History Notes

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MATERIAL PRODUCTION FOR IMPROVED ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
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MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION
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SOCIAL SCIENCES TEACHERS ASSOCIATION OF ZAMBIA ( SOSTAZ)
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CENTRAL PROVINCE
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HISTOTY NOTES
MATERIAL PRODUCTION TEAM-2018
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AFRICAN HISTORY
EARLY SOCIETIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA
EARLY STONE AGE.
The stone age are so called because the men of these periods used mainly stone
tools. This period existed from about 55,000 – 40,000 years ago. An example of a
creature who lived in this period was Homo – habilis. These creatures were nomadic
like in nature and moved from one place to another in search of food and shelter.
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ENVIRONMENT
The early stone age cretures lived near rivers and water falls particularly
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the victoria and kalambo falls for three reasons
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(i) they wanted water for drinking
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(ii) they wanted to catch fish
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(iii) they wanted to hunt down the animals that came to drink water.
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THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE

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In the world fire was first discovered in China towards the end of the early stone
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age. Prehistorians believe that this was caused by the greater cold and rain.
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In Africa fire was first discovered at Kalambo Falls in the northern province of
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Zambia.
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Altough fire was first discovered in this period, these creatures did not have the
intelligence to use it to scare away the fierce animals. As a result they continued to live
in the open grassland and forest.
At Kalambo falls, the early men of Zambia appear to have built themselves some
kind of shelter. Archaeologist have found amongst the remains of Homo – habilis a
rough circle of stones which they called a Wind break.
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TOOLS.
The earliest tools to be made by these men was the pebble tool which could have been
used for crushing roots and pounding. This tool was followed by the handaxe then a
cleaver. Handaxes were tools which had a straight sharp edge on one end that could
have been used for digging and cutting the animals that they killed. The cleaver which
had a straight sharp edge on one end could have been used for chopping and skinning
animals. The handaxe could have been found in most parts of Africa.The bones and
tools of Early Stone Age creatures have been found in India, China, East Africa and
South East Asia.
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Proffessor Desmond Clark, is the archaeologist, who really began the study of the past
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in Zambia. He found evidence of wooden tools at Kalambo. These were preserved
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because they were in a place too wet for ants that is, these wooden tools were in
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different shapes, some were long thin pieces of wood with pointed ends and could have
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been used for digging up roots, as knives and also for fishing.The larger and heavier
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ones could have been used as a club.

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No bones of Early Stone Age creatures have been found in Zambia.

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(B) FOOD
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The food of Early Stone Age man include meat which he hunted fish, wild fruits,
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roots, leaves and edible grasses.

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THE MIDDLE STONE AGE (40 000- 10 000 years ago)
This period existed in the period between 40 000 to 10 000 years ago. The earliest of
these creatures lived about 40 000 years ago and latest of them about 10 000 years
ago. An example of creatures of this period was Broken Hill Man who lived in Central
Africa and Neanderherman who lived in North Africa and Europe. The remains of this
creature show that he was more advanced than Broken Hill man.
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Broken Hill man was discovered in 1921 by miners who were digging into kopjes or
small hills in Kabwe (broken hill). The miners found a big skull which was sent to
London museum were the scientist studied it and declared that it was a human head.
When this was radiocarbon dated it was estimated to have lived about 25 000 years
ago.
(A) APPEARANCE
(i) Brokenhill man looked like modern man
(ii) He had a smaller brain compared to that of modern man
(iii) he had a bigger brain compared to the earlier creatures
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(iv) he had a big strong body and a big forehead
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(v) he was about six feet tall. ( two feet taller than hommo- habilis).
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(B)ENVIROMENT
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Brokenhill man was more intelligent than Homo-Habilis and used his intelligence
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to scare away fierce animals using fire and so he was able to live safely in caves and
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was therefore protected from the hot sun,Wind and rain. During cooler nights and
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days the fire kept him warm.He even learnt how to cook his food.
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He moved up and down in search of food.The men of the Middle Stone Age lived in two
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enviroments
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a) Open grassland
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b) The forest
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a) OPEN GRASSLAND
Due to the difference the men of the grassland could not use trap snares
so succesfully as the forest men so they learnt to sharpen stone into
missile stones which they threw at the animals. So the men of the
grassland made better and lighter tools than those of the forest
b) THE FOREST
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The forest men developed heavy, clumsy tools needed for digging and
chopping down trees and branches.
QUESTION: WHY DID THE LATE STONE AGE PEOPLE IN ZAMBIA PRACTICE
ROCK PAINTING? DESCRIBE THEIR VARIOUS TYPES OF PAINTINGS AND
WHERE THEY ARE FOUND.
Late stone age people practised painting for many reasons; they did this as a
way of passing time, magic to strengthen themselves in hunting and in war.
They also did it for mere decoration and to express their way of life and also for
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spiritual or religious purposes.
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The types of paintings which they carried where naturalistc which was the oldest
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and found at many places in Zambia such as Nachikufu in Mpika, Mwela in
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Kasama and Nsalu in Serenje. The other was the dirty white wash which was a
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transition stage between Naturalistic and schematics which were found at all
sites in Zambia.
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Schematic was difficult to understand as the drawings looked like triangles and
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squares in mathematics and was found at Nsalu, Nachikufu and Nakapapula.

They also did engravings which are scratches or stabbings on the rock surfaces
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found at Chifubwa in Solwezi.

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The materials which they used for paintings were feathers, juice, sticks, soils,
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blood etc.
BANTU MIGRATION INTO CENTRAL AFRICAN BEFORE 1800 AD
The Bantu speaking people are the largest single group in central Africa. The
word Bantu means people with similar language characteristics.
Causes of the Bantu migration

Among the causes many contributing factors have been put forward such as the:
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1. Drying up of the Sahara

Could have forced them to migrate in search of water and grazing land;
2. Nature of occupation
The occupation of the Bantu for instance, farming, trading, and fishing contributed
to their migration. For example agriculturalists looking for fertile land, traders
looking for goods and after controlling the trade routes, hunters in search of game
and fishermen searching for big rivers.
3. Succession disputes
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Led those who were defeated to leave for other lands. They fled the new wrath /
anger of those new chiefs they had opposed.
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4. Witch hunting
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Because of this practice convicted people like those who wee accused of practicing
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witchcraft, theft and other crimes left in disappointment and went to new areas.
5. Tribal wars
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Also prompted/ forced people to migrate especially after they were defeated.
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6. Slave trade
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As people fled from slave drivers, this also contributed towards migration.
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7. Population increase
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As a result of good food like bananas, cassava and maize and the fact that some
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people stayed in one place for a long time was another contributing factor.
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Moreover, land became exhausted so they had to migrate.

