ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering

LABORATORY
MANUAL
FOR
Electronic Devices and Circuits Laboratory
B.Tech. ECE II Year I Sem
Prepared by

M.VARALAXMI
Assistant Professor

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to JNTUH Hyderabad)
KSP Road, New Palvancha – 507115, Bhadradri-Kothagudem, Dist., Telangana State.
Website: www.abit.ac.in Email Id: abitjntu@gmail.com Cell: +91-9246907407

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 1

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
VISION:

The department of Electronics & Communication Engineering to strive and create engineering
technocrats for addressing the global challenges in relevant areas to cater the changing needs of
society at National and International level.

MISSION:

To ensure dissemination of knowledge through effective teaching and learning in

DM1
Electronics & Communication Engineering.

DM2 To excel in research and development activities in emerging areas.

To promote industry institute and institute linkage of sustainable development of

DM3
academic, research, training, and placement activities.

To establish center of excellence in trust areas to nurture the spirit of innovation and
DM4
creativity among faculty and students.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 2

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

PROGRAM OUTCOMES

1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.

2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design/Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for
the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations

4. Conduct Investigations of Complex Problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern Tool Usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.

6. The Engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.

9. Individual and Team Work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 3

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

11. Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

12. Life-long Learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological change.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 4

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’s)

To be well acquainted with fundamentals of Electronics & Communication

PEO 1 Engineering for leading a successful career in industry or as an entrepreneur or
pursuing higher education.
To produce graduates with communicative, leadership & organizational skills and to
PEO 2
inculcate professional ethics and lifelong learning attitude.

To foster techno-commercial skills for innovative solutions in Electronics &

PEO 3
Communication Engineering or related areas.

To participate in life-long learning in the relevant domain for addressing global

PEO 4
societal needs.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)

Ability to solve real world problems in Electronics and Communication Engineering

PSO 1
using state of art techniques, along with analytical and managerial skills.

Ability to participate successfully in competitive examinations, career advancement

PSO 2
and higher studies with professional ethics.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 5

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBJECTIVES & OUTCOMES OF THE COURSE

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

To let the students built the electronic circuits on breadboard and multisim or pspice, interpret basic
concepts of different semiconductor components, demonstrate their working in the circuits, evaluate
performance parameters and plot the characteristics.

COURSE OUTCOMES:

Upon completing this course, the student will be able to

The students will be able to interpret the basic concepts of different semiconductor
components as a group & individual.
The students will be able to demonstrate the working of semiconductor devices in different
electronic circuits as a group & individual.
The students will be able to evaluate different performance parameters of semiconductor
devices and various electronics circuits like oscillators, multivibrators, amplifiers, etc.
The students will be able to explain the plot of characteristics of semiconductor devices and
various electronics circuits like oscillators, multivibrators, amplifiers, etc. as a group &
individual.
The students will be able to build the electronic circuit on breadboard and Multisim or Pspice,
examine and show its working as a group & individual.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 6

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION ABOUT THE LAB

In EDC Lab, the students will study and analyze the basic electronic devices like different diodes,
BJTs and JFETs. Rectifiers are introduced and their performances with different types of filters are
observed. The basic amplifier circuit is designed and its frequency response characteristics are
observed. With this knowledge students, will be able to do mini-projects with the help of diodes and
transistors.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 7

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

LABORATORY RULES

General Rules of Conduct in Laboratories:

1. You are expected to arrive on time and not depart before the end of a laboratory.
2. You must not enter a lab unless you have permission from a technician or lecturer.
3. You are expected to comply with instructions, written or oral, that the laboratory Instructor
gives you during the laboratory session.
4. You should behave in an orderly fashion always in the lab.
5. You must not stand on the stools or benches in the laboratory.
6. Keep the workbench tidy and do not place coats and bags on the benches.
7. You must ensure that at the end of the laboratory session all equipment used is stored away
where you found it.
8. You must put all rubbish such as paper outside in the corridor bins. Broken components
should be returned to the lab technician for safe disposal.
9. You must not remove test equipment, test leads or power cables from any lab without
permission.
10. Eating, smoking and drinking in the laboratories are forbidden.
11. The use of mobile phones during laboratory sessions is forbidden.
12. The use of email or messaging software for personal communications during laboratory
sessions is forbidden.
13. Playing computer games in laboratories is forbidden.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 8

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Specific Safety Rules for Laboratories:

1. You must not damage or tamper with the equipment or leads.

2. You should inspect laboratory equipment for visible damage before using it. If there is a
problem with a piece of equipment, report it to the technician or lecturer. DONOT return
equipment to a storage area. 3. You should not work on circuits where the supply voltage
exceeds 40 volts without very specific approval from your lab supervisor. If you need to work
on such circuits, you should contact your supervisor for approval and instruction on how to
do this safely before commencing the work.
3. Always use an appropriate stand for holding your soldering iron.
4. Turn off your soldering iron if it is unlikely to be used for more than 10 minutes.
5. Never leave a hot soldering iron unattended.
6. Never touch a soldering iron element or bit unless the iron has been disconnected from the
mains and has had adequate time to cool down.
7. Never strip insulation from a wire with your teeth or a knife, always use an appropriate wire
stripping tool.
8. Shield wire with your hands when cutting it with a pliers to prevent bits of wire flying about
the bench.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 9

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
EC306PC: ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LAB

B.Tech. II Year I Sem. L TPC

0 0 2 1
List of Experiments (Twelve experiments to be done):

Verify any twelve experiments in H/W Laboratory

1. PN Junction diode characteristics A) Forward bias B) Reverse bias.

2. Zener diode characteristics and Zener as voltage Regulator.

3. Full Wave Rectifier with & without filters.

4. Input and output characteristics of BJT in CE Configuration.

5. Input and output characteristics of FE in CS Configuration.

6. Common Emitter Amplifier Characteristics.

7. Common Base Amplifier Characteristics.

8. Common Source amplifier Characteristics.

9. Measurement of h-parameters of transistor in CB, CE, CC configurations.

10. Switching characteristics of a transistor.

11. SCR Characteristics.

12. Types of Clippers at different reference voltages.

13. Types of Clampers at different reference voltages.

14. The steady state output waveform of clampers for a square wave input.

Major Equipments Required for Laboratories:

1. Regulated Power Suppliers, 0-30V

2. 20 MHz, Dual Channel Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes.
3. Functions Generators-Sine and Square wave signals
4. Multimeters
5. Electronic Components

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 10

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

S. No EXPERIMENT NAME PAGE No

1. PN Junction diode characteristics A) Forward bias B) Reverse bias. 38
2. Zener diode characteristics and Zener as voltage Regulator. 42
3. Full Wave Rectifier with & without filters. 47
4. Input and output characteristics of BJT in CE Configuration. 52
5. Input and output characteristics of FE in CS Configuration. 56
6. Common Emitter Amplifier Characteristics. 60
7. Common Base Amplifier Characteristics. 66
8. Common Source amplifier Characteristics. 70
9. Measurement of h-parameters of transistor in CB, CE, CC configurations. 74
10. Switching characteristics of a transistor. 79
11. SCR Characteristics. 83
12. Types of Clippers at different reference voltages. 87
13. Types of Clampers at different reference voltages. 91
14. The steady state output waveform of clampers for a square wave input. 101

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 11

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR EDC LAB:

1. BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

1.1 COLOUR CODING OF RESISTORS
1.2 COLOUR CODING OF CAPACITORS
1.3 COLOUR CODING OF INDUCTORS
2. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
3. STUDY OF CRO
4. STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR
5. STUDY OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
6. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BOARD

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 12

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

1. BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR:

Colour Codes are used to identify the value of resistor. The numbers to the Colour
are identified in the following sequence which is remembered as BBROY
GREAT BRITAN VERY GOOD WIFE (BBROYGBVGW) and their
assignment is listed in following table.

