Introduction to Computer Networks:

Computer networks play a crucial role in the modern world by facilitating communication and data
exchange among connected devices. They enable sharing resources, information, and services,
leading to increased efficiency and collaboration. Here's an overview of key concepts related to
computer networks:

1. Goals and Applications:

 Goals: The primary goals of computer networks include sharing resources, providing
reliable communication, facilitating data exchange, and improving efficiency.

 Applications: Computer networks are used in various applications, such as file

sharing, printing, email communication, video conferencing, internet access, and
distributed computing.

2. Data Communication: Data Flow:

 Data Communication: It involves the transmission of data between devices through

a medium, such as cables or wireless signals.

 Data Flow: Data flows through a network in the form of packets, which are discrete
units of information. Protocols govern the rules for data communication, ensuring
that devices can understand and interpret the transmitted data.

3. Networks: Point-to-Point Connections, Multipoint Connections:

For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link
at the same time. There are two possible types of connections:

1. Point-to-Point Connection

2. Multipoint Connection

Point-to-Point Connection:

1. A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

2. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

3. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two
ends, but other options such as microwave or satellite links are also possible.

4. Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most
conventional networks
topologies.

5. It is also the simplest to establish and understand.

Example: Point-to-Point connection between the remote control and Television for changing
the channels.
 Here are some features of different line configurations in computer networks:

Point-to-Point:

 Uses a dedicated link to connect two devices

 Simple and easy to set up

 Limited to two devices only

 Does not require a network interface card (NIC) or a hub/switch

 Can become complex and difficult to manage as the network grows

Multipoint:

 Uses a single link to connect three or more devices

 More complex than point-to-point configuration

 Can be more efficient and cost-effective for larger networks

 Devices share the same link, which can lead to collisions and lower performance

 Commonly used in LANs and MANs

Star:

 All devices in the network are connected to a central hub or switch

 Easy to manage and troubleshoot

 Provides good performance and reliability

 A single point of failure (the hub or switch) can affect the entire network

 Requires additional hardware and cabling

 Mesh:

 Every device is connected to every other device in the network

 Provides the highest level of reliability and redundancy

 Can handle high traffic and heavy loads

 Very expensive and difficult to manage

 Commonly used in mission-critical networks and large WANs

Choosing the right line configuration depends on the specific needs of the network,
including factors such as the size of the network, the type of data being transmitted, the
level of reliability required, and the available resources. Different line configurations can
offer various advantages and disadvantages, and the optimal configuration will depend on
the specific use case.

Advantages of Point-to-Point Connection:

1. High Bandwidth: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two

devices, which means that the entire capacity of the link is reserved for the two devices. As a
result, point-to-point connections usually offer high bandwidth, which makes them suitable
for transferring large amounts of data quickly.

2. Security: Point-to-point connections are more secure than multipoint connections because
the link is dedicated to only two devices. There is no risk of other devices eavesdropping on
the communication or interfering with it in any way.

3. Reliability: Because a point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two

devices, it is usually more reliable than a shared link. If there is a problem with the link, it is
easier to troubleshoot and fix because there are only two devices involved.

4. Reduced Latency: Point-to-point connections offer lower latency than multipoint

connections because there is no contention for the link. This means that data can be
transmitted more quickly, which is especially important for real-time applications such as
video conferencing or online gaming.
5. Increased Control: Point-to-point connections provide greater control over network traffic
and bandwidth allocation. This allows for more efficient use of network resources and can
help to prevent issues such as network congestion and bottlenecks.

6. Improved Performance: Point-to-point connections can improve network performance by

reducing packet loss and increasing the speed of data transmission. This can lead to faster
data transfers, improved application performance, and a better overall user experience.

7. Distance: Point-to-point connections can be established over longer distances than

multipoint connections. This is because the dedicated link provides a stronger signal, which
can travel further without losing strength.

8. Cost-Effective: Point-to-point connections can be cost-effective in certain situations, such as

connecting two buildings or offices that are located far apart. In some cases, it may be more
cost-effective to establish a point-to-point connection than to invest in a more complex
multipoint network.

