dimensioned holes to draw symbols, digits and letters.
 Drawing paper or sheet:
It is the paper on which a drawing is to be done. All technical drawings are made on
sheets of paper of defined and standard sizes. The paper vary from 𝐴0 𝑡𝑜 𝐴5 . 𝐴3 and 𝐴4
are the most commonly used paper sizes. The sizes of some drawing papers are given
by the table below (all dimensions are in mm)
DJATSA IDRISS 63
Sheet size Dimension

𝐴4 210 x 297
𝐴3 297 x 420
𝐴2 420 x 594
𝐴1 594 x 841
𝐴0 841 x 1189
Layout of a drawing sheet

A drawing sheet layout shows the title block and the border lines. The layout should
facilitate easy reading of the drawing and easy location of essential drawing references.
Drawing sheet layout

Sheet size C (mm) d (mm)
𝐴4 10 20
𝐴3 10 20
𝐴2 10 20
𝐴1 20 20
𝐴0 20 20
The required dimensions for title block for a 𝐴4 paper is 170 mm x 60 mm
Drawing sheet title block
It is a rectangular frame that is located at the bottom right hand corner of the sheet. The
title block contains the following informations:
o Title of the drawing
o Name of the enterprise or firm
o Drawing scale and units of measurement
o Projection type used
o Name of draughtsman
o Name of the person who checked the drawing and checker’s signature
o Date of drawing and subsequent modifications
DJATSA IDRISS 64
PROJECTION DRAWN BY: REMARKS

TYPE SCALE: GROUP:
DIMENSION: CHECKED BY:
GBHS DEIDO DATE: DRAWING N°: PAPER
TITLE OF DRAWING: FORMAT:
Example of a title block

c) Scale in technical drawing
Scale is used to illustrate items that are not useful or convenient to draw at their actual size.
There are three types of drawing scales namely:
 Reducing scale when the dimension on the drawing are smaller than the actual
dimensions of the object. E.g. 1:100
 Full scale the actual dimensions of the object is adopted on the drawing. The scale here
is given as 1:1
 Enlarging scale: the dimensions adopted on the drawing is larger or bigger than the
actual dimensions of the object. E.g. 5:1
d) Types of lines in technical drawing
Types of lines Name according to Uses / Applications
application
Continuous thick Visible line For visible outlines and
visible edges
Continuous thin Dimension line For imaginary lines,

Extension line hatching lines, dimension
Leader line lines.
Continuous thin freehand For limits of partial or

… interrupted views and
sections
Dashed thick line Hidden line For hidden outlines and
hidden edges
-----------
Chain thin Center line For center lines, lines of
symmetry
Precedence of lines:
Frequently in orthogonal drawing visible outlines, hidden outlines and centre lines coincide.
The order of importance of the lines is given as:
𝐕𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 → 𝐇𝐢𝐝𝐝𝐞𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 → 𝐂𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
 Visible outlines are always shown in preference to hidden outlines or centre lines
 Hidden outlines are shown in preference to centre lines
DJATSA IDRISS 65
e) Lettering
Writing of titles, dimensions, notes and other important particulars on a drawing is
called lettering. For this purpose, two styles of letters are available; the vertical letters
and the inclined letters.
o ABCEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890
o ABCEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890
o All letters should be uniform in shape, slope, size, shade and spacing. The shape
and slope of every letter should be uniform throughout a drawing.
o For maintaining uniformity in size, thin and light guide lines may first be drawn
and lettering may then be done between them.
f) Dimensioning
A dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and
used to define the size, location, orientation, form or other geometric characteristics of
a part.
Dimension basic terminology
 A dimension line: it is a thin continuous line often broken at the middle to allow the
placement of dimension line
 A note: it refers to the written word used along with a dimension or explanatory
information
 An extension line: it is a thin continuous line drawn to extend an outline of an object
to the dimension line.
 An arrowhead: it is placed at each end of a dimension line
 A leader line: it is a thin continuous line used to connect a dimension with a particular
area. It starts from a size or a note ends.
Fundamental rules of dimensioning
 The size and position of each feature is defined only once.
 Place dimensions outside of the views except for large circles.
 Keep dimensions at least 10 mm from the view.
 Place longer dimensions outside of shorter ones.
 Use arrow heads at the end of the dimension lines.
 Units are omitted from the dimension numbers since they are normally understood to
be in millimetres
 All overall dimensions for the object are shown.
 Dimensions are not duplicated in two views
 Whenever possible, dimensions are not given to hidden lines.
 Dimension lines do not cross other dimension lines or witness lines.
Types of dimensioning
 Parallel dimensioning: It consists of several dimensions originating from one
projection line.
DJATSA IDRISS 66
 Chain dimensioning:
 Combined dimensioning:
Some examples of dimensioning