Table 1: Colour codes of resistor

Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Table 2: Procedure to find the value of resistor using colour codes

First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold ( 5%) and
sometimes silver (10%).
Starting from the other end, identify the first band - write down the
number associated with that color
Now read the next color, so write down a its value next to the first value.
Now read the third or 'multiplier exponent' band and write down that as
the number of zeros.
If the 'multiplier exponent' band is Gold move the decimal point one to
the left. If the 'multiplier exponent' band is Silver move the decimal point
two places to the left. If the resistor has one more band past the tolerance
band it is a quality band.
Read the number as the '% Failure rate per 1000 hour' This is rated
assuming full wattage being applied to the resistors. (To get better failure
rates, resistors are typically specified to have twice the needed wattage
dissipation that the circuit produces). Some resistors use this band for
temco information. 1% resistors have three bands to read digits to the
left of the multiplier. They have a different temperature coefficient in
order to provide the 1% tolerance. At 1% the temperature coefficient
starts to become an important factor. at +/-200 ppm a change in
temperature of 25 Deg C causes a value change of up to 1%

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 13

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

COLOUR CODING OF CAPACITORS

An electrical device capable of storing electrical energy. In general, a capacitor

consists of two metal plates insulated from each other by a dielectric. The capacitance
of a capacitor depends primarily upon its shape and size and upon the relative
permittivity εr of the medium between the plates. In vacuum, in air, and in most gases,
εr ranges from one to several hundred.

One classification of capacitors comes from the physical state of their dielectrics,
which may be gas (or vacuum), liquid, solid, or a combination of these. Each of these
classifications may be subdivided according to the specific dielectric used. Capacitors
may be further classified by their ability to be used in alternating-current (ac) or
direct- current (dc) circuits with various current levels.

Capacitor Identification Codes: There are no international agreements in place to

standardize capacitor identification. Most plastic film types (Figure1) have printed
values and are normally in microfarads or if the symbol is n, Nanofarads. Working
voltage is easily identified. Tolerances are upper case letters: M = 20%, K = 10%, J =
5%, H = 2.5% and F = ± 1pF.

Figure 1: Plastic Film Types

A more difficult scheme is shown in Figure 2 where K is used for indicating

Picofarads. The unit is picofarads and the third number is a multiplier. A capacitor
coded 474K63 means 47 × 10000 pF which is equivalent to 470000 pF or 0.47
microfarads. K indicates10% tolerance. 50, 63 and 100 are working volts.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 14

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Figure 2: Pico farads Representation

Ceramic disk capacitors have many marking schemes. Capacitance, tolerance,

working voltage and temperature coefficient may be found which is as shown in
figure 3. Capacitance values are given as number without any identification as to
units. (uF, nF, pF) Whole numbers usually indicate pF and decimal numbers such
as 0.1 or 0.47 are microfarads. Odd looking numbers such as 473 is the previously
explained system and means 47nf

Figure 3: Ceramic Disk Capacitor

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 15

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Figure 4 shows some other miscellaneous schemes.

Figure 4: Miscellaneous Schemes.

Electrolytic capacitor properties:

There are a number of parameters of importance beyond the basic capacitance and
capacitive reactance when using electrolytic capacitors. When designing circuits
using electrolytic capacitors it is necessary to take these additional parameters into
consideration for some designs, and to be aware of them when using electrolytic
capacitors

ESR Equivalent series resistance: Electrolytic capacitors are often used in circuits
where current levels are relatively high. Also under some circumstances and current
sourced from them needs to have low source impedance, for example when the
capacitor is being used in a power supply circuit as a reservoir capacitor. Under these
conditions it is necessary to consult the manufacturers’ datasheets to discover whether
the electrolytic capacitor chosen will meet the requirements for the circuit. If the ESR
is high, then it will not be able to deliver the required amount of current in the circuit,
without a voltage drop resulting from the ESR which will be seen as a source
resistance.

Frequency response: One of the problems with electrolytic capacitors is that they
have a limited frequency response. It is found that their ESR rises with frequency and
this generally limits their use to frequencies below about 100 kHz. This is particularly
true for large capacitors, and even the smaller electrolytic capacitors should not be
relied upon at high frequencies. To gain exact details it is necessary to consult the
manufacturer’s data for a given part.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 16

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Leakage: Although electrolytic capacitors have much higher levels of capacitance

for a given volume than most other capacitor technologies, they can also have a
higher level of leakage. This is not a problem for most applications, such as when
they are used in power supplies. However under some circumstances they are not
suitable. For example they should not be used around the input circuitry of an
operational amplifier. Here even a small amount of leakage can cause problems
because of the high input impedance levels of the op-amp. It is also worth noting that
the levels of leakage are considerably higher in the reverse direction.
Ripple current: When using electrolytic capacitors in high current applications
such as the reservoir capacitor of a power supply, it is necessary to consider the ripple
current it is likely to experience. Capacitors have a maximum ripple current they can
supply. Above this they can become too hot which will reduce their life. In extreme
cases it can cause the capacitor to fail. Accordingly it is necessary to calculate the
expected ripple current and check that it is within the manufacturer’s maximum
ratings.
Tolerance: Electrolytic capacitors have a very wide tolerance. Typically this may be
-50% + 100%. This is not normally a problem in applications such as decoupling or
power supply smoothing, etc. However they should not be used in circuits where the
exact value is of importance.
Polarization: Unlike many other types of capacitor, electrolytic capacitors are
polarized and must be connected within a circuit so that they only see a voltage across
them in a particular way.

The physical appearance of electrolytic capacitor is as shown in Figure 5.The

capacitors themselves are marked so that polarity can easily be seen. In addition to
this it is commonfor the can of the capacitor to be connected to the negative terminal.

Figure 5: Electrolytic Capacitor.

It is absolutely necessary to ensure that any electrolytic capacitors are connected

within a circuit with the correct polarity. A reverse bias voltage will cause the centre
oxide layer forming the dielectric to be destroyed as a result of electrochemical
reduction. If this occurs a short circuit will appear and excessive current can cause the
capacitor to become very hot. If this occurs the component may leak the electrolyte,
but under some circumstances they can explode. As this is not uncommon, it is very
wise to take precautions and ensure the capacitor is fitted correctly, especially in
applications where high current capability exists.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 17

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

COLOUR CODING OF INDUCTORS

Inductor is just coil wound which provides more reactance for high frequencies and low
reactance for low frequencies.
Molded inductors follow the same scheme except the units are usually micro henries. A
brown-black-red inductor is most likely a 1000 uH. Sometimes a silver or gold band is
used as a decimal point. So a red-gold-violet inductor would be a 2.7 uH. Also expect to
see a wide silver or gold band before the first value band and a thin tolerance band at the
end. The typical Colour codes and their values are shown in Figure 6.

1000uH (1millihenry), 2%

6.8 uH, 5%

Figure 6: Typical inductors colour coding and their values.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 18

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

2. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

WIRES AND CONNECTIONS

S.NO COMPONEN CIRCUIT FUNCTION
TNAME SYMBOL
To pass current very easily from
1 WIRE one part of a circuit to another.

A 'blob' should be drawn where

wires are connected (joined), but it
is sometimes omitted. Wires
2 WIRES JOINED connected at 'crossroads' should be
staggered slightly to form
two T-junctions, as shown on the
right.
In complex diagrams it is often
necessary to draw wires crossing
even though they are not
3 WIRES NOT connected. I prefer the 'bridge'
JOINED symbol shown on the right because
the simple crossing on the left
may be misread as a join where
you have forgotten to
add a 'blob'.
POWER SUPPLIES
S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT FUNCTION
NAME SYMBOL
Supplies electrical energy. The
CELL larger terminal (on the left) is
1 positive (+). A single cell is
often called a battery, but strictly
a battery
is two or more cells joined
together
Supplies electrical energy. A
battery is more than one cell. The
2 BATTERY larger terminal (on the left) is
positive (+).

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 19

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Supplies electrical energy.