9. Easy to Manage: Point-to-point connections are easy to manage because there are only two
devices involved. This reduces the complexity of network administration and makes it easier
to troubleshoot problems if they arise.

Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Connection:

1. Cost: Setting up a point-to-point connection can be more expensive than setting up a shared
link. This is because a dedicated link requires its own infrastructure, such as cables, routers,
and switches.

2. Scalability: Point-to-point connections are not easily scalable, as they require a separate link
for each pair of devices. This can be a limitation for large networks that require many
devices to be connected.

3. Maintenance: Because a point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two

devices, it requires more maintenance than a shared link. If there is a problem with the link,
it is the responsibility of the network administrator to troubleshoot and fix it.

4. Limited Flexibility: Point-to-point connections offer limited flexibility compared to

multipoint connections because they only allow communication between two devices. This
can be a limitation for applications that require collaboration or coordination between
multiple devices.

5. Time-consuming Installation: Setting up a point-to-point connection can be time-

consuming, as it requires a dedicated link to be established between two devices. This can
be a disadvantage in situations where time is critical, such as in emergency response
situations.

6. Vulnerability to Failure: Point-to-point connections are vulnerable to failure if there is a

problem with one of the devices or the link itself. This can lead to downtime and disruption
of network services, which can be costly for businesses.

7. Limited Redundancy: Point-to-point connections offer limited redundancy compared to

multipoint connections, as there is no alternative link available if the primary link fails. This
can be a disadvantage in situations where high availability is critical, such as in mission-
critical applications.
8. Limited Collaboration: Point-to-point connections limit collaboration between multiple
devices, which can be a disadvantage in situations where multiple devices need to work
together to achieve a common goal. This can be a limitation for applications such as video
conferencing or online gaming.

9. Limited Interoperability: Point-to-point connections may have limited interoperability with

other devices or networks. This can be a disadvantage in situations where multiple devices
or networks need to communicate with each other.

Multipoint Connection :

1. It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection, two or more devices share a
single link.

2. If more than two devices share the link then the channel is considered a ‘shared channel’.
With shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line configuration:

Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, it’s called Spatially
shared line configuration.

Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link, then it’s called Temporally
shared or Time Shared Line configuration.

Advantages of Multipoint Connection:

1. Cost-Effective: Multipoint connections are usually less expensive than point-to-point

connections because they allow multiple devices to share the same resources, such as
cables, routers, and switches.

2. Scalability: Multipoint connections are more scalable than point-to-point connections

because they allow multiple devices to be connected to the same link. This makes them
suitable for large networks that require many devices to be connected.

3. Flexibility: Multipoint connections are more flexible than point-to-point connections

because they allow multiple devices to communicate with each other over the same link.
This makes them suitable for applications that require collaboration or coordination
between multiple devices.
4. Increased Efficiency: Multipoint connections can improve network efficiency by allowing
multiple devices to transmit data simultaneously. This reduces the chances of network
congestion and improves overall network performance.

5. Simplified Management: Multipoint connections simplify network management by reducing

the number of physical connections that need to be managed. This reduces the complexity
of network administration and makes it easier to troubleshoot problems.

6. Enhanced Collaboration: Multipoint connections enable multiple users to collaborate in

real-time, regardless of their location. This allows teams to work together more efficiently
and effectively, improving productivity and reducing delays.

7. Improved Reliability: Multipoint connections can improve network reliability by providing

redundant paths for data transmission. If one path fails, data can be automatically rerouted
through another path, ensuring that network connectivity is maintained.

8. Greater Access: Multipoint connections can provide greater access to network resources,
such as servers, printers, and storage devices. This allows users to share resources and
collaborate more effectively, improving productivity and reducing costs.

9. Improved Security: Multipoint connections can improve network security by allowing for
centralized monitoring and control of network traffic. This makes it easier to detect and
prevent security threats, such as unauthorized access or data breaches.

