Torque Equation of Three Phase Induction Motor

The torque produced by three phase induction motor depends upon the following three factors:

1. The magnitude of rotor current

2. The flux which interact with the rotor of three phase induction motor and is responsible
for producing emf in the rotor part of induction motor
3. The power factor of rotor of the three phase induction motor.

Combining all these factors, we get the equation of torque as-

T ∝ ɸ I2r cosƟ2r
T = k ɸ I2r cosƟ2r
where, ɸ = flux per stator pole,
I2 = rotor current at standstill,
Ɵ2 = angle between rotor emf and rotor current,
k = a constant.
The flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to stator emf E1.
i.e ɸ ∝ E1
We know that transformation ratio K is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage (rotor voltage)
to that of primary voltage (stator voltage).

Rotor current I2 is defined as the ratio of rotor induced emf under running condition , sE 2 to total
impedance, Z2 of rotor side,
I2r=E2r/Z2r

and total impedance Z2 on rotor side is given by ,

Putting this value in above equation we get,

s = slip of induction motor

We know that power factor is defined as ratio of resistance to that of impedance. The power
factor of the rotor circuit is

Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor cosθ2 in the equation of torque we get,

Combining similar term we get,

Removing proportionality constant we get,

Where, ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s,

ns = Ns / 60.
So, finally the equation of torque becomes,

Starting torque

The torque developed at the instant of starting of a motor is called as starting torque. Starting
torque may be greater than running torque in some cases, or it may be lesser.
We know that at the start the rotor speed, N is zero.

So, the equation of starting torque is easily obtained by simply putting the value of s = 1 in the
equation of torque of the three phase induction motor,

The starting torque is also known as standstill torque.

Maximum Torque Condition for Three-Phase Induction Motor

In the equation of torque,

The rotor resistance, rotor inductive reactance and synchronous speed of induction motor remain
constant. The supply voltage to the three phase induction motor is usually rated and remains
constant, so the stator emf also remains the constant. We define the transformation ratio as the
ratio of rotor emf to that of stator emf. So if stator emf remains constant, then rotor emf also
remains constant.

If we want to find the maximum value of some quantity, then we have to differentiate that
quantity concerning some variable parameter and then put it equal to zero. In this case, we have
to find the condition for maximum torque, so we have to differentiate torque concerning some
variable quantity which is the slip, s in this case as all other parameters in the equation of torque
remains constant.
So, for torque to be maximum
Now differentiate the above equation by using division rule of differentiation. On differentiating
and after putting the terms equal to zero we get,

Neglecting the negative value of slip we get

R
s 2
X2
So, when slip s = R2 / X2, the torque will be maximum and this slip is called maximum slip S m
and it is defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor reactance.

NOTE: At starting S = 1, so the maximum starting torque occur when rotor resistance is
equal to rotor reactance.
Equation of Maximum Torque

The equation of torque is

The torque will be maximum when slip Sm = R2 / X2

In order to increase the starting torque, extra resistance should be added to the rotor circuit at
start and cut out gradually as motor speeds up.
Conclusion
From the above equation it is concluded that
 The maximum torque is directly proportional to square of rotor induced emf at the standstill.
 The maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor reactance.
 The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
 The slip at which maximum torque occur depends upon rotor resistance, R 2. So, by varying
the rotor resistance, maximum torque can be obtained at any required slip.
Torque Slip Characteristics of Induction Machine
Torque Slip Characteristics is the graphical relationship between the torque and slip of an
Induction Machine. This characteristic is very useful for the stability analysis of the machine.
Electromagnetic torque in an Induction Machine is given as
From the above equation, the variation of electromagnetic torque can be plotted for different
values of slip while assuming that the motor is connected to a constant frequency voltage source.
This plot so obtained, also called Torque Slip Characteristics, is shown in figure below.