3 DC SUPPLY DC = Direct Current, always
flowing in one direction.
Supplies electrical energy.
4 AC SUPPLY AC = Alternating Current,
continually changing
direction.
A safety device which will
'blow' (melt) if the current
5 FUSE
flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.
Two coils of wire linked by
an iron core. Transformers
are used to step up (increase)
and step down (decrease) AC
6 TRANSFORMER voltages. Energy is
transferred between the coils
by the magnetic field in the
core. There is no electrical
connection between the coils.
A connection to earth. For
many electronic circuits this
is the 0V (zero volts) of the
7 EARTH(GROUND) power supply, but for mains
electricity and some radio
circuits it really means the
earth. It is also known as
ground.
Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
A transducer which converts
electrical energy to light.
1 LAMP(LIGHTING) This symbol is used for a
lamp providing illumination,
for example a car headlamp
or torch bulb
A transducer which converts
electrical energy to light.
2 LAMP(INDICATOR) This symbol is used for a
lamp which is an indicator,
for example a warning light
on a car dashboard.
3 HEATER A transducer which converts
electrical energy to heat.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 20
ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

A transducer which converts

4 MOTOR electrical energy to kinetic
energy (motion).

5 BELL A transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.

6 BUZZER A transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.

A coil of wire which creates

a magnetic field when
current passes through it. It
7 INDUCTOR(SOLIN may have an iron core inside
OID,COIL) the coil. It can be used as a
transducer converting
electrical energy to
mechanical energy by
pulling on something.
Switches

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
1 PUSH SWITCH A push switch allows current
(PUSH TOMAKE) to flow only when the button
is pressed. This is the switch
used to operate a doorbell.
This type of push switch is
2 PUSH TO BREAK
normally closed (on), it is
SWITCH
open (off) only when the
button is pressed.
SPST = Single Pole, Single
3 ON/OFFSWITCH Throw.
(SPST) An on-off switch allows
current to flow only when it
is in the closed (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double
Throw. A 2-way changeover
4 2 WAY switch directs the flow of
SWITCH(SPDT) current to one of two routes
according to its position.
Some SPDT switches have a
central off position and are
described as 'on-off-on'.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 21
ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

DPST = Double Pole, Single

Throw.
5 DUAL ON-OFF A dual on-off switch which
SWITCH(DPST) is often used to switch mains
electricity because it can
isolate both the live and
neutral connections.

DPDT = Double Pole,

Double Throw.
6 REVERSING This switch can be wired up
SWITCH(DPDT) as a reversing switch for a
motor. Some DPDT switches
have a central off position.

An electrically operated
switch, for example a 9V
battery circuit connected to
7 RELAY the coil can switch a 230V
AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally Open,
COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
RESISTORS

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
A resistor restricts the flow
of current, for example to
limit the current passing
1 RESISTOR Or through an LED. A resistor is
used with a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
This type of variable resistor
with 2 contacts (a rheostat) is
usually used to control
2 current. Examples include:
VARIABLE
adjusting lamp brightness,
RESISTOR(RHEOST
adjusting motor speed, and
AT)
adjusting the rate of flow of
charge into a capacitor in a
timing circuit.

3 VARIABLE This type of variable resistor

RESISTOR(POTENT with 3 contacts (a
IOMETER) potentiometer) is usually

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 22

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

used to control voltage. It

can be used like this as a
transducer converting
position (angle of the control
spindle) to an electrical
signal
This type of variable resistor
(a preset) is operated with a
small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set
4 VARIABLE when the circuit is made and
RESISTER(PRESET) then left without further
adjustment. Presets are
cheaper than normal variable
resistors so they are often
used in projects to reduce the
cost
CAPACITORS

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A capacitor stores electric
charge. A capacitor is used
with a resistor in a timing
1 CAPACITOR circuit. It can also be used
as a filter, to block DC
signals but pass AC
signals.
A capacitor stores electric
charge.This type must be
connected the correct way
round. A capacitor is used
CAPACITOR
2 with a resistor in a timing
POLARISED
circuit. It can also be used
as a filter, to block DC
Signals but pass AC
signals.
A variable capacitor is
VARIABLE
3 used in a radio tuner.
CAPACITOR

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 23

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

This type of variable

capacitor (a trimmer) is
operated with a small
4 TRIMMER screwdriver or similar tool.
CAPACITOR It is designed to be set
when the circuit is made
and then left without
further adjustment
DIODES

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A device which only
1 DIODE allows current to flow in
one direction
A transducer which
LED(LIGHT
2 converts electrical energy
EMITTING DIODE)
to light.
A special diode which is
3 ZENER DIODE used to maintain a fixed
voltage across its terminals

4 PHOTO DIODE A light-sensitive diode.

TRANSISTORS

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A transistor amplifies
current. It can be used with
other components to make
1 TRANSISTOR NPN
an amplifier or switching
circuit.

A transistor amplifies
current. It can be used with
2 other components to make
TRANSISTOR PNP
an amplifier or switching
circuit.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 24

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

A light-sensitive transistor.
PHOTO
3
TRANSISTOR

AUDIO AND RADIO DEVICES

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A transducer which
1 MICROPHONE converts sound to electrical
energy.
A transducer which
2
EARPHONE converts electrical energy
to sound.

A transducer which
3 LOUD SPEAKER converts electrical energy
to sound.

A transducer which
4 PIEZO
converts electrical energy
TRANSDUCER
to sound.
An amplifier circuit with
one input. Really it is a
5 AMPLIFIER(GENER block diagram symbol
AL SYMBOL) because it represents a
circuit rather than just one
component.
A device which is designed
to receive or transmit radio
6 ARIEL (ANTENNA) signals. It is also known as
an antenna

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A voltmeter is used to
measure voltage. The
1 Proper name for voltage is
VOLTMETER
'potential difference', but
most people prefer to say
voltage.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 25

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

An ammeter is used to
2 AMMETTER
measure current
A galvanometer is a very
sensitive meter which is
3 GALVANOMETER used to measure tiny
currents, usually 1mA or
less
An ohmmeter is used to
measure resistance. Most
OHMMETER
4 multimeters have an
ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to
display the shape of
5 OSCILLOSCOPE electrical signals and it can
be used to measure their
voltage and time period.
Sensors (input devices)

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A transducer which
converts brightness (light)
1 LDR to resistance (an electrical
property). LDR = Light
Dependent Resistor
A transducer which
converts temperature (heat)
2 THERMISTOR to resistance (an electrical
property).

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 26

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

3. STUDY OF CRO
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows us to look at the 'shape' of electrical
signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter
with the valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A graticule
with a 1cm grid enables us to take measurements of voltage and time from the screen.

The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor
coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the
way a television picture is produced.

Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to
emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move rapidly
down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also
contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right.

The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this
gives the oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.

A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing us to easily
compare the input and output of an amplifier for example. It is well worth paying the
modest extra cost to have this facility.

Figure 1: Front Panel of CRO

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 27

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

BASIC OPERATION:

Electron gun Y plates

Cathode
Fluorescent screen

Electron beam
Anode

X plates

Figure 2: Internal Blocks of CRO

SETTING UP AN OSCILLOSCOPE:

Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to
set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are
set wrongly.
There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many controls so the
following instructions may need to be adapted for this instrument.

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).

2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the
middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 28

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no
input signal connected.

Figure 3: Absence of input signal

CONNECTING AN OSCILLOSCOPE:

The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a co-axial lead and the figure 4 shows its
construction. The central wire carries the signal and the screen is connected to earth (0V)
to shield the signal from electrical interference (usually called noise).

Figure 4: Construction of a co-axial lead

Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and the lead is connected with a
push and twist action, to disconnect we need to twist and pull. Professionals use a
specially designed lead and probes kit for best results with high frequency signals and
when testing high resistance circuits, but this is not essential for simpler work at audio
frequencies (up to 20 kHz).