8. Customs
Their customs, especially, matrilineal could have led them to migrate. Sons of ruling
chiefs could not succeed their fathers due to the matrilineal custom of succession. If
they still wanted to be chiefs they had to migrate to other areas.
9. Some were interested for Adventure’s sake
Adventure played its part in the migration, especially for those who saw other places
better than their place.
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10. Ambition
On the other hand ambitions by some rulers to dominated or conquer other groups
and bring them under their control was another factor.
11. Chitemene system
The system of shifting cultivation also contributed to migration.
Course of the Bantu migration
The Bantu migration from their original locations to where they settled later can be
described as follows:
The first group to leave was a small group which passed through Congo forest
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following Zaire River into Katanga around the fifth century. They camped in DRC ( Zaire
) because of the good grazing land, fertile soil and mineral deposits. From Katanga
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region by 16th century a wave of immigrants migrated into Central Africa.
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The second group migrated between the 15th century from the Northeast Africa via
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Tanzania and the western side of Lake Malawi. The descendants of this group are
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probably the Tumbuka, Tonga of Malawi and Tonga, Ila in the Zambezi valley. At the
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same time the Shona, Rozwi, Karanga group took a shorter route by crossing the
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Zambezi River and settled in present day Zimbabwe, before the 18th century. Also in
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these groups were the Hungwe who moved southwards from the north, ending up in
South Africa were they were assimilated.
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Forerunners of the Nguni and Sotho speaking people came from North East Africa
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via Tanzania and western side of Malawi where the Shona, Rozwi Karanga displaced
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them they fled south and south-west until they settled in South Africa in the ninth and
14th centuries.
Early Luba groups running away from the rule of Kongolo settled west of Lake
Malawi and Shire Rivers. This was around the 14th century.
Later groups running away the rule of Kalala Ilunga settled in Zambia like the
Bemba and Kaonde.
Along with this group came the Lala, Bisa and Kunda who settled in Zambia. The
Lunda kingdom of Mwata Yamvo from the 16th to 18th centuries among others send:
 Kinguri to Angola in the west
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 Chinyama to the south founded the Luvale and the Luanda kingdoms
 Mwambwa founded the Luyi kingdom in the Zambezi flood plains further west
by about 1650 AD.
Mwata Kazembe founded Mwata Kazembe kingdom south of Lake Mweru about 1700.
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BANTU EARLY WAY OF LIFE

Economy and Technology
The economic activities of the Bantu included farming, keeping of animals such
as cattle and goats, trading, fishing and hunting. The Bantu also did mining on a small
scale. The Bantu knew how to smelt mineral ores such as iron from which they made
different tools. They knew how to weave baskets and make pots.
Social Organisation
They lived in small family households which belonged to a clan. There was
division of labour between male and female. Women weaved baskets and made clay
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pots. They lived in huts made of poles usually by men. These were arranged in circular
form with cattle kraal in the middle for protecting their animals. Their food comprised of
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mealy meal porridge, fruits, game meat, vegetables and fish. They also drank beer from
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sorghum and millet. They wore bark cloth and danced and sang in their spare time.
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They used to cooperate during funerals, weddings, field cultivation and religious
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ceremonies. They all treated cattle as sacred animals used for religious ceremonies and
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paying lobola during marriage ceremonies.

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Political Organisation
Family households were under the control of the eldest male member of the
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house hold. The clan was controlled by the eldest member. Family house hold joined to
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form clans, clans joined to form villages headed by the headman. Villages formed a
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tribe headed by a chief (chiefdom or a king (kingdom). All these rulers were semi –
divine and ruled in consultation with elders of the tribe. The strength of a kingdom was
measured on the usefulness of its rulers, to some extent their authority depend on the
environment.
Religious Believes
All Bantu people believed in a Superior being whom they called by different
names according to their tribes. For example the Luyi called their god Nyambe. They
approached these gods through there political leaders in conjunction with prophets and
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priests. There was a spirit for each action. For instance there was a family spirit, rain
marker spirit and ancestral spirit. Among the Shona there was Chabinuka (the rain
Marker, Mhondolo (priest, Kingumbi and Nehanda (the prophets) Mwari their god.
ceremonies were usually done under the ―Msoro‖ tree or an ant-hill or on the grave of
the dead ancestor. They offered sacrifices of meat from their cattle, beer and a lot of
food.
2. LUBA LUNDA MIGRATION INTO CENTRAL AFRICA BEFORE 1800 A.D.

They originated from Eastern Congo grassland for both kingdoms at about 1500 to
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1550 for the Luba kingdoms and about 1600 for the Lunda kingdom. There were three
kingdoms namely two Luba kingdoms on the Lualaba River and One Lunda kingdom on
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the Kasai River.
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The Luba- Lunda migrations are sometimes referred to as the Luba- Lunda
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dispersal. This is the movement of the people from Luba- Lunda empires into present
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day Zambia, parts of Angola and Malawi. The migration began in about 1550.
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Causes of the Luba – Lunda Migrations

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The following were some of the causes; Firstly, there was direct expansion, The
Luba and Lunda chiefs wanted to expand their territories and sent agents into present
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day Zambia to monitor such extensions. Some of these agents established large
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kingdoms in Zambia and became independent of their original kings as was in the case
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of Mwata Kazembe.
The second one was population growth which was as a result of the introduction
of new crops such as maize, beans and groundnuts by the Portuguese and new crops
needed fertile land. Population increase led to land shortage, hence some people
moved in search of arable land for settlement.
Thirdly, the Luba- Lunda empires grew bigger by conquering the surrounding
small chiefdoms and brought them under their control, this led to political conflicts.
Related to the political conflicts, is the question of succession disputes. When the
ruling king died, there were usually disputes among relatives of the dead kings as to
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who should become the next king. Those chiefs or kings who lost in these disputes,
decided to move elsewhere where they hoped to establish themselves as leaders.
Fifthly, were social conflicts. Some people who were suspected of witchcraft,
adultery or theft usually opted to flee their homes. Some were even forced by leaders
to move elsewhere.
Sixthly, the conquered people had to pay tax or tributes to the ruling kings.
Those who failed to pay tributes were sold as slaves to the Portuguese thus taxation
and slavery were also contributing factors
Furthermore, some individuals were running away from harsh treatment from
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their rulers.
Lastly, some people left Katanga as adventurers with a hope to do better
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elsewhere. They would go out with few followers wandering or hunting, in the process,
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they would come across people with a weak ruler. With the knowledge of chieftainship,
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the hunters would establish themselves as rulers. This seems to have been the origin of
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the Lenje line of rulers.
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This is how people migrated into present day Zambia, Malawi and Angola from
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the two Katanga states of Luba and Lunda.