 Dimensioning in general
 Dimensioning diameters
DJATSA IDRISS 67
 Dimensioning radii
2) PROJECTION
Projection is a process in which the rays of sight are taken in a particular direction from
an object to form an image on a plane
a) Perspective projection
Perspective drawing requires that the object should be positioned at a finite distance and
viewed from a single point (station point). Objects are represented more realistically
than other drawings. Perspective drawings show three-dimensional objects in a single
as they appear to our eye.
b) Parallel projection
Requires that the object should be positioned at infinity and viewed from multiple
points on an imaginary line parallel to the object.
DJATSA IDRISS 68
c) Orthographic projection
Orthographic projection is a method of producing a number of separate two-
dimensional inter-related views, which are mutually at right angles to each other. Using
this projection, even the most complex shape can be fully described.
Orthographic projection is based on two principal planes one horizontal (HP) and one
vertical (VP) intersecting each other.
d) Standard orthographic projection

Two standards are commonly in use in orthographic projection of drawing:
 The First Angle Projection (European projection)
Here the front view is the reference and others views are drawn as shadows of that view.
That is the left hand side view for instance is drawn on the right side of the front view;
similarly, the top view (plan) is drawn at the bottom of the front view…
 The Third Angle Projection (American projection)
Here the front is the reference as in first angle projection, and the other views are drawn
as reflections of that view. The left hand side view is drawn on the left hand side of the
front view. Similarly, the top view (plan) is drawn at the top of the front view.
Symbol of first angle projection Symbol of third angle projection
DJATSA IDRISS 69
The two standards are compared in the table below:

First angle projection Third angle projection
The object is kept in the first quadrant The object is kept in the third quadrant
The object lies between the observer and the The plane of projection lies between the
plane of projection observer and the object
The plane of projection is assumed to be The plane of projection is assumed to be
non-transparent transparent
The top view comes below the front view The top view comes above the front view
e) Orthographic views
In orthographic projection there are six views and three views are usually drawn. The
orthographic view depends on relative position of the object to the line of sight.
 The Front View (FV): this view generally serves to represent the object in the most
common position in which it is used. It is the first view to be drawn, other views
following thereafter.
 The Rear View: it is directly opposite the FV at the back of the object.
 Right Hand Side View (RHSV) and Left Hand Side View (LHSV) appear on the right
and the left sides of the object respectively
 The Top and Bottom views are at the top and bottom sides of the FV.
The laying out of orthographic views depends on the standard used (first or third angle
projection). Examples of laying out are shown for the figure giving below.
DJATSA IDRISS 70
First angle projection
Third angle projection.