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 29

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Figure 5: Oscilloscope lead and probes kit

OBTAINING A CLEAR AND STABLE TRACE:

Once if we connect the oscilloscope to the circuit, it is necessary to adjust the controls to
obtain a clear and stable trace on the screen in order to test it.

The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace. Choose a
setting so the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does not disappear off the
screen.
The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps across
the screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal across the
screen. Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for which the time
base setting is not critical.
The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 30

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

The trace of an AC signal with the oscilloscope controls correctly set is as shown in
Figure 6.

Figure 6: Stable waveform

MEASURING VOLTAGE AND TIME PERIOD:

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this
graph is determined by the nature of the input signal. In addition to the properties labeled
on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram
shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape

Figure 7: Properties of trace

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 31

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.

Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms)
and microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but
frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used.
1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

Frequency = 1
Time period
Time period = 1
Frequency

A).Voltage: Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the
Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because
it can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half
the peak-peak voltage.

Voltage = distance in cm × volts/cm

B).Period: Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time
for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second,
frequency = 1/time period.

Time = distance in cm × time/cm

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 32

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

4. STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety
of frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common input
signals. The electrical leads from the device are attached to the ground and signal input
terminals of the device under test.

Figure 1: A typical low-cost function generator.

FEATURES AND CONTROLS:

Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small
number of options.

Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.

Figure 2: Square wave

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 33

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

The duty cycle of a signal refers to the ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a
square wave signal.

Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.

Figure 3: Sine Wave

Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.

Figure 4: Triangular Wave

The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the
high and low voltage of the output signal. The direct current (DC) offset control on a
function generator varies the average voltage of a signal relative to the ground.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 34

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal
oscillates. On some function generators, the frequency control is a combination of
different controls. One set of controls chooses the broad frequency range (order of
magnitude) and the other selects the precise frequency. This allows the function generator
to handle the enormous variation in frequency scale needed for signals.

HOW TO USE A FUNCTION GENERATOR:

After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to the
desired shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an
oscilloscope to check the controls. Adjust the function generator until the output signal is
correct, then attach the signal and ground leads from the function generator to the input
and ground of the device under test. For some applications, the negative lead of the
function generator should attach to a negative input of the device, but usually attaching to
ground is sufficient.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 35

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

5. STUDY OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices.
A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function. For example a 5V regulated supply:

Figure 1: Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

Transformer: Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier: Converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing: Smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator: Eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Dual Supplies: Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and
negative outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is
like two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the diagram. Dual supplies
have three outputs, for example a ±9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

Figure 2: Dual Supply

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 36

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

6. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BOARD

BREADBOARD:

This is a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing purposes or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required and all the components can be re-used afterwards. It is easy to change
connections and replace components. Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life
on a breadboard to check that the circuit worked as intended. The following figure depicts
the appearance of Bread board in which the holes in top and bottom stribes are connected
horizontally that are used for power supply and ground connection conventionally and
holes on middle stribes connected vertically. And that are used for circuit connections
conventionally.

Figure 1: Bread board

STRIP BOARD:

Figure 2: Strip Board

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 37

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Strip board has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The strips are 0.1" (2.54mm)
apart and there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm). Stripboard requires no special preparation
other than cutting to size. It can be cut with a junior hacksaw, or simply snap it along the
lines of holes by putting it over the edge of a bench or table and pushing hard.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD:

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect
electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or traces etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring
board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a
printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).

Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the components are
placed. They are designed especially for each circuit and make construction very easy.
However, producing the PCB requires special equipment so this method is not
recommended if you are a beginner unless the PCB is provided for you.

Figure 3: Printed circuit board

PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort
and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but
are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics
industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are
published by the IPC organization.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 38

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT-1
P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:

1. To observe and draw the Forward and Reverse bias V-I Characteristics of a P-N
Junction diode.
2. To calculate static and dynamic resistance in both forward and Reverse BiasCondition.

APPARATUS:

1. P-N Diode IN4007 - 1No.

2. Regulated Power supply (0-30V) - 1No.
3. Resistor 1KΩ - 1No.
4. Ammeter (0-20 mA) - 1No
5. Ammeter (0-200µA) - 1No.
6. Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2No.
7. Bread board
8. Connecting wires

THEORY:
A P-N junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode
are curve between voltage across the diode and current flowing through the diode. When
external voltage is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current
to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode) is connected to +ve
terminal and n- type (cathode) is connected to –ve terminal of the supply voltage is
known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward
biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and
current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. Then diode is said to be in
ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage.

When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected –
ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across
the junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very
small current (reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. Then diode is said to be in
OFF state. The reverse bias current is due to minority charge carriers.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 39

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

A) Forward bias:

B) Reverse Bias:

MODEL GRAPH:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 40

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS:

A) FORWARD BIAS:

S.NO Applied Forward Forward

Voltage(V) Voltage(Vf) Current(If(mA))

B) REVERSE BIAS:

S.NO Applied Reverse Reverse

Voltage(V) Voltage(VR) Current(IR(µA))

Calcutions:
Calculation of Static and Dynamic Resistance for a given diode.
In forward bias condition:

Static Resistance , Rs = Vf/If =

Dynamic Resistance, RD = ∆Vf/ ∆If =

In Reverse bias condition:

Static Resistance , Rs = VR/IR =

Dynamic Resistance, RD = ∆VR/ ∆IR =

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 41

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PROCEDURE:
A) FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. for forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and
RPS –ve is connected to the cathode of the diode
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in
Steps of 0.1V
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage
across the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (Vf) on X-axis and current (If) on Y-axis.

B) REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and
RPS –ve is connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in
Steps of 1V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across
the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (VR) on X-axis and current (IR) on Y-axis.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings from the Analog meters.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define depletion region of a diode?

2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?
11. Specificationsofdiode?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 42

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT-2

ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND ZENER ASVOLTAGE REGULATOR

AIM:

1. To observe and draw the static characteristics of a zener diode

2. To find the voltage regulation of a given zener diode

APPARATUS:

1. Zener diode - 1No.

2. Regulated Power Supply (0-30v - 1No.
3. Voltmeter (0-20v) - 1No.
4. Ammeter (0-20mA) - 1No.
5. Resistor (1K ohm)
6. Bread Board
7. Connecting wires

THEORY:

A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the
break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse
biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting
heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High current through the diode can
permanently damage the device.

To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the diode
starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever
may be the current through it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in
voltage regulators.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 43

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

A) STATIC CHARACTERISTICS :

b) REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 44

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS:

A) FORWARD BIAS Characteristics:

S.NO Applied Voltage(V) Forward Voltage(Vf) Forward Current(If(mA))

B) REVERSE BIAS Characteristics:

S.NO Applied Voltage(V) Reverse Voltage(VR) Reverse Current(IR(mA))

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 45

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PROCEDURE:

A) Static characteristics:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The Forward current (lf), and the forward voltage (Vf.) are observed and
thennoted in the tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between Forward current (lf) on X-axis and the forward
voltage(Vf) on Y-axis.

B) Load Regulation characteristics:

1. Connect the Circuit as per the Circuit Diagram on the bread board.
2. By changing the load Resistance, kept constant I/P Voltage at 5V, 10 V, 15 V as
per table given below. Take the readings of O/P Voltmeter (Vo=Vz).
3. Now by changing the I/P Voltage, kept constant load Resistance at 1K, 2K, 3K as
per table given below. Take the readings of O/P Voltmeter (Vo=Vz).

LOAD REGULATION LINE REGULATION

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The terminals of the zener diode should be properly identified

2. While determined the load regulation, load should not be immediately shorted.
3. Should be ensured that the applied voltages & currents do not exceed the ratings of
the diode.

RESULT:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 46

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What type of temp coefficient does the zener diode have?

2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected?
3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?
5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit?
6. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation?
7. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
8. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
9. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
10. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche breakdown
diodes?
11. Define zener break down
12. Applications of zener diode
13. Explain how zener diode as voltage regulator

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 47

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT-3
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUTFILTER

AIM: To Examine the input and output waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier and also
calculate its load regulation and ripple factor.