From the above, torque slip characteristics, it can be said that, there are three regions of
operation of induction machine i.e. when s <0 , s>1 and 0<s<1. We will consider each of the
regions in the following discussion.
Case1: 0<s<1 i.e. Motoring Mode
As the slip is less than 1, this means that the speed of rotor is less than synchronous speed and
the rotor is rotating in the direction of rotating magnetic field. Also, electromagnetic torque for
this region of operation of induction motor is positive as clear from the characteristics. This
means that, this region of operation, is the normal operation of machine and that too, as
Induction Motor.

It must be noted that, when s = 0, electromagnetic torque is zero just because the machine rotor is
rotating at the synchronous speed in the direction of rotating magnetic flux, hence the relative
speed between them is zero which causes no emf to be developed in the rotor and hence no
torque is produced.

Also, note that, at the starting i.e. s = 1, there exists some finite torque, this finite torque
corresponds to the no load torque requirement of the machine due to inertia of rotor and
windage, friction and bearing losses.
Case2: s<0 i.e. Generating Mode
As the name suggest, the machine should be producing electrical power. But electrical energy
can only be produced if we supply input mechanical energy, this means in Generating mode, we
must be using prime mover to rotate the rotor and stator is connected to constant frequency
voltage source. Now if the rotor is rotated at a speed more than the synchronous speed, the slip
will be negative and as per equation (1), electromagnetic torque will be negative which means
that electromagnetic torque is opposing the prime mover torque. This opposition is necessary for
the conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy.

It shall be noted that, even though rotor is rotated a super synchronous speed but stator is not
connected to constant voltage source then there will not be any generation action.

Case3: s>1 i.e. Braking Mode

Slip more than 1 means the rotor is revolving opposite to the direction of rotating magnetic field;
this means the electromagnetic torque will act in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation
of rotor. But how can we achieve s>1?

Well, we can use prime mover and can rotate the rotor in a direction opposite to the rotating
magnetic field. But this method is rarely used. Rather the practical application of s>1 is exploited
in quick stopping to induction motor by just changing any of the two phase leads.

Suppose the rotor of induction motor is revolving in clockwise direction which means magnetic
flux is also rotating in clockwise direction. Meanwhile we change any two phase leads. Changing
the phase leads will cause change in direction of rotation of magnetic field i.e. anticlockwise
direction. This change in direction of magnetic flux will cause electromagnetic torque to reverse
its direction but due to inertia the rotor will continue to rotate in clockwise direction. Thus,
electromagnetic torque is anticlockwise and rotor is rotating in clockwise direction. Therefore
rotor will rotate in deceleration and will soon come to a stop. But as soon as the motor come to a
stop, the stator must be disconnected from supply else the rotor will start rotating in
anticlockwise direction. This method of Braking is known as Plugging. The Braking region in
torque slip characteristics is marked in the figure below.
Equivalent Circuit

Induction motor is a well-known device which works on the principle of transformer. So it is

also called the rotating transformer.
That is, when an voltage is supplied to its stator, then as a result of electromagnetic induction, a
EMF is induced in its rotor. So an induction motor is said to be a transformer with rotating
secondary. Here, primary of transformer resembles stator winding of an induction motor and
secondary resembles rotor.
The equivalent circuit of any machine shows the various parameter of the machine such as its
ohmic losses and also other losses.
The losses are modeled just by inductor and resistor. The copper losses are occurred in the
windings so the winding resistance is taken into account. Also, the winding has inductance for
which there is a voltage drop due to inductive reactance and also a term called power factor
comes into the picture.

Basic Equivalent Circuit

Here,
• R1 is the winding resistance of the stator.
 • X1 is the inductance of the stator winding.
• R0 is the core loss component.
• X0 is the magnetizing reactance of the winding.
If we draw the circuit with referred to the stator then the circuit will look like-

Here

• R2’ is the rotor winding resistance with referred to stator winding.

