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Introducing Astronomy

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21 views

Introducing Astronomy

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simon.marshall66
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You are on page 1/ 5

CH 1: ASTRONOMY & THE UNIVERSE

Scientific Method
Hypothesis = prediction of the outcome of an experiment based on current theory
Theory = synthesis of well tested hypotheses and laws; explains
Laws = relationship between variables, no explanation
Facts = can only be changed with convincing evidence

The Cosmic Landscape


The Earth
The Moon
Orbits Earth — held by Earth’s gravity
The Sun (a star)
Holds planets in orbit by gravity
The Solar System — lies mostly in a plane, held together by gravity
The nine planets, asteroids & comets, the Sun
Other Stars & Nebulae — nearest is 4.3 ly; origin & history of our solar system
The Milky Way Galaxy ~80,000 - 100,000 ly across
Assemblage of some 100 billion stars held together by gravity
Galaxy Clusters & the Universe
The Local Group — small cluster of about 30 galaxies 3 million ly diameter held
together by gravity
Local Supercluster = several groups & 100 million ly
held together by gravity
The Universe — the largest astronomical structure we know of

How We Observe the Sky


Angular Measurements:
Angles measured in degrees (˚), arcminutes (‘), & arcseconds (“)
Angular distance = angle between objects
Angular diameter (size) is said to subtend that angle
Not the same as actual size since the angle depends on distance
Small angle formula:
D = α d / 206,265
D = actual or linear size
α = angular size
d = distance
206,265 = # arcsec in 360˚/2π
Distance Measurements:
Astronomical Units (AU) = distance between earth & sun = 93 million miles
Light years (ly) = distance light travels in one year = ~ 6 trillion mi
Parsecs (pc) = distance where 1 AU subtends 1 arcsec = 3.26 ly
Powers of 10 notation: a way to express very large & small numbers
Exponent tells where the decimal is.

CH 2: KNOWING THE HEAVENS

Constellations & the Celestial Sphere


Celestial Sphere:
Stars, sun, moon, & planets mounted on an imaginary dome surrounding earth
Used for an easy way to visualize the arrangement and motions of celestial bodies.
Star patterns or CONSTELLATIONS defines a region of sky; 88 total
Acts as a reference for finding deep space objects.
Change over a very long period of time, we don't notice it.

Diurnal (Daily) Motion of the Celestial Sphere:


Appears to rotate around Earth once every 24 hours; Earth is rotating
Celestial poles = extensions of Earth’s axis of rotations (geographic poles)
Circumpolar constellations = close to the pole; never rising or setting
Celestial equator = extension of earth equatorial plane
Zenith = point in sky directly overhead

Celestial Coordinates:
Coordinates remain the same.
Declination (dec) = latitude; =+90˚ (N pole) to - 90˚ (S pole) where 0˚ = celestial eq.
Right ascension (RA) = longitude;
0h 0m0s = where ecliptic crosses celes. eq. (vernal equinox) eastward

Horizon System:
Coordinates change as earth rotates.
Altitude = angle above horizon; +90˚ to - 90˚ where 0˚ = horizon
Azimuth = angle measured from N (360˚ )

Seasons and the Tilt of the Earth’s Axis


Earth’s rotation axis is tilted about 23.5˚ with respect to orbital plane.
Ecliptic = sun’s path; tilted 23.5˚
Earth acts like gyroscope & keeps approx. same orientation at it orbits Sun.
As result, Sun shines most directly on different hemispheres at different times
of year — leads to more heating and more hours of daylight.
Sun’s path across the sky changes with seasons
High in summer, low in winter
Stars visible near Sun before down & after dusk change during yr.
Sun shifts its position celestial sphere w/ respect to stars
Sun’s path (ecliptic) travels through band of 12 constellations (between 8˚
above or below) = ZODIAC

Solstices & Equinoxes:


Equinoxes (approx. equal hours of day & night)
Sun crosses celestial equator
Marks start of spring (March 21) & autumn (Sept 22)
Sun rises due east and sets due west
Solstices (longest & shortest day)
Marks start of summer (June 21) & winter (Dec 21)
Sun farthest north along horizon at June solstice and farthest south at
December solstice

Topics and Circles:


Artic/Antarctic Circle = 90˚ - 23.5˚= +/- 66.6˚
Between Tropic of Cancer & Capricorn (+23.5˚ to –23.5˚) sun will be at zenith at high
noon at least one day a year.

The Planets and the Zodiac:


Some star-like objects change position with respect to stars
Called planets (Greek for “wanderer”)
Their path always near the ecliptic; band of constellations they are found it =
ZODIAC

Precession
Slow wobble of Earth’s axis due to gravitational tugs of Sun & Moon on equatorial bulge
One circle every 26 000 yrs
Tilt stays the same, orientation of tilt changes.
Leads to different “North Stars” and precession of equinoxes
Epoch = date that celestial coordinates are precisely correct

Time Keeping:
Astronomers measure time using the meridian (N/S circle that passes through the
zenith and both celestial poles)
Local noon = Sun crosses upper meridian (1/2 of meridian above horizon)
Local midnight = Sun crosses lower meridian (1/2 of meridian below horizon)
Meridian transit = any object that crosses the meridian (upper & lower)
Apparent solar time = apparent motion of Sun across the celestial sphere
Apparent solar day = time from local noon to next local noon
Varies over the course of the year
Earth’s orbit is elliptical… not circular
23.5˚ rotational tilt
Mean (average) solar time – based imaginary mean sun along celestial equator
Mean solar day = exactly 24 hours
Time zones -- 24 equal time zones (360˚ /24 hr = 15˚)
Sidereal time = based on apparent motion of the stars
sidereal midnight = vernal equinox crosses upper meridian

Calendar:
Tropical year = period between two passages of the Sun across vernal equinox
Use Gregorian system: 1 year = 365.2425 days w/leap years (Caesar’s) and only
century years evenly divisible by 400 are leap years.
Sidereal year = actual orbital period of the Earth

CH 3: ECLIPSES AND THE MOTION OF THE MOON

Lunar Phases — caused by changing illumination (reflected sunlight) as Moon orbits Earth
Waxing
Waning
Gibbous
Crescent
Quarter
Full
New

The Moon’s Orbit:


Synchronous rotation = rotate in same time as revolve, keep same face to Earth
Moon shifts position against stars — approx. follow Zodiac (5˚ tilt)
Length of the Month:
Sidereal time = 1 complete cycle according to stars =27.3 days
Synodic time = 1 complete cycle of phases = 29.5 days

Eclipses:
When Moon crosses the ecliptic
Rarity of eclipses results from 5˚ tilt of Moon’s orbit.
Line of nodes = plane of Moon’s orbit intersect with plane of the ecliptic
Shadows of Earth & Moon generally miss one another.
Ecliptic seasons — Moon crosses the ecliptic
2-5/year for both lunar & solar eclipses (7 max lunar & solar combined)
Appearance of Eclipses — See Page 32 & 34
Lunar:
total
partial
penumbral
Solar:
total
partial
annular

The Moon and Ancient Astronomers:


Eratosthenes: determined the circumference of the Earth
Aristarchus: attempted to determined relative sizes of Earth, Moon & Sun
Both used geometry and angular measurements

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