1. With Filter
2. Without Filter

APPARATUS:
Digital multimeters Multimeter - 1No.
Transformer (6V-0-6V) - 1No.
Diode, 1N4007 - 2No.
Capacitor 100μf/470 μf - 1No.
Decade Resistance Box - 1No.
Breadboard
CRO and CRO probes
Connecting wires
THEORY:
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2.
During positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward
biased and D2 is reverse biased. So the diode D1 conducts and current flows through
load resistor RL.

During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased.
Now, D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction.
There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the half
cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the model graph. The difference
between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave rectifier allows
unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of the input
signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180 degree).

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:

Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vm = Vrms√2
Vdc = 2Vm/П
(i) Without filter:
Ripple factor, r = √ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.812
(ii) With filter:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 48

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

A) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER:

B) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 49

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

MODEL WAVEFORMS:

A) WAVEFORMS:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 50

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

WITHOUT FILTER:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary
side to the rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc = 2Vm/П
6. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of
Vac and Vdc at the output.
7. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are
calculated.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 51

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

8. From the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are
calculated. The practical values are compared with theoretical values.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified.
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?

2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV)? And write its value for Full-wave rectifier?
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you get?
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is meant by ripple and define Ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor?
10. Can a rectifier made in INDIA (V=230v, f=50Hz) be used in USA (V=110v,
f=60Hz)?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 52

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT-4
INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OFTRANSISTOR CE
CONFIGURATION

AIM:

1. To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in

CE configuration
2. To find β of the given transistor and also its input and output Resistances

APPARATUS:
Transistor, BC107 -1No.
Regulated power supply (0-30V) -1No.
Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2No.
Ammeters (0-20mA) -1No.
Ammeters (0-200μA) -1No.
Resistor, 100Ω -1No
Resistor, 1KΩ -1No.
Bread board
Connecting wires

THEORY:

In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter
terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals.Therefore the
emitter terminal is common to both input and output.

The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected
since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB
arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE
circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.

The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB the collector
current varies with VCE up to few volts only. After this the collector current becomes
almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector
current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always operated in
the region above Knee voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.
The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by

β = ΔIC/ΔIB
Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IB at Constant VCE
(μA)
Output Résistance, = ∆VCE /∆IC at Constant IB
ro (μA)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 53

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPHS:

A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERSITICS:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 54

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS:

A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 4V

VBB
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IB = 50 μA IB = 75 μA IB = 100 μA
S.NO
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

PROCEDURE:

A) INPUT CHARECTERSTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at
1Vand for different values of VBB , note down the values of IB and VBE
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V and tabulate all the readings.
4. plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 55

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERSTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. for plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at
50μA and for different values of VCC note down the values of IC and VCE
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75 μA and 100 μA and tabulate the all
thereadings
4. plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the range of β for the transistor?

2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics?
4. What is the relation between α and β?
5. Define current gain in CE configuration?
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor?
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 56

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT-5
INPUT AND OUTOUT CHARACTERISTICS OF FET IN CS CONFIGURATION

AIM:
1. To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET.
2. To find the drain resistance (rd) amplification factor (μ) and
TransConductance (gm) of the given FET.

APPARATUS:

FET BFW11 -1No.

Regulated power supply (0-30V) -1No.
Voltmeter (0-20V) -2No.
Ammeter (0-20mA) -1No.
Bread board
Connecting wires

THEORY:

A FET is a three terminal device, in which current conduction is by majority carriers only. The
flow of current is controlled by means of an Electric field. The three terminals of FET are Gate,
Drain and Source. It is having the characteristics of high input impedance and less noise, the
Gate to Source junction of the FETs always reverse biased. In response to small applied
voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current increases
linearly with VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and the channel
region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to remain
constant. The VDS at this instant is called “pinch of voltage”. If the gate to source voltage (VGS)
is applied in the direction to provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off voltage ill is decreased.
In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the region beyond the pinch-off.

FET parameters:

AC Drain Resistance, rd = ∆VDS / ∆I D at constant VGS Tran

conductance, gm = ∆ID /∆VGS at constant VDS
Amplification, µ = ∆VDS/∆VGS at constant ID Relation
between above parameters
µ = rd * gm
The drain current is given by
.
ID =IDSS (1-VGS/VP) 2

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 57

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

A) DRAIN CHARCTERISTICS:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 58

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

B) TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

OBSERVATIONS:
A) DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
S.NO VGS = 0V VGS = 0.1V VGS = 0.2V

VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

B) TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VDS =0.5V VDS = 1V VDS = 1.5V

VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 59

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PROCEDURE:

1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V.
5. All the readings are tabulated.
6. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
7. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5 V and 2V.
9. The readings are tabulated.
10. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd)
11. From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of trans conductace (gm)
12. And also calculate Amplification factor (μ).

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The three terminals of the FET must be carefully identified

2. Practically FET contains four terminals, which are called source, drain, Gate,
substrate.
3. Source and case should be short circuited.
4. Voltages exceeding the ratings of the FET should not be applied.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the advantages of FET?

2. Different between FET and BJT?
3. Explain different regions of V-I characteristics of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. What are the types of FET?
6. Draw the symbol of FET?
7. What are the disadvantages of FET?
8. What are the parameters of FET?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 60

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT-6

COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
1. To Measure the voltage gain of a CE amplifier
2. To draw the frequency response curve of the CE amplifier
APPARATUS:
Transistor BC107 -1No.
Regulated power Supply (0-30V) -1No.
Function Generator -1No.
CRO -1No.
Resistors [33KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 330Ω, -1No.Each
1.5KΩ, 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 4.7KΩ]
Capacitors, 10µF -2No
100µF -1No.
Bread Board
Connecting Wires

THEORY:

The CE amplifier provides high gain & wide frequency response. The emitter lead is
common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is
forward biased. The collector current is controlled by the base current rather than
emitter current. When a transistor is biased in active region it acts like an amplifier. The
input signal is applied to base terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken
across collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces a much larger
change in collector current. When positive half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it
opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes the collector current to decrease; it
decreases the voltage more negative. Thus when input cycle varies through a negative
half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector current
to increases thus the output signal is common emitter amplifier is in out of phase with
the input signal. An amplified output signal is obtained when this fluctuating collector
current flows through a collector resistor Rc.

The capacitor across the collector resistor Rc will act as a bypass capacitor. This will
improve high frequency response of amplifier.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 61

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODELWAVE FORMS:

A) INPUT WAVE FORM:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 62

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

B) OUTPUT WAVE FORM:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE: Vi = 20mv

OUTPUT GAIN IN
Frequency in KHZ
VOLTAGE(Vo) dB=20log10(vo/vi)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 63

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram

2. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using FunctionGenerator
3. The voltage gain can be calculated by using the expression , Av= (V0/Vi)
4. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at 20mV peak-to-
peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz Using function generator
5. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency.
6. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by Using The expression
Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)
7. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis On Semi- log graph.
10. The band width of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression,

Bandwidth, BW = f2-f1

Where f1 lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier, and

Where f2 upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier
11. The bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the Expression

Gain Bandwidth product = 3-dBmidband gain X Bandwidth

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is phase difference between input and output waveforms of CE amplifier?
2. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?
3. If the given transistor is replaced by a p-n-p, can we get output or not?
4. What is effect of emitter-bypass capacitor on frequency response?
5. What is the effect of coupling capacitor?
6. What is region of the transistor so that it is operated as an amplifier?
7. How does transistor acts as an amplifier?
8. Draw the h-parameter model of CE amplifier?
9. What type of transistor configuration is used in intermediate stages of a multistage
amplifier?
10. What is early effect?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 65

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT-7

COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:

1. To measure the voltage gain of a CB amplifier

2. To draw the frequency response curve of the CB amplifier.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1.1kΩ Resistor - 2 No.