• X2’ is the rotor winding inductance with referred to stator winding.
• R2’(1 - s) / s is the resistance which shows the power which is converted to mechanical
• Power output or useful power.
• The power dissipated in that resistor is the useful power output or shaft power.
• The phasor diagram of loaded induction motor is similar to the loaded transformer. The
only difference is the secondary of induction motor is rotating and short circuited while
transformer secondary is stationary and connected to load.
• The load on induction motor is mechanical while load on transformer is electrical. Still
by finding electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the motor, the phasor diagram of
induction motor can be developed.

Phasor Diagram of Induction Motor

The phasor diagram of loaded induction motor is similar to the loaded transformer. The only
difference is the secondary of induction motor is rotating and short circuited while transformer
secondary is stationary and connected to load. The load on induction motor is mechanical while
load on transformer is electrical. Still by finding electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the
motor, the phasor diagram of induction motor can be developed.
Let Φ = Magnetic flux links with both primary and secondary
E1 = Self induced e.m.f. in the stator
E2r = Mutually induced e.m.f. in the rotor.
R1 = Stator resistance per phase.
X1 = Stator reactance per phase
The stator voltage per phase V1 has to counter balance self induced e.m.f. E 1 and has to supply
voltage drops I1 R1 and I1 X1. So on stator side we can write,

The rotor induced e.m.f. in the running condition has to supply the drop across impedances as
rotor short circuited.

The value of E2r depends on the ratio of rotor turns to stator turns.
The rotor current in the running condition is I 2r which lags E2r by rotor p.f. angle Φ2r.
The reflected rotor current I2r' on stator side is the effect of load and is given by,
I2r' = K I2r
The induction motor draws no load current I o which is phasor sum of Ic and Im. The total stator
current drawn from supply is,
Ī1 = Īo + Ī2r'
The Φ1 is angle between V1 and I1 and cos Φ1 gives the power factor of the induction motor.
Thus using all above relations the phasor diagram of induction motor on load can be obtained.
The steps to draw phasor diagram are,
1. Takes Φ as reference phasor.
2. The induced voltage E1 lags Φ by 90o.
3. Show - E1 by reversing voltage phasor.
4. The phasor E2r is in phase with E1. So I2r show lagging E2r i.e. E1 direction by Φ2r.
5. Show I2r R2 in phase with I2r and I2r X2r leading the resistive drop by 90o, to get exact
location of.
6. Reverse I2r to get I2r'.
7. Im is in phase with Φ while Ic is at leading with. Add Im and Ic to get Io.
8. Add Io and I2r' to get I1.
9. From tip of - E1 phasor, add I1 R1 in phase with I1 and I1X1 at 90o leading to I1 to V1 get
phasor.
10. Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1.
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.

Crawling of Induction Motor

Sometimes, squirrel cage induction motors exhibit a tendency to run at very slow speeds (as low
as one-seventh of their synchronous speed). This phenomenon is called as crawling of an
induction motor. This action is due to the fact that, flux wave produced by a stator winding is not
purely sine wave.
The resultant speed is nearly 1/7th of its synchronous speed. Now the question arises why this
happens? This action is due to the fact that harmonics fluxes produced in the gap of the stator
winding of odd harmonics like 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. These harmonics create additional torque fields
in addition to the synchronous torque.
The torque produced by these harmonics rotates in the forward or backward direction at Ns/3,
Ns/5, Ns/7 speed respectively. Here we consider only 5th and 7th harmonics and rest are
neglected. The torque produced by the 5th harmonic rotates in the backward direction. This
torque produced by fifth harmonic which works as a braking action is small in quantity, so it can
be neglected. Now the seventh harmonic produces a forward rotating torque at synchronous
speed Ns/7. Hence, the net forward torque is equal to the sum of the torque produced by 7th
harmonic and fundamental torque. The torque produced by 7thharmonic reaches its maximum
positive value just below 1/7 of Ns and at this point slip is high. At this stage motor does not
reach up to its normal speed and continue to rotate at a speed which is much lower than its
normal speed.
This causes crawling of the motor at just below 1/7 synchronous speed and creates the racket.
The other speed at which motor crawls is 1/13 of synchronous speed.
Methods to overcome crawling
 In cage rotor motors cogging and crawling can be reduced by proper choice of coil span
and skewing (slightly twisting the rotor teeth).