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Effects of the Bantu Migrations

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The Bantu migration into Central Africa before 1800 had far reaching
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consequences to the way of life of the people they came into contact with. It is cardinal
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to bear in mind that these Bantu speaking people had various occupations; some were
agriculturalists, pastoralists, and hunters. While others were blacksmith smelters of
copper and other minerals. In short, their early way of life was totally different from
that of the Khoisan, both socially, politically and economically. Therefore, the movement
from their location to Central Africa resulted into the following effects.
Political and Social changes
The Bantu migrations led into the building up of powerful centralized states, which
continued to expand and integrate other tribes. In other words tribes were transformed
from small locally led Iron Age communities to politically significant and well organized
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kingdoms or chiefdoms like the Bemba, Lozi, Ngoni, Mwene mutapa, Mwata Kazembe
and the Malawi kingdoms of Kalonga and Undi.
Socially, they brought their way of life with them, such as living as a family
household belonging to a clan and setting up of permanent homes by building huts
made of poles. Their food comprised of what we call nshima today, supplemented by
game meat, vegetables, fish and they also drunk beer from sorghum and millet. They
brought the idea of wearing cloths, recreation and religious ceremonies.
They also brought the idea of clan or villages, co-operating during funerals,
weddings and field cultivation.
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Economically, they brought new skills in agriculture and new crops such as beans,
millet, sorghum and sweet potatoes. They also brought Pastoralism, fishing and
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smelting copper. Women dealt with pottery and basket weaving. In addition trade was
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another form of occupation they came with. This is evident from Mwata Kazembe who
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joined the coast-to-coast trade route centered at his kingdom. The Lozi kingdom traded
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with the Mbunda on the west coast. From 1853 Bemba kingdom took over this trade.
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The same thing happened to Mwene mutapa, Rozwi and Malawi kingdoms of Kalonga
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and Undi, which traded with the Portuguese along the coast of East Africa.
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THE LUBA EMPIRE.

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ORIGIN
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The Luba kingdom is said to have been situated between Lake Tanganyika and
the upper Kasai River. The ancestors of the Luba Katanga people lived in the central
part between Bushimai River and the Katanga lakes. The western part was ruled by the
Bungo who are said to have been the ancestors of the Lunda people. The east is said to
have been inhabited by the Kalanga people. About 1,500 years ago a great immigrant
named Kongolo (belonging to the Songye dynasty) is said to have appeared in the
Kalanga lands and conquered the isolated villages and tiny chiefdoms and built his
capital at Mwibele near Lake Boya. He became the first founder of the first Luba
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Empire. Kongolo conquered the isolated villages and tiny chiefdoms and built his capital
at Mwibele near Lake Boya. He became the first founder of the first Luba Empire. Some
time later a hunter called Ilunga Mbili arrived from some place east of the Lualaba
belonging to the Kunda dynasty. He was well received by Kongolo and even married
two of his half sisters: Bulanda bore Kalala Ilunga and Mabele bore Kisulu Mabale.
Kalala Ilunga after defeating Kongolo‘s men is said to have been the founder of the
second Luba Empire although it was the same kingdoms. He was able after wars of
conquest to establish his new capital at Munza.
POLITICAL ORGANISI TION
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Politically, the Luba had a central government which consisted of the king at the
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top and his title holders who included the war leaders (the twite) keeper of the sacred
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emblems (the Inabanza) and also the most important provincial chief and the third
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main chief called the Sungu. All chiefs with the exception of the owners of the land
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were called Balopwe. The Balopwe had all powers to depose a chief and his capital was
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called Kitenta. However, every new founder a new capital was instituted.
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All the title – holders resigned at the death of the King who had appointed them.
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The new King had the right to forget about them altogether or reconfirm them in their
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old positions or give them new offices. It is thought that since a new title – holder had
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to pay heavy taxation in the form of presents to the King as appreciation for the
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appointment. The titles were in fact bought. Although many titles were not hereditary it
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was close relations to the king that held certain titles. Kingship was based on the
concept of Balopwe which was a sacred quality vested in the blood of and transmission
through male descent of Kalongo or Kalala Ilunga. It is for this reason that the king was
believed to have supernatural powers and divine rights although there seems to have
been a superior council for the purpose of counter balancing his powers.
Moreover, his powers seem to have been temporal, he had half brothers who
might want to oust him from power with the support of their mothers‘ patrilineage
which could be backed by the court and the people if the King was cruel to them. Unlike
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the Lunda, the Luba did not leave the conquered people under their original chiefs but
placed one or two Luba families and a chief from the central government to supervise
the vassal state. The Luba unlike were patrilineal.
EXPANSION
The empire expanded around 1700 when Mwine Kadilo succeded on the throne of
Kalala Ilunga. Mwine Kadilo fought many Songye groups, although he did not
incorporate them into his kingdom. His son Kekenya also fought wars, but the actual
expansion of the kingdom took place under Kekenya‘s son, Ilunga Sungu, and his
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successor Kumwimba Ngombe. Some chiefdoms east of the Lualaba were conquered
and annexed to the kingdom. Those in the Lomotwa country were made tributary, and
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in the Kiambi area on the Luvua, warriors were stationed there to prevent invasion from
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the Bemba.
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The expansion reached its peak under Kumwimba Ngombe. After him the succession
struggle became greater which led to the decline.
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COLLAPSE OF THE LUBA EMPIRE

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The decline of this kingdom started with the death of Ndai a Mujinga who was killed by
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his brother, Ilunga Kabale who also died in 1850. There followed a series of
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succession disputes, weakening the loyal hood. Another reason for decline was the
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localized patrilineal groups retaining too many political functions; because they were not
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fully controlled by the Loyal hood.
THE LUNDA KINGDOM
ORIGIN
The Lunda kingdom of Mwata Yamvo was founded by Chibinda Ilunga, son of
Kalala Ilunga around 1550 along the Kasai River.
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Chibinda Ilunga married Lueji daughter of Kongolo. At this time Lueji was
heiress and after becoming king he brought all Lunda states into his control and came
up with a one huge Lunda kingdom. This newly formed kingdom had its capital at
Musumba on the Lualaba River.
Since Lueji did not bore Chibinda Ilunga a son, he married a second wife
Kamonga Lwaza.Following this, a royal line of rulers came from this second wife whose
son Lusenge when he became king introduced the territorial and court titles. It was
during his ruler ship that the basis of the present Lunda political structure was
built.Lusenge‗s son and successor Mwata Yamvo Naweeji continued the work of his
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father and became the first Mwata Yamvo which means master of wealth.
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POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
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Politically there were systems in the Lunda structure; the positional succession and
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perpetual kingship. By positional succession, the successor to the throne
inherited not only the office but also the positional status that had been held by
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the deceased such as his name, house, family and possessions and by perpetual
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kingship each person appointed to a position of authority had to be related to

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the king in one way or the other.