Disadvantages of Multipoint Connection:

1. Limited Bandwidth: Multipoint connections usually offer limited bandwidth because the link
is shared by multiple devices. As a result, the speed of the link may be affected by the
number of devices using it.

2. Security: Multipoint connections are less secure than point-to-point connections because
the link is shared by multiple devices. There is a risk of other devices eavesdropping on the
communication or interfering with it in some way.

3. Reliability: Multipoint connections are less reliable than point-to-point connections because
the link is shared by multiple devices. If there is a problem with the link, it can affect multiple
devices, which can be difficult to troubleshoot and fix.

4. Latency: Multipoint connections may have higher latency than point-to-point connections
due to the increased number of devices accessing the same link. This can lead to delays in
data transmission and affect the overall performance of the network.

5. Complexity: Multipoint connections can be more complex to set up and configure than
point-to-point connections. This is because multiple devices need to be connected and
configured to work together on the same link, which can be challenging to manage.

6. Network Congestion: Multipoint connections can be prone to network congestion,

especially during peak usage periods. When multiple devices are using the same link
simultaneously, it can cause a bottleneck, resulting in slower network speeds and
performance issues.

7. Limited Control: Multipoint connections may provide limited control over network traffic
and bandwidth allocation. This can result in some devices consuming more bandwidth than
others, leading to issues such as slow network speeds and poor performance.
 8. Interference: Multipoint connections may be more susceptible to interference from external
sources such as electromagnetic interference or radio-frequency interference. This can lead
to degraded network performance and connectivity issues.

9. Limited Distance: Multipoint connections may be limited in terms of distance due to the
shared nature of the link. As the distance increases, the signal strength may weaken, leading
to connectivity issues and lower network performance.

4. Categories of Networks: LAN, WAN, MAN:

 Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers a small geographic area,
like a single building or a campus. It allows for high-speed data transfer and is
commonly used in offices and homes.

 Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN spans a larger geographic area, connecting
LANs over long distances. The internet is a prime example of a global WAN.

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MANs cover a city or a large campus, providing
connectivity between multiple LANs within that geographic area.

5. Protocols and Standards:

 Protocols: These are rules or conventions governing how data is transmitted and
received in a network. Examples include TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) for internet communication.

 Standards: Standards ensure compatibility and interoperability among different

network devices. Organizations like the IEEE and ISO establish standards for various
aspects of networking, such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi standards.

Types of Internet Protocols

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Internet Protocols are a set of rules that governs the communication and exchange of data over the
internet. Both the sender and receiver should follow the same protocols in order to communicate
the data. In order to understand it better, let’s take an example of a language. Any language has its
own set of vocabulary and grammar which we need to know if we want to communicate in that
language. Similarly, over the internet whenever we access a website or exchange some data with
another device then these processes are governed by a set of rules called the internet protocols.

Working of Internet Protocol

The internet and many other data networks work by organizing data into small pieces called packets.
Each large data sent between two network devices is divided into smaller packets by the underlying
hardware and software. Each network protocol defines the rules for how its data packets must be
organized in specific ways according to the protocols the network supports.

Need of Protocols

It may be that the sender and receiver of data are parts of different networks, located in different
parts of the world having different data transfer rates. So, we need protocols to manage the flow
control of data, and access control of the link being shared in the communication channel. Suppose
there is a sender X who has a data transmission rate of 10 Mbps. And, there is a receiver Y who has a
data receiving rate of 5Mbps. Since the rate of receiving the data is slow so some data will be lost
during transmission. In order to avoid this, receiver Y needs to inform sender X about the speed
mismatch so that sender X can adjust its transmission rate. Similarly, the access control decides the
node which will access the link shared in the communication channel at a particular instant in time.
If not the transmitted data will collide if many computers send data simultaneously through the
same link resulting in the corruption or loss of data.

What is IP Addressing?