 By choosing proper combination of stator and rotor slots we can minimize crawling.
Cogging of Induction Motor

The phenomenon of Magnetic Locking between the stator and the rotor teeth is called
Cogging or Teeth Locking. Even after applying full voltage to the stator winding, the rotor of a 3
phase induction motor fails to start.

Sometimes it happens because of low supply voltage. But the main reason for starting problem in
the motor is because of cogging in which the slots of the stator get locked up with the rotor slots.
As we know that there is series of slots in the stator and rotor of the induction motor. When the
slots of the rotor are equal in number with slots in the stator, they align themselves in such way
that both face to each other and at this stage the reluctance of the magnetic path is minimum and
motor refuse to start. This characteristic of the induction motor is called cogging. Apart from
this, there is one more reason for cogging.
If the harmonic frequencies coincide with the slot frequency due to the harmonics present in the
supply voltage then it causes torque modulation. As a result, of it cogging occurs. This
characteristic is also known as magnetic teeth locking of the induction motor.
Methods to overcome Cogging
This problem can be easily solved by adopting several measures. These solutions are as follows:
 The number of slots in rotor should not be equal to the number of slots in the stator.
 Skewing of the rotor slots, that means the stack of the rotor is arranged in such a way that
it angled with the axis of the rotation.
NO LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TESTS
These two tests are performed to predetermine the performance characteristics of the motor at
any load. Predetermine means finding or estimating the performance of motor at any specified
load without actually loading it. Actually by performing the no-load and blocked rotor test where
we supply only a small amount of energy to supply core loss and copper loss, we can obtain the
parameters of the equivalent circuit of the motor, from which we obtain its performance
characteristics.

No-Load test or Open-Circuit Test:

 The no-load test of an induction motor is similar to the open-circuit test of a transformer.
 The motor is not connected from its load, and the rated voltage at the rated frequency is
applied to the stator to run the motor without a load.
 The 2-wattmeter method measures the input power of the system.

Figure: Circuit diagram for no-load test on a 3-phase induction motor.

 The voltmeter measures the standard-rated supply voltage and an ammeter measures the no-
load current.
 Since the motor is running at no-load, total power is equal to the constant iron loss, friction
and winding losses of the motor.

 Since the power factor of the induction motor under a no-load condition is generally less than
0.5, one wattmeter will show a negative reading. Therefore, it is, necessary to reverse the
direction of current-coil terminals to take the reading.
Vo = input line voltage
Wo = total 3-phase input power at no-load
Io = input line current.
Win = √3 Vo Io cosΦo
Iw = Io cosΦ0
Iµ = Io sinΦ0
Ro = Vo/ Iw
Xo = Vo/ Iµ
Blocked Rotor or Short-Circuit Test:
 The blocked rotor test of an induction motor is same as the short-circuit test of a transformer.
 In this test, the shaft of the motor is connected so that it cannot move and rotor winding is
short-circuited.
 In a slip-ring motor, the rotor winding is short-circuited through slip-rings and in cage
motors, the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited. This test is also called the locked-
Rotor test.
If under short circuit condition
 ⇒ Primary is excited with rated voltage ⇒ A large short circuit current can flow which is
dangerous from the windings point of view.

 So similar to the transformer short circuit test ⇒ The reduced voltage (about 5 to 10% of
rated voltage) just enough such that stator carries rated current is applied.
Vsc = Short circuit reduced voltage (Line value)
Isc = Short circuit current (Line value)
Wsc = Short circuit input power
Wsc = √3 Vsc Isc Cos Φsc
⇒ Cos Φsc = Wsc / √3 Vsc Isc
This is the short circuit power factor.

Figure: Circuit diagram for blocked rotor test

⇒ Wsc = 3 (Isc)2 R1e Where Isc per phase value.