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It was possible for instance to regard certain title – holders as father, son, uncle or
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nephew even if that was not the actual relationship. If for example the original
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holders of the two Lunda titles had a true blood relationship of father and son,
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their successor in those respective positions would continue to relate. It has

been argued that in practice these two mechanisms proved extremely useful to
the day to day political administration of the Lundas.
Unlike the Luba who did not practice the system of indirect rule, the Lunda practiced
this system. The Lunda incorporated the defeated peoples but were allowed to retain
their own chiefs. However, these chiefs were appointed by the Lunda and were given
Lunda titles and guided into Lunda like – organization. In this way, the owners of the
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land became a honoured and respected people. By this method Lunda customs were
introduced indirectly among a non – Lunda people and consequently a Lunda Colony
could be formed in a non- Lunda area.
At the capital the king and his title-holders comprised the centralized government. The
king appointed officials of all title- holders and had powers to dispose officials of all
ranks. In his day to day running of the state, he was assisted by three types of all ranks
as follows:
The first group comprised headmen of fifteen oldest villages such as the chief who was
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a magician and the custodian of tombs for the deceased kings.
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The second group resided at the capital and included all those that were closely related
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to the king by perpetual kingship such as the perpetual mother, perpetual aunt and the
crown prince who was also the war leader. ia
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The third group included the tributary chiefs who lived in the country side. These chiefs
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had permanent representatives at the king‘s capital called Ntomb. Within the country
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side the Cilolo collected tribute from the chiefs and the people which was presented to
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the King. It must be remembered that tribute collection was a very outstanding
characteristic in the Lunda Empire. Those nearer to the capital had to pay tax several
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times in the year whilst those further away only paid once a year in the dry season. The
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capital which by 1875 had recorded a population of between eight to ten thousand
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people relied for its sustenance entirely on tribute in food form.

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Every district was linked to the Kings court by a special representative based at the
court. There was no regular standing army apart from a small police force at the
capital. However, in times of attack they quickly re- mobilized themselves for defense
and attack.
It reached its peak about 1680 under Mwata Yamvo Muteba.
EXTENT OF MWATA YAMVO’S KINGDOM.
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When it reached its greatest expansion, the Lunda kingdom from Zaire sent off the
following:
- Kinguri went to Angola

- Chinyama went to the south and founded the Luvale and Luena Kingdoms
- Mwambwa left and founded the Aluyi (Lozi) Kingdom along the Zambezi flood
plain by 1650 AD.
- Ishinde founded a kingdom in the Zambezi district
- Kanongesha founded a kingdom in Solwezi and Kasempa
Mwata Kazembe founded Mwata Kazembe kingdom south of Lake Mweru, about
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1700.
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KAZEMBE’S LUNDA KINGDOM
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Origin and Establishment ia
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This Kingdom originated from the already existing kingdom of Mwata Yamvo which
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was in Katanga region. Around 1700 A.D Mwata Yamvo Muteba strived to expand
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Lunda domination east of his kingdom through conquest so that he could extend his tax
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base in terms of trade goods.

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With this in mind history has it that Mutanda Yembe Yembe was sent to expand the
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kingdom eastwards. He was accompanied by Chinyata. Sad to say Mutanda Yembe

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Yembe was not loyal to Mwata Yamvo. Chinyanta reported him to Mwata Yamvo,
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following this report Mutanda Yembe Yembe killed Chinyanta.To show appreciation
Mwata Yamvo honoured Chinyata posthumously by giving his son Nganda Bilonda the
title of Mwata Kazembe on condition that he had to continue the eastward expansion.
However, Bilonda is said to have drowned in the Luapula while carrying out the mission.
He was succeeded by Kanyembo who became Kazembe II. By 1725 Kanyembo was the
ruler of a vast kingdom to the east of the Lualaba and mainly in the Luapula valley
area.
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Mwata Yamvo gave the symbols of power of a Lunda king, comprising a knife, staff,
belt, beads, rings, dress, and a cutting of the Mutaba tree to be planted at Kazembe II‘s
new capital.
Kazembe II defeated the Ushi, Chungu, Chibwe and the Shila around 1740. By 1760 the
Mutaba tree was planted at the village of the defeated Shila chief, Katele.
Reasons for Expansion
The Expansion of this kingdom is said to be fairly rapid. It started under the first Mwata
Kazembe Ng‘anda Bilonda who unfortunately drowned while crossing the Luapula River
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in 1725.
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The following reasons for expansion are cited by historians: The Kingdom had a well
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organised political structure. They were skilled fighters and had a powerful army,
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military discipline and guns from the Portuguese. Kazembe III, Ilunga Lukwesa
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completed the Lunda expansion to the east. He conquered Nsama‘s Tabwa, some of
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Mporokoso‘s Lungu, and Nkuba‘s Shila.

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Under Kazembe III the Lunda Kingdom covered a vast area from Mwata Yamvo on the
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Lualaba to Zambia‘s Luapula valley.

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The kingdom was rich in natural resources such as fish, salt, copper and iron, slaves,
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ivory and food.

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Trade therefore was one of the contributing factors to the expansion of Mwata
Kazembe‘s kingdom who managed to monopolise it. This was well organised, salt,
copper, iron and slaves were all exported. The kingdom was strategically located in
terms of trade routes. By 1800 Kazembe‗s capital was the centre of trade routes
crossing the continent. Kazembe obtained guns and woolen goods, Indian cloth, beads
and other manufactures. He redistributed cloth and beads, whilst keeping the guns
firmly in his own hands.
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Conquered chiefs like Nkuba could retain their power as owners of land on condition of
returning tribute to Kazembe.
Factors that led to its decline.
The decline started from the 19th century during the reign of Mwata Kazembe IV who
was called Keleka due to the following;
In the first place Keleka was economically and militarily weak so he depended on
external aid. These donors dictated affairs in the kingdom to their benefit.
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Secondly, after Keleka‘s death in 1862 civil war broke out for twenty years from 1862 –
1882 and weakened it. Traders took advantage of this situation to infiltrate into the
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kingdom before a new Mwata Kazembe came up.
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Thirdly, Mwata Kazembe lost control of long distance trade routes to both coasts. West
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coast route went to Msiri while the east coast route went to the Yao and Swahili. In
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addition sub – chiefs like Tabwa, Bwile and Bisa revolted.
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Fourthly, the rise of powerful kingdoms which challenged Mwata Kazembe such as
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Msiri‘s Yeke and the Bemba Kingdom. Many conquered people found no protection from
Mwata Kazembe so they broke away. They either traded on their own or joined the
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expanding Bemba kingdom.

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Lastly the arrival of the Ngoni warriors also contributed to the decline of Kazembe
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kingdom.
THE BEMBA KINGDOM
Origin of the Bemba Kingdom
Origins of the Bemba lay in Katanga. They were an off shot of chief Mukulumpe, the
kingdom emerged around 1650.
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Mukulumpe and Mumbi Makasa were blessed with children Chiti, Nkole, Katongo and
Chabala. The chief‘s children built a tower which collapsed and killed many people. The
chief‘s children fled away as they were joined by their half brother Kazembe, Chishimba
and Mumbi Mukasa.
One (side) group of Bena Ng‘ona remained on the western side of Lake Bangweulu and
gave rise to new tribes such as Ngumbo, Mukulu, Chishimba and Lungu.
Chiti main Bemba continued moving eastwards along the Chambeshi river, they
conquered the Lala and the Bisa and gave them new chiefs. They entered Nsengaland
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and it was here where chief Mwase killed Chiti, Nkole avenged Chiti‘s death and first
ruled through his subordinate Chishimba.
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The Bemba chiefs assumed the title of Chiti Mukulu meaning the great one, it was from
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the Chinsali capital that they started to expand their kingdom.
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Organisation and Reasons for expansion:
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The following were some of the reasons for expansion:

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Since the environment was poor, in order for the Bemba to survive, they had to become
raiders of other kingdoms rich in resources.
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Good leadership as shown by Chileshe Chepela managed to conquer some of the

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surrounding groups. Association of Chiti Mukulu with ritual powers, people believed that
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Chiti Mukulu had some ordinary powers; this made the Chiti Mukulu maintain his
authority.
The Ngoni raids helped the Bemba to unite against common enemy, this unity of
purpose assisted the Bemba expansion
The distance trade between Kazembe, Swahili, Arabs and Portuguese helped Chiti
Mukulu to increase his wealth.
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By nature the Bemba were fearless, they became proud of conquering other tribes. This
led to assimilation of other tribes, this was a Bemba policy.
Socially the Bemba lived a village life and someone in the name of the village headman
looked after the village. He settled disputes and collected tribute. He encouraged
communal work, they were matrilineal that is to say inheritance was through the
mothers‘ line. Marriage was such that the husband had to live with the parents of the
wife.
Polygamy was not common among the ordinary people only the chief allowed to have
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several wives. The Bemba also practiced initiation ceremony (chisungu) the Bemba
emphasized on clan for example the Bena Bowa and Bene Ng‘andu
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Religious organisation
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The Bemba believed in worshiping the ancestral spirits associated with this belief was
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that elders had to be treated carefully so that they could die a happy people. The
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traditional priests mediated between the dead and the living. They had tribal shrine holy
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places like rocks and big trees where they went to pay homage
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Chiti Mukulu had absolute power, his powers were unquestionable. He made all political
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appointments. Under him were subordinate chief for example Mwamba and Nkole
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mfumu, under the subordinate chief were village headmen and at the bottom were
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common people organized in families.
Economical aspects
The Bemba practiced small scale agriculture based on chitemene, because of the poor
environment they could not raise animals. Under the chitemene system, they grew
sorghum and later cassava. They fished from the surrounding lakes and rivers. This was
done by poisoning the fish, trapping in a basket. They also hunted elephants to obtain
ivory.
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Apart from that the Bemba chief traded in ivory, salt and iron on a small scale and
raiding others for items was a very important economic activity together with tribute
(taxation) of other people.
Why it declined
The Kingdom declined because of the following: Sub chiefs like Mwamba began to
challenge the authority of Chiti Mukulu. Eventually Mwamba broke away. He declared a
large section of the kingdom, in this way Chiti Mukulu lost a large section of tribute
from his subjects
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Weak leadership also contributed especially after the reign of Chiti Mukulu Nsampa,
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successors proved to be weak leaders.
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The coming of colonial rule that used force when Chiti Mukulu could not co-operate.
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For example in 1896 the BSA Company declared Lubemba a British protectorate
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territory. As a result Chiti Mukulu lost his power over the kingdom. He only became an
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agent of colonial rule, hard on tax collection, and therefore, colonial rule had a lot of
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negative consequences on the strength of the Bemba.

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ALUYI (LOZI) KINGDOM UP TO 1835

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ORIGIN
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The Luyi kingdom originted from kingdom in Katanga although the Luyi claim that they
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have their origin in Bulozi. Mwambwa was their leader. Her successor was her daughter
Mbuyamwambwa. This was about 1650.AD
IN ZAMBEZI FLOOD PLAINS
The Luyi formed states each independent of other and headed by a ―ROTSE‖.
They were all without the Zamebzi river which overflowes once every year. When water goes
back into the river, fertile silt remains bedhind which people use for agriculture. To ensure a
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fair distribution of this fertile land especially when the population grew, a strong and
centralized government was needed. This is how the female rulers gave way to male rulers
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
1. LITUNGA: Strong and efficient
2. MULONGWANJI COUNCIL: (a) To advise the Litunga

(b)To make sure his orders are carried out
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3. ROTSE (INDUNAS): Most of them were in charge of Lilalo.
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4. LILALO (DISTRICTS): (a) To provide an army for the Litunga
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(b) To work on public works planned by the government
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5. VILLAGE (Headed by INDUNAS).
The government planned the buildings of canals, fish dams, and sites for
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villages. This was to provide means of transport on the Zambezi River and encourage the
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development of various skills for providing food and different items for inter-district trade.
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The Litunga capitalized on this trade to gain more political power.

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EXPANSION
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Expansion started during the first Litunga called Mboo Muyunda, who was the
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son of Mbuyamwambwa and Rotse of Kalabo. Some relatives of Mboo left the area in
protest and established their own independent states. These included Mange of the
Kwangwa and Mwanambinyi of the Kwandi. Mboo also sent out some of his relatives to
establish Luyi rule in the surrounding areas through the use of force or diplomacy. But also
declare their independence from Mboo. Therefore, this early expansion lacked a centralized
political system.
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Mboo then tried to centralize this kingdom by defeating these independent states
one by one but he was killed when he tried to defeat Mwanambinji.
Second and third Litunga went as far as Mboo had gone and ended up being killed also.
The Fourth Litunga Ngalama centralized the political structure by defeating Mange and
Mwanambinji. While the Fifth Litunga kept the situation as it was under Ngalama.
The Sixth Litunga Ngombala (Ngambela) introduced a co-ruler at Nalolo for this
centralized state. He was to rule the conquered people and was not allowed to become
senior Litunga. He was not supposed to be a Luyi but one of the conquered people.
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He introduced long distance trade with the west coast. He conquered more tribes but
which were not supposed to be assimilated so they felt separate and independent.
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Succession to the Litungaship was by civil war which left the kingdom weak.
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Examples of groups he conquered were Totela, Shanjo, subiya and Mashi. The
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relationship between the Litungaship and his co-rulers was unhealthy so it made him
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have very little control over the subordinate chiefs who obeyed the co-ruler more than
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the Litunga. All these achievements of Ngombala (Ngambela) created the weakness
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within the kingdom especially when other Litingas came up who did not understand
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these changes. The seventh and two successive Litungas maintained the situation as it
was under Ngombala (Ngambela).
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Tenth Litunga: Mulambwa ruled approximately between 1778-1830. He brought

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the kingdom to its greatest extent. He had over 25 different ethnics groups under his
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control. He introduced a law code for the leaders and people. He made his son
―MUBUKWANU‖ as his co-ruler and his other son ―SULUMELUME‖ as his heir. He
skillfully handled the Mbunda immigrants of Mwene Chiengele and Mwene Kandala
because of their skill as dancers and magicians but rejected direct trade with Mbari and
Ovimbundu because they were dangerous as trade partners. This was dangerous as
these opened up new trade routes away from the Luyi kingdom and diverted all the
trade to their new routes.
AFTER THE DEATH OF MULAMBWA