An IP address represents an Internet Protocol address. A unique address that identifies the device
over the network. It is almost like a set of rules governing the structure of data sent over the
Internet or through a local network. An IP address helps the Internet to distinguish between
different routers, computers, and websites. It serves as a specific machine identifier in a specific
network and helps to improve visual communication between source and destination.

Types of Internet Protocol

Internet Protocols are of different types having different uses. These are mentioned below:

1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

3. PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol)

6. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)

8. TELNET(Terminal Network)

9. POP3(Post Office Protocol 3)

10. IPv4

11. IPv6

12. ICMP

13. UDP

14. IMAP

15. SSH
 16. Gopher

1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

These are a set of standard rules that allows different types of computers to communicate with each
other. The IP protocol ensures that each computer that is connected to the Internet is having a
specific serial number called the IP address. TCP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet
and how it should be broken into IP packets. It also makes sure that the packets have information
about the source of the message data, the destination of the message data, the sequence in which
the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the
specific destination. The TCP is also known as a connection-oriented protocol.

For more details, please refer TCP/IP Model article.

2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

These protocols are important for sending and distributing outgoing emails. This protocol uses the
header of the mail to get the email id of the receiver and enters the mail into the queue of outgoing
mail. And as soon as it delivers the mail to the receiving email id, it removes the email from the
outgoing list. The message or the electronic mail may consider the text, video, image, etc. It helps in
setting up some communication server rules.

3. PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)

It is a communication protocol that is used to create a direct connection between two

communicating devices. This protocol defines the rules using which two devices will authenticate
with each other and exchange information with each other. For example, A user connects his PC to
the server of an Internet Service Provider and also uses PPP. Similarly, for connecting two routers for
direct communication it uses PPP.

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

This protocol is used for transferring files from one system to the other. This works on a client-server
model. When a machine requests for file transfer from another machine, the FTO sets up a
connection between the two and authenticates each other using their ID and Password. And, the
desired file transfer takes place between the machines.

5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol)

SFTP which is also known as SSH FTP refers to File Transfer Protocol (FTP) over Secure Shell (SSH) as
it encrypts both commands and data while in transmission. SFTP acts as an extension to SSH and
encrypts files and data then sends them over a secure shell data stream. This protocol is used to
remotely connect to other systems while executing commands from the command line.

6. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

This protocol is used to transfer hypertexts over the internet and it is defined by the www(world
wide web) for information transfer. This protocol defines how the information needs to be
formatted and transmitted. And, it also defines the various actions the web browsers should take in
response to the calls made to access a particular web page. Whenever a user opens their web
browser, the user will indirectly use HTTP as this is the protocol that is being used to share text,
images, and other multimedia files on the World Wide Web.

Note: Hypertext refers to the special format of the text that can contain links to other texts.
7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)

HTTPS is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used for secure communication
over a computer network with the SSL/TLS protocol for encryption and authentication. So, generally,
a website has an HTTP protocol but if the website is such that it receives some sensitive information
such as credit card details, debit card details, OTP, etc then it requires an SSL certificate installed to
make the website more secure. So, before entering any sensitive information on a website, we
should check if the link is HTTPS or not. If it is not HTTPS then it may not be secure enough to enter
sensitive information.

8. TELNET(Terminal Network)

TELNET is a standard TCP/IP protocol used for virtual terminal service given by ISO. This enables one
local machine to connect with another. The computer which is being connected is called a remote
computer and which is connecting is called the local computer. TELNET operation lets us display
anything being performed on the remote computer in the local computer. This operates on the
client/server principle. The local computer uses the telnet client program whereas the remote
computer uses the telnet server program.

9. POP3(Post Office Protocol 3)

POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol version 3. It has two Message Access Agents (MAAs) where one
is client MAA (Message Access Agent) and another is server MAA(Message Access Agent) for
accessing the messages from the mailbox. This protocol helps us to retrieve and manage emails from
the mailbox on the receiver mail server to the receiver’s computer. This is implied between the
receiver and the receiver mail server. It can also be called a one-way client-server protocol. The
POP3 WORKS ON THE 2 PORTS I.E. PORT 110 AND PORT 995.