⇒ (Equivalent resistance referred to stator)
R1e = Wsc / 3 (Isc)2
Z1e = Vsc (Per phase) / Isc (Per phase)
⇒ (Equivalent reactance referred to stator)
X1e = √(Z1e)2 – (R1e)2
Features of Motor Starters
Today, motor starters are used on a large scale due to their list of beneficial features. The
following are some features of these highly useful electrical devices:
1. They facilitate the starting and stopping of the motor.
2. The starters are rated by power (horsepower, kilowatt) and current (amperes).
3. They provide the necessary overload protection for the motor.
4. The electrical device facilitates remote on/off control feature.
5. These devices allow you to make and break current rapidly (plugging and jogging).
Fundamental Functions of Motor Starters
The following are the most fundamental functions that a starter has to perform:
1. Control: The control function is mainly carried out by the contactor component of a
starter. It is controlling the opening and closing of the power electrical circuit. The
switching is done by the main contacts (poles) of the contactor. An electromagnetic coil
is energized, which open or close the contacts. This electromagnetic coil has a nominal
control voltage, and can either be an AC or DC voltage.
2. Short-Circuit Protection: In industrial applications, normal load current can be up to
thousands of amperes. In the case of a short-circuit fault, the fault current can go over
100,000 amperes. This can cause severe damage to the equipment. The short-circuit
protection disconnects the supply and prevents the potential damage in a safe manner.
Short circuit protection is provided by fuses or circuit breakers in a Combination Motor
Controller.
3. Overload Protection: When a motor draws more current than it is designed to, an
overload condition is caused. The main objective of an overload relay is to detect the
excess currents. When an overload is detected, the auxiliary contact of the overload relay
opens the circuit and prevents the motor from burning out or overheating. Electronic or
electromechanical overload relays are used in combination with a contactor to provide the
required overload protection.
4. Disconnecting and Breaking: In order to prevent an unintended restart, it is required to
disconnect the motor from the main power circuit. In order to safely perform maintenance
on a motor or starter, a motor must be able to switch off and be isolated from the power.
The disconnect switch of the circuit provides this function. Disconnecting and breaking is
provided by a disconnect switch or circuit breaker in a Combination Motor Controller (or
can be installed remotely from the starter).
NECESSITY OF A STARTER IN A THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The three phase induction motors are self starting due to rotating magnetic field. But the motors
have a tendency to draw very high current at the time of starting. Such a current can be five to
eight times the rated current and can damage the motor winding. Hence a starter is used
which can limit such high starting current. In a three phase induction motor, the magnitude of an
induced e.m.f. in the rotor circuit depends on the slip of the induction motor. This induced e.m.f.
effectively decides the magnitude of the rotor current. The rotor current in the running condition
is given by,

At start, the speed of the motor is zero and slip is at its maximum i.e. unity. So magnitude of
rotor induced e.m.f. is very large at start. As rotor conductors are short circuited, the large
induced e.m.f. circulates very high current through rotor at start. In a three phase induction
motor, when rotor current is high, the stator draws a very high current from the supply. This
current can be of the order of 5 to 8 times the full load current, at start.
Due to such heavy inrush of current at start

• There is possibility of damage of the motor winding.

• Causes large line voltage.
• Other appliances connected to the same line may be subjected to voltage spikes which
may affect their working.
To avoid such effects, it is necessary to limit the current drawn by the motor at start. The starter
is a device which is basically used to limit high starting current by supplying reduced voltage to
the motor at the time of starting. Such a reduced voltage is applied only for short period and once
rotor gets accelerated, full normal rated voltage is applied.
Functions of a Starter:
 limits the starting current
 provides the protection against overloading
 Provides the protection against low voltage situations.
 provides protection against single phasing
FOUR TYPES OF STARTING METHODS ARE EMPLOYED:

There are primarily two methods of starting the induction motor:-

a) Full voltage starting.

b) Reduced voltage starting.