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Civil war weakened the kingdom. It was between the co-ruler and Silumelume
helped by the Mbunda. At this point Kololo people led by Sebetwane from the South
entered the kingdom between 1833-1835. They joined the civil war by enlisting one
candidate against the other with the help of the conquered people and new migrants.
By 1840 the Luyi surrendered and Sebetwane was in total control. His skillful leadership
and experience in fighting with the Assegai made him win the civil war.
REACTIONS OF THE LUYI
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Some Luyi under the Rotse accepted Kololo rule. Some fled with Mbunda support to
Nyengo in the west and Lukwakwa(Lukulu) in the north where they formed important
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centres of opposition.
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KOLOLO RULE (RULE OF SEBETWANE) 1835 – 1864.
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The Kololo rule is divided into two parts: Firstly, the rule of Sebitwane which
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began in 1835 to 1851 and secondly that of Sekeletu who ruled from 1852 to 1863.
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The rule of Sebitwane was a fair one. He made minor changes like changing the name
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Luyi to Lozi, Siluyana Language was changed to Sesuto.Conquered people were called
―Makalaka‖. He scattered many Kololo Indunas to various districts as governors taking
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over the Rotse. But he also confirmed many Rotse in their own power and took them
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into his royal council.

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Kololo rulers were told not to look down on the conquered people.Sebitwane
gained confidence of both the Kololo and Makalaka.
Another method he used to have a grip on the conquered was through inter
marriages. He married even from the so called Makalaka women. Furthermore he
adopted a successful policy of fusing the Kololo and the Makalaka that in the end the
Lozi adopted the name Kololo on their own and even gave themselves as soldiers when
the kingdom was attacked by the Ndebele of Mzilikazi and by Nxaba.
Sebitwane also mixed freely with his people and took them as his children. As if
this was not enough he took care of the poor and those starving at his palace using
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excess food he stored in time of plenty. Unlike the previous Luyi kings Sebitwane
appeared frequently in public. Defence wise in 1851 he decided to move his capital to
Linyanti due to constant Ndebele attacks. Linyanti was a swampy area so it offered
protection for his people but later it proved unfavourable due to malaria.
As a way of pleasing the Lozi he encouraged his Kololo to adopt a matriarchal
system and customs in an effort to please the Lozi though this was misunderstood so
the Kololo put up an heiress to the throne. This was unheard of in the old Luyi setting
so it was something that made the Luyi to look for an opportune time to rebel.
It was the same Sebitwane who met and welcomed Livingstone in 1851 and he agreed
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to make his country the base for missionary work in Central Africa.
Unfortunately he died in the same year, leaving behind a strong and well
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organized kingdom. He appointed his daughter ―Mamochisane‖ as his successor but she
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abdicated the throne after ruling for not more than ten (10) months in favour of her
brother Sekeletu.
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RULE OF SEKELETU 1852 – 1863

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Sekeletu was the opposite of his father in character and rule. He was childish,
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wasteful, cruel and distrustful of people. Some historians have connected all this to the
fact that he was a leper this made him very short – tempered.
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He removed all the Rotse and old Kololo governors and replaced them with his
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own childish age mates. In the same vain he encouraged the Kololo to mistreat the
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Makalaka.
The idea of consolidating his hold through inter marriages was not there, neither
did he fetch for the poor and the starving people at his palace nor did he mix freely
with his people.
He encouraged separate tribal development. He did nothing for the Kololo who
were dying with malaria at Linyanti.Those who tried to leave Linyanti for other places
were ruthlessly returned.
Unlike his father who used to keep food for the poor, Sekeletu wasted all the
food for the needy days on useless parties; this was because he did not have a child.
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In the last mile of his rule he lost the trust and confidence of both the Kololo and
the Makalaka who were all waiting for a chance to get rid of him. Many Lozis fled with
their leaders to Nyengo and Lukulu to reinforce opposition against Kololo rule. Sekeletu
died in early 1863.
AFTER THE DEATH OF SEKELETU,
Two civil wars rocked the kingdom in 1863.
One civil war was among the Kololo to choose the successor to Sekeletu. They ended
up choosing Mporolo. And another one among the Lozi to choose a challenger and they
chose Sipopa, son of the late tenth Litunga. By 1864 Mporolo and Sipopa fell into civil
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war until Sipopa helped by Prime minister Ngambela Njekwa and those opposing from
Nyengo and Lukulu won.
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Sipopa therefore, became the first Litunga after Kololo defeat. Kololo men were
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killed while women were given as wives to the Lozi men.
RESTORATION OF THE LOZI KINGDOM.
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Sipopa was over thrown by Mwanawina a son of Mulambwa in 1876.Mwanawina ruled
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up to 1878 when he was overthrown by Lubosi who became Lewanika.

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LEWANIKA’S RULE.
Externally, the Lozi kingdom faced many attacks from the Ndebele of Mzilikazi and the
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Ngoni of Nxaba.
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Internally Lewanika faced a lot of problems, hence the fear of being overthrown thus he
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did the following:

Firstly, he gave the post of the co- ruler to a woman so that he could have a firm hand
on her. Secondly, he ordered the killing of all male children in case a rival could arise
from them. This action created more enemies for him. Thirdly, he frequently visited the
conquered so that his presence would be felt. Fourthly, he had the fear that
Mulongwanji could over throw him as to what Tatila Akufuna did in 1884 85 so he had
to please members of the Mulongwanji by giving them freedom and privileges to control
over the land and over the Indunas in their Lilalo.
Page 27
To be sure of his safety he made friends who could help him in case of a rebellion. For
example he had Traders like George West beech at Pandamatenga, Chief Khama of the
Ngwato people, Francis Coillard and the Paris Evangelical Missionaries. And last but not
the Least the BSA Company which in the end took over control of Barotse land.
MARAVI KINGDOMS
KALONGA KINGDOM.
Origin
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The following points outline the origin of Kalonga Kingdom. The Phiri clan which
grew powerful in southern Malawi in the early 1400s, claimed to inherit its authority
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from Luba kingdom under Kongolo. Some of the earliest people to settle around Lake
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Malawi were the Tumbuka people. They settled together with the Saan in the 13th
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century. They were joined by Luba immigrants under the leadership of Kalonga.
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Mazizi Kalonga led them out of Luba Kingdom but he died on the way so his
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maternal nephew by the name of Kabunduli Phiri took over leadership up to Malawi.
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The Phiris married into the local Banda clan and developed their own concept of
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kingship, based upon the authority of local religious rituals. Over the course of the 16th
century they founded the Kalonga, Lundu, and Undi kingdoms—known collectively as
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the Maravi Confederacy—in the rich elephant-hunting lands between Lake Malawi and
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the Zambezi River. These people who migrated came to be known as the Njanja
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speakers. This is also known as the ―Language of the Lake‖.
The people who belonged to Kalonga Kingdom formed several closely related
groups each under a chief. Examples of these chiefs were Kalonga Mansula, Mkanda,
Mwase, Cimwala, Kaphwiti and Lundu. They were located south and south – west of
Lake Malawi.
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The Kalonga family were believed to have power to make rain, they had two
types of rain making cults. The Masinga under Mbona and the Makewana rain cult
under Undi.
In 1580 problems started in Kalonga's Kingdom. Lundu broke away from
Kalonga and migrated southwards and set up an empire known as the Bororo Empire.
They became rivals or enemies.
Between 1600 and 1650 Kalonga Masura made an alliance or a friendship with
the Portuguese. The Portuguese were in Sena and Tete. These Portuguese wanted
someone to help them defeat Mwene
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Mutapa Gatsi Rusere.
In 1605 Kalonga Masura gave the Portuguese 4000 soldiers. In return the
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Portuguese gave him military help to conquer his rival, Lundu. By 1625 Kalonga Masura
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had declared himself ruler of the Kalonga kingdom.
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With time Kalonga Masura who was ruling in the Shire Valley area started
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subduing the other states and replacing their rulers with his own relatives. The last two
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Kaphwiti and Lundu came under his control in 1608 with the help of the Portuguese.
For a brief period between 1600 and 1650 the Maravi were united under the
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Kalonga dynasty as a single empire from the Shire and Zambezi river valleys to the
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coast of Mozambique. He formed the Malawi conferederacy not a centralized kingdom.

