INDUCTION MACHINES

Principle of Operation of 3-Phase Induction Motor

When a 3-phase power is supplied to the stator winding, a rotating field is set- up. This
field cuts the rotor conductors and by virtue of relative motion, an e.m.f is induced in
the conductor of the rotor winding. Since this winding is in the form of a closed circuit,
current therefore flows in the direction such as to oppose the change causing it ( by
Lenz’s law,). Now, the change is the relative motion of the rotating field and the rotor.
It is clear that torque must be produced to cause rotation and this torque is due to the
fact that currents flow in the rotor conductors which are situated in and at right angles
to a magnetic field.
When the motor shaft is not loaded, the machine has only to rotate itself against the
mechanical losses and the rotor speed is very close to the synchronous speed. The
speed of the rotor remains slightly less than the synchronous speed.
If the motor shaft is loaded, the rotor will slow down and the relative speed of the rotor
with respect to the stator, rotating field will increase. The induced e.m.f in the rotor
winding will increase and will produce more rotor current, which will increase the
electromagnetic torque produced by the motor. Conditions of equilibrium are attained
when the rotor speed has adjusted to a new value so that the electromagnetic torque is
sufficient to balance the mechanical or load toque applied to the shaft. The speed of the
motor when running under full-load conditions is somewhat less than the no-load
speed.
Slip and Slip Speed
As earlier stated, the rotor speed must always remain less than the synchronous speed.
The difference between the synchronous speed and the rotor speed is known as slip. It
is usually expressed as a fraction of the synchronous speed. Thus, slips can be written
as
S = (Ns – N)/Ns
N= Ns (1-s)
where Ns = Synchronous speed (rpm) and
N = Motor speed (rpm)
In practice, the value of slip is very small. At no-load, slip is around 1% and at full-
load is around 3%. When the rotor is stationary (standstill) its speed is zero and s= 1.
The rotor cannot run at synchronous speed because then there will be no rotor emf and
no rotor current and torque. If the rotor is to run at synchronous speed, an external
torque is necessary. If the rotor is driven such that N > Ns, the slip become negative,
the rotor torque opposes the external driving torque and the machine acts as induction
generator. The Induction motor derives its name from the fact that the current in the
rotor circuit is induced from the stator.
Frequency of Rotor Current
At standstill (i.e. when the rotor is stationary), the frequency of the current is the same
as the supply frequency (f). But when the rotor starts revolving, the frequency depends
upon the relative speed or slip speed. If fr is the frequency of the rotor current, then
Ns – N = (120 fr)/ P
But Ns = (120 f )/P
(Ns - N )/Ns = fr/ f
fr=sf

Example: A triple-ram pump is being driven at 60 rpm by a 3-phase, 50-Hz, 8-pole

induction motor. If the motor slip is 4%, find the total gear ratio between the motor and
the pump
Solution.
Ns = (120 x 50 )/ 8 = 750rpm , Slip speed, N = 750- 4% of 750 = 750-30 = 720
Pump speed = 60rpm .
720
=12
Total gear ratio = 60

Example: A 3-phase induction motor is wound for 4 poles and is supplied from a 50-
Hz system. Calculate the (i) synchronous speed (ii) speed of the rotor when the slip is
4% and (iii) rotor frequency when the rotor runs at 1200 rpm.
Solution
(i) Ns = 120f/p = 1500 rpm
(ii) Percentage slip, S = (Ns – N)/Ns x 100%
4= (1500 –N)/ 1500 x 100% i.e N = 1440rpm
(iii) The slip when N = 1200rpm is
S= (1500 – 1200)/1500 = 0.2
Rotor frequency = fr =Sf= 0.2 x 50 = 10Hz
Example
A 12-pole, 3-phase alternator driven at a speed of 1500 rpm supplies power to a 8-
pole, 3-phase induction motor. If the slip of the motor at full-load is 3%, calculate the
full-load speed of the motor.
Solution.
Let the actual speed = N
Supply frequency f = 12 x 1500/ 120 = 50Hz
Synch speed of the motor, Ns = 120 x 50/8 = 750rpm
% Slip, S= (Ns – N) / Ns 3= (750 – N) x 100 /750
:. N= 727.5rpm