Full voltage starting methods consist of:-

i) DOL (Direct-on-line) starting

Reduced voltage starting methods consists of:-

i) Stator resistor starting.

ii) Auto-transformer starting.
iii) Star-delta starting.

For slip ring Induction motor:-

i) Rotor resistance starting

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Slip Ring Induction Motor

 DOL (Direct-on-line) starting  DOL (Direct-on-line) starting

 Stator resistor starting (Primary  Stator resistor starting (Primary
resistors) resistors)
 Auto-transformer starting  Auto-transformer starting
 Star-delta starting.  Star-delta starting.
 Rotor resistance starting

i. DOL (Direct-on-line starting)

Working Of Direct On Line Starter

If large rating induction motors are connected directly to the supply, a heavy starting current can
damage the motor and also cause disturbance of voltage, i.e., voltage dip on mains supply. This
can lead malfunctioning of other equipments connected to the same supply.

Thus DOL starters are limited to small rating motors where distribution system (mains supply)
can withstand high starting currents without excessive voltage dips.

DOL starter consists of MCCB, contactor, and overload relay. It acts as a switch under normal
working condition by providing the means to switch ON and switch OFF the motor.
The wiring diagram for a DOL stater is shown below. A direct online starter consits of two
buttons, a GREEN button for starting and a RED for stopping purpose of the motor. The DOL
starter comprises of an MCCB or circuit breaker, contactor and an overload relay for protection.
These two buttons, i.e. Green and Red or start and stop buttons control the contacts.

When the start button is pressed, current will flow through one phase to the control circuit and
the contactor coil to the other phase. This current energizes the contactor coil which makes to
close the contacts thereby three phase supply is connected to the motor. Since the start button is
of pushbutton, when it is released the control circuit still maintains the supply through hold-on
contact.
If we press the stop button, the current through the contact becomes discontinued, hence supply
to the motor will not be available, and the similar thing will happen when the overload relay
operates. Since the supply of motor breaks, the machine will come to rest. The contactor coil
(Magnetizing Coil) gets supply even though we release start button because when we release
start button, it will get supply from the primary contacts as illustrated in the diagram of the
Direct Online Starter.
The thermal overload protection relay operates depending on the heating effect of the load
current. When the load current heats the thermal coils, bimetallic strip inside of it expands such
that it trips out the spring-loaded contact in the control circuit. The speed at which relay operates
decided by the current adjustment. Typically it will be four to five times the rated motor current.
Advantages of DOL Starter
1. Simple and most economical starter.
2. More comfortable to design, operate and control.
3. Provides nearly full starting torque at starting.
4. Easy to understand and troubleshoot.
5. DOL starter connects the supply to the delta winding of the motor.
Disadvantages of DOL Starter
1. High starting current (5-8 times of full load current).
2. DOL Starter causes a significant dip in voltage, hence suitable only for small motors.
3. DOL Starter reduces the lifespan of the machine.
4. Mechanically tough.
5. Unnecessary high starting torque
DOL Starter Applications
 The applications of DOL starters are primarily motors where a high inrush current does
not cause excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit (or where this high voltage drop is
acceptable).
 Direct on line starters are commonly used to start small water pumps, conveyor belts,
fans, and compressors. In the case of an asynchronous motor (such as the 3-phase
squirrel-cage motor) the motor will draw a high starting current until it has run up to full
speed.
i. Stator resistor starting.
In order to apply the reduced voltage to the stator of the induction motor, three resistances are
added in series with each phase of the stator winding. Initially the resistances are kept maximum
in the circuit. Due to this, large voltage gets dropped across the resistances. Hence a reduced
voltage gets applied to the stator which reduces the high starting current. The schematic diagram
showing stator resistances is shown in the Fig.
When the motor starts running, the resistances are gradually cut-off from the stator circuit. When
the resistances are entirely removed from the stator circuit i.e. rheostats in RUN position then
rated voltage gets applied to the stator Motor runs with normal speed.
  The starter is simple in construction and cheap.
 It can be used for both star and delta connected stator.
 Large power losses due to resistances.
 The starting torque of the motor reduces due to reduced voltage applied to the stator.
Given below is the figure for the starting resistor method:

 In this method we add resistor or a reactor in each phase as shown in the diagram (between
the motor terminal and the supply mains).Thus by adding resistor we can control the supply
voltage.
 Only a fraction of the voltage (x) of the supply voltage is applied at the time of starting of the
induction motor. The value of x is always less than one.
 Due to the drop in the voltage the starting torque also decreases.
 We will derive the expression for the starting torque in terms of the voltage fraction x in
order to show the variation of the starting torque with the value of x.
 As the motor speeds up the reactor or resistor is cut out from the circuit and finally the
resistors are short circuited when the motor reaches to its operating speed.
 Now let us derive the expression for starting torque in terms of full load torque for the stator
resistor starting method.
 Here various quantities that involved in the expression for the starting torques are written
below:

Ts as starting torque
Tf as full load torque
If as per phase rotor current at full load
Is as per phase rotor current at the time of starting
Sf as full load slip
Ss as starting slip
R2 as rotor resistance
Ns as synchronous speed of the motor

 Now we can directly write the expression for torque of the induction motor as

From the help of the above expression we write the ratio of starting torque to full load torque as

 Here we have assumed that the rotor resistance is constant and it does not vary with the
frequency of the rotor current.
 From the above equation we can have the expression for the starting torque in terms of the
full load torque.

Now at the time of starting the per phase voltage is reduced to xV1, the per phase starting current
is also reduced to xIs. On substituting the value of Is as xIs in equation 1. We have

This shows the variation of the starting torque with the value of x. Now there are some
considerations regarding this method. If we add series resistor then the energy losses are
increased so it’s better to use series reactor in place of resistor because it is more effective in
reducing the voltage however series reactor is more costly than the series resistance.

The Advantages of Using Stator Resistance Motor Starters:

 They are suitable for use in speed control applications.
 They have extremely flexible starting characteristics.
 They provide smooth acceleration.
ii. Auto Transformer Starting Method
As the name suggests in this method we connect auto transformer in between the three phase
power supply and the induction motor as shown in the given diagram:

 An Auto transformer Starter is suitable for both star and delta connected motors.
 In this method, the starting current is limited by using a three-phase auto transformer to
reduce the initial stator applied voltage.
 The figure above shows the motor with the Auto transformer starter.
 It is provided with a number of tappings. The starter is connected to one particular tapping to
obtain the most suitable starting voltage.
 A double throw switch S is used to connect the auto transformer in the circuit for starting.
 When the handle H of the switch S in the START position.
 The primary of the auto transformer is connected to the supply line, and the motor is
connected to the secondary of the auto transformer.
 When the motor picks up the speed of about 80 percent of its rated value, the handle H is
quickly moved to the RUN position. Thus, the auto transformer is disconnected from the
circuit, and the motor is directly connected to the line and achieve its full rated voltage. The
handle is held in the RUN position by the under voltage relay.
 If the supply voltage fails or falls below a certain value, the handle is released and returns to
the OFF position. Thermal overload relays provide the overload protection.
The Advantages of Using Auto Transformer Motor Starters:
 They can be used for manual speed control, but with limited options.
 They have extremely flexible starting characteristics.
 They have a high output torque.
iii. Star Delta Starter
The Star Delta Starter is a very common type of starter and is used extensively as compared to
the other type of starting methods of the induction motor. A star delta is used for a cage motor
designed to run normally on the delta connected stator winding. The connection of a three-phase
induction motor with a star delta starter is shown in the figure below.
When the switch S is in the START position, the stator windings are connected in the star as
shown below.

When the motor picks up the speed, about 80 percent of its rated speed, the switch S is
immediately put into the RUN position. As a result, a stator winding which was in star
connection is changed into DELTA connection now. The delta connection of the stator winding
in shown in the figure below.