Example:
The figure shown below is isometric pictorial drawing, study the drawing and using 1st and
3rd angle of projection with scale of 1:1 draw the following:
• A front view in direction "A".
• Side view in direction "B".
DJATSA IDRISS 71
• Top view in direction "C"
3) CROSS SECTION OF AN OBJECT

Section: The surface produced by cutting an object by the section plane is called section.
Sectional view: The projection of the section along with the remaining part of the object
is called sectional view.
Cutting plane or section plane: the imaginary plane by which the object is assumed to
be cut through. It is assumed to be parallel to the plane on which the view is projected.
Cutting plane line: The position of the cutting plane is indicated by these line. The
direction of viewing the section is shown by arrows resting on the cutting plane line and
designated by capital letter. e.g. A-A
Section line: Section lines or cross-hatch lines are used to indicate the surfaces that are
cut by the cutting plane.
Section lines symbols: the section lines are different for each of material’s type. For
practical purpose, the cast iron symbol is used most often for any materials.
DJATSA IDRISS 72
Section Lining Technique: the spaces between lines may vary from 1.5 mm for small
sections to 3 mm for large sections.
Types of Section Views:

 Full sections: In a full section view, when the object is assumed to be cut through
entirely and the front half removed. Note that hidden lines become visible in a section
view.
Worked example: Sketch a full section of the object shown below
a) Diagram b) Solution
 Half sections: It may be assumed to be cut by two cutting planes at right angle to each
other and containing two centre lines of the object. The one quarter of the object between
two plane is then removed showing only a half section.
DJATSA IDRISS 73
4) READING OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

Reading a technical drawing consists of trying to understand and reconstruct the object
drawn.
Reading a technical drawing can therefore make it possible to:
 Produce a mock-up (model) from a construction sheet
 Realise the perspective of an object from the orthographic projections (orthographic
views)
 Complete a drawing or correct any errors in it.
Example: complete the different views if necessary of the followings technical drawings.
a) b)
DJATSA IDRISS 74

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PHYSICS FORM FOUR GBHS DEIDO

MODULE I: ENERGY, APPLICATION AND USES

1) CONCEPT OF HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

2) MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE: THERMOMETRY

𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 = 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑿𝟎

c) Other types of thermometers

Constant volume gas thermometer

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂 𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 (𝑸)

The law of conservation of energy shows:

Where 𝑐𝑠 is the specific heat capacity of the solid

Where 𝑐𝑙 is the specific heat capacity of the liquid

 The calorimeter is lagged to minimize heat loss to the surrounding by conduction

CHAPTER 3: EFFECT OF HEAT, THERMAL EXPANSION AND CHANGE OF

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation

The temperature remains constant at BC as the Naphthalene freezes.

The specific heat capacity is measured in J kg −1

a) In which state is the substance in the region

CHAPTER 4: THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER

c) Experiment to show that different materials conduct heat at different rate

MODULE II: WAVES

REAL LIFE SITUATION

CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF WAVES

1) DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES

E.g: Gamma rays, X-rays, UV rays, Microwaves, Radiowaves…

Displacement – distance graph

Displacement – time graph

e) Wave speed (v)

In one period (T),

Refraction of water wave from deep to shallow water

𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1

a) Calculate the wavelength of the wave

c) Harmonics and overtones

CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

EM WAVES, their production and their characteristics

CHAPTER 3: SOUND WAVES

1) NATURE OF SOUND AND PRODUCTION OF SOUND

CHAPTER 3: FORCED VIBRATIONS AND RESONANCE

b) The tension in the string

c) The thickness or the mass per unit length

Therefore, combining the three factors, we obtain:

𝒍 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

2) PORCED VIBRATIONS AND RESONANCE

Desirable applications of resonance

By subtracting the equation (1) from (2) we have 𝝀 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )

MODULE III: ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Electrostatics is the study of electricity at rest. It is also referred to as static electricity.

Coulomb’s law of electrostatics

𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠

b) Experiments with the gold leaf electroscope

iii) To identify insulators and conductors

If the leaf falls slowly, then the material is a poor conductor

6) HAZARDS OF ELECTROSTATICS CHARGING

Electrostatic painting process

CHAPTER 2: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Direction of current flow

Potential difference = Higher potential – Lower potential

ii) Alternating current (AC)

C) Effects of an electric current