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They had Masura as the king who was assisted by sub chiefs who were close
members of the Kalonga himself. Below the sub chiefs were the village headmen and
below them were the subjects.
Social and Economic Organisation

After declaring himself overall ruler of the Kalonga Empire, he started expanding his
kingdom in order to increase his power. He did this by controlling the gold and ivory
trade in Mwenemutapa's kingdom and He failed. He then went on and built an army of
10,000 soldiers.
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It was for conquering weaker people such as Chipeta, Mbo, Zimba and Chewa.
He made them pay tribute. Tribute is a gift that is given to a king by his people or
subject. Kalonga also controlled the long distance trade to the North of the kingdom.
This is called slave trade. Kalonga Masura also participated in this trade. He sold ivory
and slaves and obtained guns, gun powder, beads, cloth and European goods. He used
the wealth he got to reward his sub chiefs and lesser chiefs. It was to make them obey
him. This is called loyalty. As a result of this, by 1635 his kingdom reached its greatest
extent, it lasted for fifty years. It started from Lundazi up to Mozambique. Later on, this
big kingdom declined.
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Decline of the Kingdom
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Kalonga's Empire declined after 1650 because of three main factors. In 1650
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Kalonga had a brother called Undi who was defeated in this succession dispute, he
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therefore broke away taking along all the important women of the Phiri clan. He wanted
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the remaining king to have no royal successors.
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The other factor that caused the decline of this kingdom was the breakup of
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religious powers. The rain makers depended on the unity of Kalonga's people, when
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there was a break away, the Mbona rain cult failed to make rain.
The third factor was in 1660. This was the final blow to the decline of this
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kingdom. The Yao traders entered the kingdom and further weakened the already weak
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kingdom. They started controlling the long distance trade. In the same year the Yao
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killed the last Kalonga and the kingdom collapsed. This was the end of Kalonga's
Empire.
UNDI’S CHEWA KINGDOM
ORIGIN
Undi kingdom originated from Kalonga‘s kingdom in present day Malawi. In

about 1640 there was a succession dispute between Undi and his brother Kalonga. Undi
lost the dispute and he broke away from Kalonga. Undi migrated westwards together
Page 30
with important female members of the royal Phiri clan, leaving Kalonga without anyone
to succeed.
He later settled in Katete and Chadiza district of modern Zambia and established
his capital at Mano, an area in Mozambique, south of Katete after he conquered the
Chewa.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
Undi established levels of the hierarchy of rulers. These were: Undi at the top of
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the hierarchy, followed by subordinate kings, mainly from the Phiri and Banda clans,
tributary kings and chiefs and chiefs of the conquered people. At the bottom were
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headmen of villages.
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Undi followed a certain degree of centralization of power like gaining trade
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monopoly and collecting tribute but his central authority was never complete.
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He formed a confederacy which he managed to control because he was semi –

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divine. Undi performed both religious and ritual services and this strengthened his
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political structure.
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Undi had overall control of the rain shrines and spiritual centres which were looked
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after by Makewane of the Phiri family.

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Loyalty from conquered kings and their people was encouraged by: Re-
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distributing goods gained from trade and establishing kinship ties with Undi, especially
with the Phiri family through intermarriages. But not all the conquered people were
assimilated.
FACTORS FOR EXPANSION
The expansion of the kingdom started from 1700 when Undi gained more control
of the flourishing ivory trade with the Portuguese. To this effect, he sent junior
members of the Phiri clan to become chiefs in new areas in both Zambia and
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Mozambique. These were remitting tribute in form of ivory to Undi who rewarded them
with trade items from the Portuguese.
Undi‘s kingdom was also rich in gold. This became one of the main items of trade.
Undi took this chance to expand his kingdom so as to include the entire gold belt.
By mid 1700, slave trade started as the Portuguese had opened up huge
plantations called Prazoers in the Zambezi valley so they needed human labour. Undi
took this opportunity to attack and defeat other tribes so as to get slaves. The end
result of this was the expansion of his kingdom.
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In summary the kingdom was able to expand due to Conquest, Religious influence,
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Tribute system and trade monopoly, political power in the hands of the Phiri clan, gold
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mining and slave trade.
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The kingdom grew larger, at its greatest extent; it covered the eastern province of
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Zambia, and Mozambique‘s Tete district.
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DECLINE OF UNDI’S KINDOM

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The decline of this kingdom in the 19th century was due to both internal weakness and
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external threats
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Internal weaknesses were as follows:

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Lack of a strong centralized system of government. This gave chance to the

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conquered people to revolt; due to the vastness of the kingdom communication

problems became worse during the times of the revolts.
Disloyalty of the subordinate chiefs, this led to Undi losing trade monopoly to the
Yao who now traded directly with subordinate kings, conquered kings and chiefs. These
turn raised powerful regular armies which challenged Undi‘s authority successfully.
Undi lost power of control over the religious shrines and spiritual centres to
Makewana who later declared her independence through a revolt.
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Lack of a well organised army, Undi had no permanent police or army to maintain
law and order in the kingdom
External threats,
By 1780 activities of the Portuguese Prazoer owners who started making secret
land agreements with the Chikunda without the knowledge of Undi weakened the
kingdom, as the Portuguese were now able to do illegal mining of gold without paying
tribute to Undi.
The Chikunda began illegal hunting of ivory tusks without paying tribute to Undi,
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hence Undi lost control over tribute system on which he depended for trade and this
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undermined his authority.
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The effect of slave trade, by 1830, there was a great demand for slaves, the
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Portuguese and Arab Swahili traders began to capture many slaves from Undi‘ s
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kingdom. This created war – fare and instability which in turn disrupted stability and
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peace in the kingdom.