Rotor E.M.F
When the rotor is stationary, a 3-phase induction motor is equivalent to a 3-phase
transformer with the secondary short-circuited. Therefore, the induced emf per phase
E1 ×N 2
E2 =
E2 in the rotor at the instant of starting is given by N1

where E1= applied voltage per phase to primary i.e. stator winding
N1 = Number of stator turns and
N2 = Number of rotor turn
When the rotor starts gaining speeds, the relative speed of the rotor with respect to
stator flux i.e. slip, is decreased. Hence, induced e.m.f in the rotor which is directly
proportional to the relative speed is also decreased and is given by sE2.
Hence, for slip s, the induced e.m.f in the rotor is s times the induced e.m.f in the rotor
at standstill.

Rotor Current

Let
R2 = rotor resistance / phase

L2 = rotor inductance / phase and

E2 = induced e.m.f of rotor / phase at standstill

At standstill:

Induced e.m.f of rotor/ phase =

E2

Rotor winding resistance /phase =

R2
Rotor winding reactance / phase
X 2=2 π fL 2

where f is the supply frequency

Rotor impedance / phase √

Z 2= ( R 2 ) + ( X 2 )
2 2

E2
I 2=
Rotor current /phase, Z2

E2
I 2=
√ ( R ) +( X
2
2
2
2
)
At slip s:

Induced emf of rotor / phase =

sE 2

Rotor winding reactance =

2 πf r L2 =2 π sfL2 =sX 2

Rotor winding impedance / phase, √ ( R ) +( sX

2
2
2
2
)
sE 2
I 2=
Rotor current / phase √ ( R ) +( sX
2
2
2
2
)

The rotor current

I 2 lags the rotors voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle φ 2
given by

( )
sX 2
φ 2=tan −1
R2

Power factor of rotor current

R2
cos φ2 =
√( R ) + ( sX2
2
2 )
2

Torque and Power

The torque of an induction motor (being due to interaction of rotor and stator fields) is
found to be directly proportional to the product of the stator field flux, the rotor current
and the rotor power factor. This can be written mathematically as
T∞ϕ I2cosθ2
whereϕ = flux of rotating stator
I 2 = rotor current / phase and
Cos θ2 = rotor power factor
Since rotor e.m.f per phase at standstill is proportional to the stator field, i.e
E2 αθ 2

T =KE 2 I 2 cosθ2
where K is the constant of proportionality
Substituting the value of I2 and cos θ2 gives
sE 2 R2
¿
√
T=KE 2׿ ¿ ( R2 ) 2 + ( sX 2 ) 2 √( R ) +( sX
2
2
2 )2
KsR 2 E
22
= 2 2
( R 2 ) + ( sX 2 )
Induction Motor as a Transformer
If the rotor reactance at standstill is X 2, its value at slip becomes sX2. This is very
desirable for, at no-load the reactance become almost negligible and the rotor
impedance is now all resistance. Also, if the rotor resistance is small, the rotor current
is large, so that motor works with a large torque which brings the speed near to
synchronous speed, i.e. the slip is reduced.
An induction motor is generally a transformer with stator forming the primary and
rotor forming secondary. This is so because the transfer of energy from stator to the
rotor of an induction motor takes place entirely inductively with the help of flux
mutually linking the two.
V1 = E1 + I1 (R1 + j X1)
Er= I2 (R2 + jsX2)
Rotor Output
Primary current I1 consists of two parts, Io and I2. It is the latter that is transferred to the
rotor because Io is used in meeting the Cu and iron losses in the stator itself. Out of the
primary voltage V1 some is absorbed in the primary itself (=I 1Z1) and the remaining E1
is transferred to the rotor. If the angle between E2 and I2 is ϕ then
Rotor input/ phase = E1I2 Cos
Total rotor input = 3E1I2 Cos2
The electrical input to the rotor which is wasted in the form of heat is
= 3I2Er Cos (or 3I22R2)
I
21
I 1 =KI 2 or I2=
Now 2 K