2.10kΩ Resistor - 2 No.
3.5KΩ Resistor - 1 No
4.10 μ F/ 25 V Electrolytic Capacitor - 3 No.
5. Transistors - BC107BP -1No
6. Function generator(0-1MHz) -1No
7. CRO(20 MHz) -1No
8. Regulated power supply(0-30)V -1No

APPARATUS:

1. Multisim software
2. Personal computer

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 66

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using Function
3.Generator.
3. Measure the Output Voltage Vo (p-p) for various load resistors.
4. Tabulate the readings in the tabular form.
5. The voltage gain can be calculated by using the expression, Av= (V0/Vi).
6. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at 20mV Peak-
to-peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz Using function generator.
7. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency.
8. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by Using the
expression Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi).

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 67

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

9. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis On Semi-

log graph.

10. The band width of the amplifier is calculated from graph.

Bandwidth BW=f2-f1

Where f1 lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier,

f2 upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier

11. The bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the Expression
Gain Bandwidth product=3-dBmidband gain X Bandwidth

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 68

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS

Maximum gain in dB =

OUTPUT WAVEFORM

EXPECTED GRAPH

RESULT

Thus the frequency response of common base amplifier is verified and

gain isanalyzed

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 69

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT-8

COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:

1. To obtain the frequency response of the common source FET

Amplifier
2. To find the Bandwidth.

APPRATUS:

N-channel FET (BFW11) -1No.

Resistors (6.8KΩ, 1MΩ, 1.5KΩ) -1No.Each
Capacitors 0.1µF, -2Nos
47µF -1No.
Regulated power Supply (0-30V) -1No.
Function generator -1No.
CRO -1No.
CRO probes -1pair
Bread board
Connecting wires
THEORY:

A field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor commonly used for weak-signal

amplification (for example, for amplifying wireless (signals). The device can amplify
analog or digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator. In the FET,
current flows along a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel,
there is an electrode called the source. At the other end of the channel, there is an
electrode called the drain. The physical diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective
electrical diameter can be varied by the application of a voltage to a control electrode
called the gate. Field-effect transistors exist in two major classifications. These are
known as the junction FET (JFET) and the metal-oxide- semiconductor FET
(MOSFET). The junction FET has a channel consisting of N-type semiconductor (N-
channel) or P-type semiconductor (P-channel) material; the gate is made of the opposite
semiconductor type. In P-type material, electric charges are carried mainly in the form
of electron deficiencies called holes. In N-type material, the charge carriers are
primarily electrons. In a JFET, the junction is the boundary between the channel and the
gate.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 70

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Normally, this P-N junction is reverse-biased (a DC voltage is applied to it) so that no

current flows between the channel and the gate. However, under some conditions there
is a small current through the junction during part of the input signal cycle. The FET has
some advantages and some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor. Field-effect
transistors are preferred for weak-signal work, for example in wireless, communications
and broadcast receivers. also preferred in circuits and systems requiring high
impedance. The FET is not, in general, used for high-power amplification, such as is
required in large wireless communications and broadcasttransmitters.
Field-effect transistors are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips. A single
IC can contain many thousands of FETs, along with other components such as resistors,
capacitors, and diodes.
A common source amplifier FET amplifier has high input impedance and a moderate
voltage gain. Also, the input and output voltages are 180 degrees out of Phase.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 71

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

MODEL GRAPH:

A) INPUT WAVEFORM

B) OUTPUT WAVEFORM

FREQUENCY RESPONSE PLOT:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 72

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS:

INPUT VOLTAGE (Vi) =20mA

S.NO Output Voltage(Vo) Voltage Gain in

gain=V0/Vin dB=20log10(V0/Vin)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. A signal of 1 KHz frequency and 20mV peak-to-peak is applied at the
Input of amplifier.
3. Output is taken at drain and gain is calculated by using the expression,
Av=V0/Vi

4. Voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression,

Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)
5. Repeat the above steps for various input voltages.
6. Plot Av in dB Versus Frequency
7. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the
Expression,
Bandwidth BW=f2-f1

Where f1 is lower 3 dB frequency

f2 is upper 3 dB frequency

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 73

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be tight.
2. Transistor terminals must be identified properly

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the difference between FET and BJT?

2. FET is unipolar or bipolar?
3. Draw the symbol of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. FET is voltage controlled or current controlled?
6. Draw the equivalent circuit of common source FET amplifier?
7. What is the voltage gain of the FET amplifier?
8. What is the input impedance of FET amplifier?
9. What is the output impedance of FET amplifier?
10. What are the FET parameters?
11. What are the FET applications

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 74

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT NO. 9

MEASUREMENT OF H-PARAMETERS OF TRANSISTOR IN CB, CE, CC

CONFIGURATIONS

h- PARAMETERS OF CB CONFIGURATION:

AIM: To calculate the h-parameters of transistor in CB configuration.

APPARATUS:

S.No. Name Quantity

1 Transistor BC 107 1(One) No.
2 Resistors (1K ) 2(Two) No.
3 Bread board 1(One) No.

Equipment:

S.No. Name Quantity

1 Dual DC Regulated Power supply (0 – 30 V) 1(One) No.
2 Digital Ammeters ( 0 – 200 mA) 2(Two) No.
3 Digital Voltmeter (0-20V) 2(Two) No.
4 Connecting wires (Single Strand) 2

Circuit Diagram:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 75

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

H – PARAMETER MODEL OF CB TRANSISTOR:

PROCEDURE:

Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep output voltage VCB = 0V by varying VCC.
3. Varying VEE gradually, note down emitter current IE and emitter-
basevoltage (VEE).
4. Step size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve. Initially vary VEE in steps of 0.1
V. Once the current starts increasing vary VEE in steps of 1V up to 12V.
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCB = 4V.

Output Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep emitter current IE = 5mA by varying VEE.
3. Varying VCC gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down collector
current IC and collector-base voltage (VCB).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE = 10mA.
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE = 10mA.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 76

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS:

Input Characteristics
VCB = 0V VCB = 4V
VEE (Volts)
VEB (Volts) IE (mA) VEB (Volts) IE (mA)

Output
Characteristics
IE = 0mA IE = 5V IE = 10mA
VCC (Volts) VCB (Volts) IC (mA) VCB (Volts) IC (mA) VCB (Volts) IC (mA)

Graph:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 77

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

1. Plot the input characteristics for different values of VCB by taking VEE on X-
axisand IE on Y-axis taking VCB as constant parameter.
2. Plot the output characteristics by taking VCB on X-axis and taking IC on Y-
axistaking IE as a constant parameter.

CALCULATIONS FROM GRAPH:

The h-parameters are to be calculated from the following formulae:

1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance, find VEE and IE for

aconstant VCB on one of the input characteristics.

Input impedance = hib = Ri = VEE / IE (VCB = constant)

Reverse voltage gain = hrb = VEB / VCB (IE = constant)

2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance, find IC and VCB at

aconstant IE.

Output admitance = hob = 1/Ro = IC / VCB (IE = constant)

Forward current gain = hfb = IC / IE (VCB = constant)

RESULT:

The h-parameters for a transistor in CB configuration are:

a. The Input resistance (hib) Ohms.

b. The Reverse Voltage Transfer Ratio (hrb) .
c. The Output Admittance (hob) Mhos.
d. The Forward Current gain (hfb) .

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 78

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is transistor?

2. Write the relation between and ?

3. Define (alpha)? What is the range of ?

4. Why is less than unity?

5. Input and output impedance equations for CB configuration?

6. What is carrier lifetime?

7. What is the importance of Fermi level?

8. Can the junction less transistors be realized?

9. What is the doping level of E, B and C layers?

10. List the various current components in BJT.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 79

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

H-PARAMETERS OF CE CONFIGURATION:

AIM: To calculate the h-parameters of transistor in CE configuration.