Firstly, the stator winding is connected in star and then in Delta so that the starting line current of
the motor is reduced to one-third as compared to the starting current with the windings connected
in delta. At the starting of an induction motor when the windings of the stator are star connected,
each stator phase gets a voltage VL/√3. Here VL is the line voltage.
Since the developed torque is proportional to the square of the voltage applied to an induction
motor. Star delta starter reduces the starting torque to one-third that is obtained by direct delta
starting.
The Advantages of Using Star Delta Motor Starters:
 They are ideal for long acceleration times.
 They have a lower input surge current when compared to other starters.
 They have a simpler construction as compared to other starters.
i. Rotor resistance starting

 In a slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motor, resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit via
slip rings, so as to increase the starting torque.
 The starting current in the rotor winding is

 The input (stator) current is proportional to the rotor current as shown earlier. The starting
current (input) reduces, as resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit.
 But the starting torque,

increases, as the total resistance in the rotor circuit is increased.

 Though the starting current decreases, the total resistance increases, thus resulting in increase
of starting torque.
 If the additional resistance is used only for starting, being rated for intermittent duty, the
resistance is to be decreased in steps, as the motor speed increases. Finally, the external
resistance is to be completely cut out, i.e. to be made equal to zero, thus leaving the slip-rings
short-circuited.
 Here, also the additional cost of the external resistance with intermittent rating is to be
incurred, which results in decrease of starting current, along with increase of starting torque,
both being advantageous.
 Also it may be noted that the cost of a slip-ring induction is higher than that of IM with cage
rotor, having same power rating.
 So, in both cases, additional cost is to be incurred to obtain the above advantages. This is
only used in case higher starting torque is needed to start IM with high load torque.

The Advantages of Using Rotor Resistance Motor Starters:

 They are cost-effective.
 They have a simple speed control method.
 They provide low starting current, large starting torque, and large pull-out torque.
SPEED CONTROL OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

 An Induction motor is practically a constant speed motor that means, for the entire loading
range, change in speed of the motor is quite small.
 Speed of a DC shunt motor can be varied very easily with good efficiency, but in case of
Induction motors, speed reduction is accompanied by a corresponding loss of efficiency and
poor power factor.
 The speed control of induction motor is done at the cost of decrease in efficiency and low
electrical power factor.
 As induction motors are widely being used, their speed control may be required in many
applications.
We know that
NS  N
S
NS
N  N S (1  S )
120 f
NS 
P
120 f
N (1  S )
P
N = Rotor speed or speed of Induction motor
NS = Synchronous speed
Speed of Induction motor depends on
i) slip
ii) Frequency of supply
iii) Number of poles for which the windings are made
Different speed control methods of induction motor are explained below.
The speed control of three phase induction motor from stator side is classified as:
1. Controlling supply voltage (SCIM and SRIM)
2. Constant V / f control or frequency control (SCIM and SRIM)
3. Changing the number of stator poles (SCIM)
4. Adding rheostat in the stator circuit. (SCIM and SRIM)

The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor side are classified as:
1. Adding external resistance on rotor side (SRIM)
2. Cascade control method.
3. Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side (SRIM)

SPEED CONTROL FROM STATOR SIDE

1. Controlling Supply Voltage
The torque produced by running three phase induction motor is given by

Rotor resistance R2 is constant and for low slip region (sX)2 is very very small as compared
to R2. So, it can be neglected.
So torque becomes

Since rotor resistance, R2 is constant so the equation of torque further reduces to

We know that Rotor induced emf E2 ∝ V.

So, T ∝ sV2
 The equation above clears that if we decrease supply voltage torque will also decrease. But
for providing the same load torque, the torque must remain the same, and it is only possible if
we increase the slip and if the slip increases the motor will run at a reduced speed.
 This method, though the cheapest and the easiest, is rarely used because
 A large change in voltage is required for a relatively small change in speed