Er = sE2 and E2 = K E1,

 Er= sKE1
Electrical input wasted as heat = losses
I
3x( 21 / K) x sKE1 Cos
I
= 3E1 21 Cos x s = rotor input x s
Now, rotor output = rotor input – losses
I I
= 3E1 21 cos -3E1 21 cos x s
I
= (1-s)E1 21 Cos = (1-s )rotor input
(Rotor output)/ Rotor input= I –s
Rotors copper loss = S x rotor input
N Actual Speed
=
N S Synchronous Speed
Rotor efficiency=

Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor

I1 I2
'

r1 r2
' '
I0 x2

V1 Iw Im
'
R0 r 2 ( 1−s )
x0
s

Fig, 18.1: equivalent circuit diagram,

From the above equivalent circuit diagram, it shows that the rotor circuit actually

1
2 is the rotor resistance itself and represents the
consists of two parts: (i) The part r
rotor copper loss (ii) The second part is r 21(1/s -1) known as load resistance RL and is
the electrical equivalent of the mechanical load on the motor. In other words, the
mechanical load on an induction motor can be represented by a non -inductive

resistance of the value

r2= ( )
1
s
−1
Note that,

3 I 2r2
2
P g=3 E 2 I 2 cos θ2 =
s

The frequency of rotor currents is very small. Therefore, core losses in rotor are
negligible.
3 I 2 r 2 =3 I 2 r ¿

Rotor core losses = 2 21

Also, rotor copper losses = sPg

Electromagnetic power developed Pm is
Pm = Pg(1-s)
When mechanical losses are subtracted from Pm, we get power supplied to the load.
From approximate equivalent circuit, (neglecting no load current) we get
V1
I 1=

[( ) ( ) ]
2 2 1
r 1 2
2 2
r1 + + x 1 +x
s 21

Pg 3( I i )2 r 1
2 2
=
Torque T = 2 πn s 2 π sns

[ ]
V r
3 12 21
2 πn s r s
21 2 2
( r 1+ ) +( x 1 + x 1 )
=
s 2

3V sr
12 21

= [
2 πn s ( sr 1 + r
2
1
2
) +s 2 ( x 1 + x 1 )2 )
2 ]

Losses and Efficiency in Induction Machines

Losses in an induction motor can be grouped into copper losses due to current in the
conductors, core loss in the iron and friction and windage loss due to rotating parts.
There are copper losses and core losses in the stator and copper and friction losses in
the rotor. Actually, there is some core loss in the rotor. Under operating conditions,
however, the rotor frequency is so low that it may logically be assumed that all core
losses occur in the stator only.
The efficiency of induction motor can be determined by loading the motor and
measuring the input directly. This method, however, is not always desirable, because
of the inherent inaccuracy or may not even be feasible because of the inability to
simulate an actual load. Since the circuit of the induction motor closely approximates
that of the transformer, losses may be measured in a manner virtually identical with
that used for transformers. The methods in use are the no-load (open-circuit) and the
blocked rotor (short-circuit) tests.
No-Load or Open-Circuit Test
This test is performed to determine the no-load current, no-load power factor, windage
and frictional losses, no-load losses, no-load input power and no-load resistance and
reactance.
The motor is uncoupled from its load and rated voltage is applied to the stator. Since
there is no power output, the power supplied to the stator furnishes its copper, core and
the friction and windage losses in the rotor. Since slip at no-load is often within one
tenth or one percent, the rotor current is practically zero and hence the analogy to the
no-load tests of the transformer. However, the no-load stator current of the induction
motor is comparatively large and therefore copper losses in the stator may not be
neglected as they were for the transformer primary. It is thus necessary to calculate this
copper loss and subtract from the no-load input in order to obtain the sum of the core
and friction and windage losses of the motor. Knowing the total core losses, no-load
current per phase, Io and applied voltage per phase V, the value of magnetizing
current, wattfull component of current, no-load resistance and no-load reactance Xo
are then determined as follows.
No-load power factor,
coso = Pcore/(3VIO)
IW= Iocoso =IoPcore/(3VIo) = Pcore /3V
Ro=V/Iw and Xo = V/Im