APPRATUS:

Transistor BC107 - 1No.

Resistors 100 K Ώ 100 Ώ - 1No.Each
Ammeter (0-200µA) - 1No.
Ammeter(0-200mA -1No.
Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2Nos
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V) - 2Nos
Breadboard

THEORY:

A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

The two sets of characteristics are necessary to describe the behaviour of the CE
configuration, in which one for input or base emitter circuit and other for the output or
collector emitter circuit. In input characteristics the emitter base junction forward biased
by a very small voltage VBB where as collector base junction reverse biased by a very
large voltage VCC. The input characteristics are a plot of input current I B Versuss the
input voltage VBE for a range of values of output voltage VCE . The following important
points can be observed from these characteristics curves.

1. Input resistance is high as IB increases less rapidly with VBE

2. The input resistance of the transistor is the ratio of change in base emitter voltage
ΔVBE to change in base current ΔIB at constant collector emitter voltage (VCE )
i.e... Input resistance or input impedance hie = ΔVBE / ΔIB at VCE constant.

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

A set of output characteristics or collector characteristics are a plot of output current IC

VS output voltage VCE for a range of values of input current I B .The following
important points can be observed from these characteristics curves.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 80

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

1. The transistor always operates in the active region. i.e. the collector current IC
increases with VCE very slowly. For low values of the VCE the IC increases rapidly
with a small increase in VC.The transistor is said to be working in saturation region.
2. Output resistance is the ratio of change of collector emitter voltage ΔVCE, to
change in collector current ΔIC with constant IB. Output resistance or Output impedance
hoe = ΔVCE / ΔIC at IB constant.
Input Impedance hie = ΔVBE / ΔIB at VCE
constant Output impedance hoe = ΔVCE / ΔIC
at IB constant
Reverse Transfer Voltage Gain hre = ΔVBE / ΔVCE at IB constant
Forward Transfer Current Gain hfe = ΔIC / ΔIB at constant VCE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

A) INPUT CHARACTERSITICS: i) calculation of hie ii) calculation of hre

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 81

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OUPUT CHARACTERISITCS: i) calculation of hfe

ii) calculation of hoe

TABULAR FORMS:

A) Input Characteristics:

VCE=0V VCE=6V
S.NO
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 82

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

B) Output Characteristics:

IB = 20 µA IB = 40 µA IB = 60 µA
S.NO VCE VCE VCE
IC(mA) IC(mA) IC(mA)
(V) (V) (V)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect a transistor in CE configuration circuit for plotting its input and output
characteristics.
2. Take a set of readings for the variations in IB with VBE at different fixed values
ofoutput voltage VCE .
3. Plot the input characteristics of CE configuration from the above readings.
4. From the graph calculate the input resistance hie and reverse transfer ratio hre
bytaking the slopes of the curves.
5. Take the family of readings for the variations of IC with VCE at different values
offixed IB.
6. Plot the output Characteristics from the above readings.
7. From the graphs calculate hfe and hoe by taking the slope of the curves.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the h-parameters?

2. What are the limitations of h-parameters?
3. What are its applications?
4. Draw the Equivalent circuit diagram of H parameters?
5. Define H parameter?
6. What are tabular forms of H parameters monoculture of a transistor?
7. What is the general formula for input impedance?
8. What is the general formula for Current Gain?
9. What is the general formula for Voltage gain?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 83

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT 10

SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

AIM:

1. To study the Switching characteristics of a transistor.

2. Design Transistor to act as a Switch and verify the operation.

Choose VCC = 10V, ICmax = 10 mA, hfe = 50,

VCESat = 0.2, Vin = 4Vp-p, VBESat = 0.6 V

APPARATUS:

1. CRO (Dual Channel) - 1 No.

2. Function Generator - 1 No.
3. CDS - 1 No.
4. Resistor (1 KΩ, 8.2 KΩ) - 1 No.
5. Transistor (BC 107) - 1 No.
6. D.C Power Supply (dual) - 1 No.
7. Connecting wires
THEORY:

The Transistor acts as a switch .To operate the transistor as a switch for ON state it can
be operated in saturation region and for OFF state it can be operated in cut off region.

When the I/P voltage Vi is negative or zero, transistor is cut-off and no current flows
through Rc hence V0 ≅ VCC when I/P Voltage Vi jumps to positive voltage, transistor will be
driven into saturation. Then V0 = Vcc – ICRC ≅ VCESat .

DESIGN PROCEDURE:

VCC (10 0.2)

=
When Q is ON RC =
VCE 10mA
1K
sat IC
max
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 84
 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

IB ≥ICmax / hfe

≥ 10mA / 50
IB ≥0.2 mA
To keep transistor remain in ON, IB should be greater than IBmin = 0.2mA

Vin = IB RB + VBE Sat

2V = 0.2 mA RB + 0.6V

RB = 7 K (choose practical values as 8.2 KΩ)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Apply the Square wave 4 Vp-p frequency of 1 KHz

3. Observe the waveforms at Collector and Base and plot it.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 85

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PRECAUTIONS:

1. When you are measuring O/P waveform at collector and base, keep the CRO in DC mode.

2. When you are measuring VBE Sat, VCE Sat keep volts/div switch at either 0.2 or 0.5 position.

3. When you are applying the square wave see that there is no DC voltage in that. This can be
checked by CRO in either AC or DC mode, there should not be any jumps/distortion in waveform
on the screen.
EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 86

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

RESULT:

Thus the Switching Characteristics of a transistor are obtained

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between Diode and Transistor as a switch?

2. Mention typical values of VBE Sat, VCE Sat for both Si, Ge Transistors?

3. Define ON time, OFF time of the transistor?

4. In which regions Transistor acts as a switch?

5. Explain phenomenon of “latching “in a Transistor switch?

6. Define Rise time & fall time of a transistor switch?

7. Define Storage time?

8. Define turn ON time of a transistor?

9. Define turn OFF time of a transistor?

10. Define delay time?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 87

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT 11

SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR) CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To draw the V-I Characteristics of Silicon controlled rectifier.

APPARATUS:

1. SCR (TYN616)
2. Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)
3. Resistors 10kΩ, 1KΩ
4. Ammeter (0-50) mA
5. Voltmeter (0-10V)
6. Breadboard
7. Connecting Wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 88

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

THEORY:

It is a four layer semiconductor device being alternate of P-type and N-type silicon. It consists
os 3 junctions J1, J2, J3 the J1 and J3 operate in forward direction and J2 operates in reverse
direction and three terminals called anode A, cathode K , and a gate G. The operation of SCR
can be studied when the gate is open and when the gate is positive with respect to cathode.

When gate is open, no voltage is applied at the gate due to reverse bias of the junction J 2 no
current flows through R2 and hence SCR is at cut off. When anode voltage is increased J2 tends
to breakdown.

When the gate positive, with respect to cathode J3 junction is forward biased and J2 is reverse
biased .Electrons from N-type material move across junction J3 towards gate while holes from P-
type material moves across junction J3 towards cathode. So gate current starts flowing, anode
current increase is in extremely small current junction J2 break down and SCR conducts
heavily.

When gate is open thee break over voltage is determined on the minimum forward voltage at
which SCR conducts heavily. Now most of the supply voltage appears across the load resistance.
The holding current is the maximum anode current gate being open, when break over occurs

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 89

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Keep the gate supply voltage at some constant value
3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of voltmeter and
ammeter. Keep the gate voltage at standard value.
4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IAK .

OBSERVATION

VALUES: VGK = OV

VAK(V) IAK(µA)

VGK = 0.5 V

VAK(V) IAK(µA)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 90

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

MODEL WAVEFORM:

RESULT: SCR Characteristics are observed.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What the symbol of SCR?