10. IPv4

The fourth and initially widely used version of the Internet Protocol is called IPv4 (Internet Protocol
version 4). It is the most popular version of the Internet Protocol and is in charge of distributing data
packets throughout the network. Maximum unique addresses for IPv4 are 4,294,967,296 (232),
which are possible due to the use of 32-bit addresses. The network address and the host address are
the two components of each address. The host address identifies a particular device within the
network, whereas the network address identifies the network to which the host belongs. In the
“dotted decimal” notation, which is the standard for IPv4 addresses, each octet (8 bits) of the
address is represented by its decimal value and separated by a dot (e.g. 192.168.1.1).

11. IPv6

The most recent version of the Internet Protocol, IPv6, was created to address the IPv4 protocol’s
drawbacks. A maximum of 4.3 billion unique addresses are possible with IPv4’s 32-bit addresses.
Contrarily, IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, which enable a significantly greater number of unique
addresses. This is significant because IPv4 addresses were running out and there are an increasing
number of devices that require internet access. Additionally, IPv6 offers enhanced security features
like integrated authentication and encryption as well as better support for mobile devices. IPv6
support has spread among websites and internet service providers, and it is anticipated to gradually
displace IPv4 as the main internet protocol.

For more details, please refer Differences between IPv4 and IPv6 article.

12. ICMP
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a network protocol that is used to send error messages
and operational information about network conditions. It is an integral part of the Internet Protocol
(IP) suite and is used to help diagnose and troubleshoot issues with network connectivity. ICMP
messages are typically generated by network devices, such as routers, in response to errors or
exceptional conditions encountered in forwarding a datagram. Some examples of ICMP messages
include:

 Echo Request and Echo Reply (ping)

 Destination Unreachable

 Time Exceeded

 Redirect

ICMP can also be used by network management tools to test the reachability of a host and measure
the round-trip time for packets to travel from the source to the destination and back. It should be
noted that ICMP is not a secure protocol, it can be used in some types of network attacks
like DDoS amplification.

13. UDP

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless, unreliable transport layer protocol. Unlike TCP, it
does not establish a reliable connection between devices before transmitting data, and it does not
guarantee that data packets will be received in the order they were sent or that they will be received
at all. Instead, UDP simply sends packets of data to a destination without any error checking or flow
control. UDP is typically used for real-time applications such as streaming video and audio, online
gaming, and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) where a small amount of lost data is acceptable and
low latency is important. UDP is faster than TCP because it has less overhead. It doesn’t need to
establish a connection, so it can send data packets immediately. It also doesn’t need to wait for
confirmation that the data was received before sending more, so it can transmit data at a higher
rate.

14. IMAP

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is a protocol used for retrieving emails from a mail server.
It allows users to access and manage their emails on the server, rather than downloading them to a
local device. This means that the user can access their emails from multiple devices and the emails
will be synced across all devices. IMAP is more flexible than POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) as
it allows users to access and organize their emails on the server, and also allows multiple users to
access the same mailbox.

15. SSH

SSH (Secure Shell) is a protocol used for secure remote login and other secure network services. It
provides a secure and encrypted way to remotely access and manage servers, network devices, and
other computer systems. SSH uses public-key cryptography to authenticate the user and encrypt the
data being transmitted, making it much more secure than traditional remote login protocols such as
Telnet. SSH also allows for secure file transfers using the SCP (Secure Copy) and SFTP (Secure File
Transfer Protocol) protocols. It is widely used in Unix-based operating systems and is also available
for Windows. It is commonly used by system administrators, developers, and other technical users
to remotely access and manage servers and other network devices.
16. Gopher

Gopher is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with some description for
easy management, retrieving, and searching of files. All the files are arranged on a remote computer
in a stratified manner. It is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.

Understanding these fundamental concepts is essential for anyone delving into the field of computer
networks, whether for professional development or academic pursuits.