Blocked Rotor or Short Circuit Test

This test is performed to determine short-circuit current with normal voltage applied to
the stator, power factor on short circuit, total equivalent resistance and reactance of the
motor as referred to the stator and full-load copper loss.
The rotor is prevented from turning by blocking it and a low voltage of less than 10%
of rated voltage is applied to the stator. This voltage is best applied through a Variable
autotransformer or 3-phase variac. Suitable resistors in series with the motor stator
terminals may also be used, but care must be taken that the resistors are identical so
that balanced voltage may be applied to the stator.
The voltage is then gradually decreased until rated current is obtained in the stator.
Since, the voltage required is low, the power supplied to the stator will be dissipated as
copper losses in both stator and rotor. It is thus assumed, as in the static transformer
short-circuit test, that the core loss is negligible. This will enable us to calculate an
equivalent resistance of the motor referred to the stator terminals and to use this value
of resistance to correct our readings of the no-load test.
If at short-circuit,
Vs = applied voltage/phase
Isc = Short current/phase in the stator winding
Ps = total input power, then
I SC V
=
I VS
Ps
cos θ=
And 3V s I s

Core losses being very small can be neglected, therefore,

Input on s.c, Ps = 3I2S Ro2,
R
Ps = 3Is 2 01 2

:. Equivalent resistance/phase referred to stator

I
R01 = Ps/3 s2

Motor equivalent impedance/phase as referred to stator,

Z01 = Vs/Is
Motor equivalent reactance/phase as referred to stator,
1
X
012
= (Z 01 2
−R 2
01 ) 2

Example
A 400-V, 4-pole, 50-Hz, 3-phase star-connected induction motor has the following
parameters: number of stator turns/phase is twice the number of rotor turns/phase,
r1=0.64 Ω, x1=1.1 Ω, r2=0.08 Ω, x2=0.12 Ω. The load torque is proportional to the
square of the speed and is 40 Nm at 1440 rpm. If the motor speed is 1300 rpm,
calculate: (a) load torque (b) rotor current (c) stator applied voltage. Neglect no-load
current.

Solution
(a) Since load torque (T) is proportional to the square of the speed, and at t 1440 rpm T
= 40 Nm,

A 1300 rpm T =
40 ( )
1300 2
1440
=32. 6 Nm

ns −n
S=
ns
120 f 120×50
n s= = =1500 rpm
p 4
(b)
1500
n s= =25 rps
60
1500−1300
S= =0 .1333
1500

( )
N1 2 2
r 1=r 2 =0. 08×2 =0. 32 Ω
2 N2

( )
2
N1
x 1 =x 2 =0. 12×22 =0 . 48
2 N2

3 (I ) r21
2
21
T=
2 π Sns
3(I ) ×0 .32
2
21
32 .6=
2 π ( 0 . 1333 )×25
I 1 =26 .66 A
2

I 2=KI 1 =2×26 . 66=53 .32 A

2

(c) Neglecting IO
 I 1=I 1 =26 . 66 A
2

(
V 1 =I 1 r 1 + r 1 + r
2 2
1 ( )
1−S
S
+ j ( x 1+ x 1)
2 )
(
26 . 66 0. 64+0 .32+0 . 32 ( 1−00 . 1333
.1333
)+ j ( 1. 1+0 . 48) )
=26 . 66 ( 3 .04+ j1.58 )
91 .34 V / phase
Comparison Between Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor Induction Motor
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Wound Rotor Induction Motor

It does not require slip rings, brush gear, It requires slip ring, brush gear, short-
short-circuiting devices, rotor terminal for circuiting devices, rotor terminals for
connecting starting rheostat connecting starting rheostat

It has slightly higher efficiency Its efficiency is low

It is cheaper It is costly

It is rugged in construction It is not rugged in construction

It has a better space factor for rotor slots, Comparatively, copper loss is high
a shorter overhang and a smaller copper
loss

A large space for fan and hence the Comparatively, the cooling condition are
cooling conditions are better not so good

The power factor is better, the pull-out Comparatively, the power factor, the pull-
torque and overload capacity are both out torque and overload capacity are
larger smaller

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
(1) Draw the approximate equivalent circuit of an induction motor
example)
(2)The star-connected rotor of an induction motor has a standstill impedance of (0.4 +
j4) ohms and the rheostat impendence per phase is (6 + j4) ohms. The motor has an
induced emf of 80 V between slip rings at standstill when connected to its normal
supply voltage. Find the rotor current at (a) standstill (b) when running short –
circuited with a slip of 0.03.