2. IN which state SCR turns of conducting state to blocking state?
3. What are the applications of SCR?
4. What is holding current?
5. What are the important type’s thyristors?
6. How many numbers of junctions are involved in SCR?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 91

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
TYPES OF CLIPPERS AT DIFFERENT REFERENCE VOLTAGES

AIM:

1. To study the various clipper circuits and to plot the output waveforms for a sinusoidal
input of
Given peak amplitude.(Choose f=1kHz, Vp-p =10v)

2. To observe the transfer characteristics of all the clipping circuits in CRO.

APPARATUS:

1. CRO (Dual Channel) - 1 No.

2. Signal Generator - 1 No.
3. Bread Board - 1 No.
4. Diode (1N4007) - 2 No.
5. Resistor (2.2 KΩ) - 1 No.
6. D.C Power Supply (dual) - 1 No.
7. Connecting wires

THEORY:

The process whereby the form of sinusoidal signals is going to be altered by transmitting through
a non-linear network is called non-linear wave shaping. Non-linear elements in combination with
resistors can function as clipper circuit.

Clipping circuits are used to select transmission of that part of an arbitrary wave form which lies
above or below some particular reference voltage level. Clipping circuits are also referred to as
Limiters, Amplitude selectors or Slicers

Clipping circuits are constructed using a series combination of resistor, diode or transistor and
reference voltage. Clipping circuits are classified based on the position of diode as

i) Series diode clipper ii) Shunt diode clipper

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 92

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.

2. In each case apply 10 VP-P, 1 KHz Sine wave I/P using a signal generator.

3. O/P is taken across the load RL.

4. Observe the O/P waveform on the CRO and compare with I/P waveform.

5. Sketch the I/P as well as O/P waveforms and mark the numerical values.

6. Note the changes in the O/P due to variations in the reference voltage VR = 2V, 3V..

7. Obtain the transfer characteristics of Fig.1, by keeping CRO in X-Y mode.

8. Repeat the above steps for all the circuit.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Set the CRO O/P channel in DC mode always.

2. Observe the waveform simultaneously by keeping common ground.

3. See that there is no DC component in the I/P.

4. To find transfer characteristics apply input to the X-Channel, O/P to Y-Channel, adjust the dot at
the center of the screen when CRO is in X-Y mode. Both the channels must be in ground, then
remove ground and plot the transfer characteristics.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Figure. Negative clipper with zero reference (Series clipper)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 93
 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Figure .Positive clipper with zero reference (Series clipper)

Figure. Negative clipper with zero reference (Shunt clipper)

Figure. Positive clipper with zero reference (Shunt clipper)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 94

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Figure. Positive clipper with positive reference (Series clipper)

Figure. Positive clipper with positive reference (Shunt clipper)

Figure .Negative clipper with positive reference (Series clipper)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 95

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Fig. Negative clipper with positive reference (Shunt clipper)

Figure. Clipping at two independent levels.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 96

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 97

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 98

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 99

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS:

S.No. Type of Clipper Reference Theoretical Practical

Voltage Clipping Voltage Clipping Voltage
levels levels

0V

1 Series Positive Clipper 2V

-2V

0V

2 Series Negative Clipper 2V

-2V

0V

3 Shunt Positive Clipper 2V

-2V

0V

4 Shunt Negative Clipper 2V

-2V

5 Two level clipper

RESULT:

Thus types of clippers are drawn and plotted at different references voltages.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 100

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define non linear wave shaping?

2. Define clipping circuit?
3. What is piecewise linear mode of a diode?
4. What are the different types of clippers?
5. Which kind of a clipper is called a slicer circuit?
6. What are the disadvantages of the shunt clipper?
7. What are the disadvantages of the series clipper?
8. What considerations are taken into account while designing clipping circuits?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 101

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT NO. 13

TYPES OF CLAMPERS AT DIFFERENT REFERENCE VOLTAGES

AIM:

1. To study the various clamping circuits and to plot the output waveforms for a sinusoidal
input of given peak amplitude. (Choose f=1kHz, Vp-p =10v)

APPARATUS:

1. CRO (Dual Channel) - 1 No.

2. Signal Generator - 1 No.

3. Bread Board - 1 No.

4. Diode (1N4007) - 1 No.

5. Resistor (100 KΩ) - 1 No.

6. Capacitor (0.1µf) - 1 No.

7. D.C Power Supply (dual) - 1 No.

8. Connecting wires

THEORY:

The process whereby the form of sinusoidal signals is going to be altered by transmitting through
a non-linear network is called non-linear wave shaping. Non-linear elements in combination
with resistors and capacitors can function as clamping circuit.A Clamping circuit is one that takes
an input waveform and provides an output i.e a faithful replica of its shape, but has one edge
clamped to the voltage reference point. The clamping circuit introduces the d.c component at the
output side, for this reason the clamping circuits are referred to as d.c restorer or d.c reinserter.

Clamping circuits are classified as two types.

i) Negative Clampers ii) Positive Clampers

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 102

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig..

2. Apply a Sine wave of 10VP-P, 1 KHz at the input terminals with the help of Signal
Generator.

3. Observe the I/P & O/P waveforms of CRO and plot the waveforms and mark the
values with VR = 2 V, 3V

4. O/P is taken across the load RL.

5. Repeat the above steps for all clamping circuits as shown.

6. Waveforms are drawn assuming diode is ideal.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Figure. Negative clamping with zero reference voltage

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 103

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Figure. positive clamping with zero reference voltage

Figure. Negative clamping with Negative reference voltage

Figure. Positive clamping positive reference voltage

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 104

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Figure. Negative clamping with Positive reference voltage

Figure. Positive clamping with Negative reference voltage

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 105

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS:

Theoretical Practical
Reference Clamping Clamping
S. No. Type of Clamper
Voltage reference reference
Voltage level Voltage level

0V

1 Positive Clamper 2V

-2V

0V

2 Negative Clamper 2V

-2V

RESULT:

Thus types of Clampers are drawn and plotted at different voltages.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the applications of clamping circuits?

2. What is the synchronized clamping?
3. Why a clamper is called a dc inserter?
4. What is clamping circuit theorem. How the modified clamping circuit theorem does
differ from this?
5. Differentiate –ve clamping circuit from +ve clamping circuits in the above circuits?
6. Describe the charging and discharging of a capacitor in each circuit?
7. What is the function of capacitor?
8. What are the effects of diode characteristics on the output of the Clamper?

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 106

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EXPERIMENT NO. 14

THE STEADY STATE OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF CLAMPERSFOR A

SQUARE WAVE INPUT

AIM: To study the clamping circuits using diodes and capacitors.

APPARATUS:

1. Function Generator (0-1MHz)

2. Bread board
3. Connecting patch cards.
4. CRO(20MHz)
5. DC power supply (0-30V)
6. Resistors (100 K )
7. Diodes (1N4007)
8. Capacitor (0.1 f)

THEORY:

Clamping circuits add a DC level to an AC signal. A clamper is also referring to as

DC Restorer or DC re-inserter. The Clampers which clamp the given waveform either
Above or below the reference level, which are known as positive or negative clamping
respectively.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.

2. Apply a Sine wave of 10VP-P, 1 KHz at the input terminals with the help of Signal Generator.
3. Observe the I/P & O/P waveforms of CRO and plot the waveforms and mark the values with
VR = 2 V, 3V
4. O/P is taken across the load RL.
5. Repeat the above steps for all clamping circuits as shown.
6. Waveforms are drawn assuming diode is ideal.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 107

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Figure. Negative clamping with zero reference voltage

Figure. positive clamping with zero reference voltage

Figure. Negative clamping with Negative reference voltage

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Page 108

ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Figure. Positive clamping positive reference voltage

Figure. Negative clamping with Positive reference voltage

Figure. Positive clamping with Negative reference voltage

 ANUBOSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ECE

OBSERVATIONS:

Theoretical Practical
Reference Clamping Clamping
S. No. Type of Clamper
Voltage reference reference
Voltage level Voltage level

0V

1 Positive Clamper 2V

-2V

0V

2 Negative Clamper 2V

-2V

RESULT:

Thus the steady state output waveform of Clampers for a square input is studied.