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This was worsened by the political power of the Portuguese

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The Ngoni invasion of 1835 – 1840 and 1870 – 1880 caused the collapse of the
kingdom and left it divided into two parts; one part in Mozambique and Malawi and
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another part in Zambia. With the weakening of the kingdom the people of Undi decided
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to place themselves under Mpezeni protection and were assimilated into the Ngoni
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society. Hence, the Ngoni were the people who wiped out Undi‘s kingdom by 1870.
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QUESTIONS
1. DESCRIBE HOW NEW IDEAS AND TOOLS CHANGED THE LIFE

AND WORK OF THE SHONA PEOPLES IN THE IRON AGE PERIOD.
GIVE A DETAILED EXPLANATION OF THEIR AGRICULTURAL AND
OTHER ECONOMIC ACTTIVITIES.
Shona and Karanga are among the earliest migrants to Central Africa and settled south
of the Zambezi river and north of the Limpopo river.
Page 33
The Shona who belonged to the iron age became settled farmers living near their fields
and settlements were more permanent under a chief. Population increased because
more food could be produced and large estates developed.
Shona city states of Zimbabwe developed into complex society between the 13th and
15th centuries. Their wealth was based on cattle and on control of gold trade to the East
Coast at Sofala. Buildings became large with elaborate stone structures like the Great
Zimbabwe which was the capital of the Shona.
Evidence of manufactured ornaments by skilled craftsmen was found. Rulers of the

Great Zimbabwe must have been powerful and wealth and they had religious powers as
well.
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Growth of the large Mwene Mutapa State was due to the need for control of trade
which was changed from local into long distance trade. Farming, smelting and new
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tools changed their way of life from nomadic way of life to permanent settlement.
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The Shona practiced a mixed economy where they reared cattle, goats and sheep
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raised in western parts of Zimbabwe while north and eastern areas mainly crops were
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produced such as millet, sorghum and pumpkins. Agriculture and pastoral farming were
backbone of economy of the Shona and Rozwi.
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Everybody owned cattle and the Mambo King had the largest herd hence at Great
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Zimbabwe much of the beef were eaten. Cattle on the Highveld were moved to distant
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pastures for fresh grass for their large herds. At a later stage cattle became a property
of the ruling class. Tribute was an important aspect and there was little evidence of
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grain at Zimbabwe.
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Agriculture influenced social and religious life, payment of lobola and religious
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ceremonies for social cohesion and rain.

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Trade both internal and external was conducted where they exchanged goods like hoes
and grain in internal trade while externally, trade in gold with Arabs and Portuguese in
Ivory. Mining was important and the control of trade routes increased the power of
rulers that the Mwene Mutapas had. These African goods were exchanged for beads,
cloth guns etc.
Pottery making was an important feature of the life of the Shona. Hunting, gathering
and fishing were also important.
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2. DISCUSS THE ORIGINS AND WAYS OF LIFE OF THE TONGA PEOPLE BEFORE
THE COLONIAL PERIOD.
The Tonga origin is still obscure. Probably they could have been the earliest people to
enter Zambia during the Early Iron Age. The oldest archaeological site is at Sebanzi Hills
at lochnivar on the edge of the Kafue flats. They have been living in their present area
as early as 1200 AD.
The two broad divisions of the Tonga are valley Tonga who lived in the Gwembe valley
until the creation of the Lake Kariba, the plateau Tonga who occupied a large part of the
Batoka plateau.
These people were a decentralized society, where the largest political unity was a
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neighbourhood made up of the neighbouring villages. The headman who commanded
more political influence was called Ulanyika while the Sikatongo exercised religious
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leadership and as custodian of the community‘s shrine, the Malende.
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Chiefdoms were created and introduced by the colonial government in order to maintain
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law and order, and collect tax on behalf of the colonial government.
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Tongas were continuously attacked by the Ndebele and Lozi until the Barotseland
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Agreement of 1890 stopped these attacks when Tongas came under the BSA Company
protection.
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Socially the main social unit was the family who was a matrilineal society and
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emphasized rights of parents over their children who supported them to pay lobola
(bride price)
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Tongas were polygamous society; the clan and lineage were important aspects among
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the Tonga. Each clan was named after an animal and marriage within one‘s clan was
strictly prohibited. Succession and inheritance was matrilineal based.
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Tongas were very religious and practiced rituals such as Malende when there was no
rain or during droughts, they as well believed in witch craft. They relied on agriculture
and pastoralism but also hunted, fished and gathered food which they exchanged for
hoes, beads, impande, shells, goats, etc.
They were wood and metal workers and they made mats, pottery, baskets and salt.
Their wealth was measured by the size of their herds; hence from cattle they got milk,
meat and hides. They also used cattle for payment of bride price (lobola) for ritual
sacrifices, paying fines, during death, initiation ceremonies, etc.
Page 35
3. OUTLINE THE ORIGINS, EXTENT AND IMPORTNCE OF THE MALAWI KINGDOM

OF KALONGA IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES.
According to Chewa traditions, the Malawi was led from the Congo by a chief Kalong of
the Phiri clan. They settled south of Lake Malawi and accepted as rulers by Bantu stock
found there. The tribes were connected matrilineally and Kalonga ruled shire valley in
17th century with relatives who controlled what was Chewa country that‘s Undi, Mkanda,
Mwase and Chimwala. In Mang‘anja tradition chiefs Kapwiti, Mwase and Lundu moved
into shire valley earlier.
The kingdom was slow to expand at first but reached its peak during 1600s. Moves to
unify different chiefdoms possibly brought about by increasing trading interests. The
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Kalonga family also regarded as living representatives of the ancestors who led the
Chewa from Katanga. They also had spiritual powers as rain makers and guardians of
ancestral shrines.
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Kalonga Masula believed to be greatest of Kalonga Chiefs and about 1600 he made
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temporary alliance with Portuguese against rebellious chifs in lands of Mwene Mutapa. In
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return Portuguese assisted Masula against Lundu and Zimba people. Sometime before
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1635 Masula defeated Lundu and dropped the alliance with the Portuguese who
interfered with his trade along the Zambezi.
at
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Masula extended his influence east and north and by 1635 was ruling to the coast from
north Mozambique to Quelimane hence his rule lasted for more than 50 years.
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After Masula‘s death his successors were not strong enough to hold the kingdom
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together and they had not established strong central government hence Kalonga
depended on Undi to provide successors. When Undi broke away in 16th century he took
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most of Kalonga‘s female family members leaving Kalonga with no heirs.

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The Yao were entering the ivory trade and dominated it, subchiefs asserted their
independence especially the Undi line, of Chewa chiefs who next built an empire almost
as big as Masula‘s.
From 1700 Portuguese regarded Undi as the leader of Malawi, but his authority was
never complete because vassal chiefs retained much of their separate powers and made
their arrangements for long distance trade. In 18th century Undi‘s power declined
completely.
Page 36
MISSIONARY INFLUENCE IN CENTRAL AFRICA:

DAVID LIVINGSTONE
David Livingstone was born on 19 March 1813 in Blantyre, Scotland. At the
age of 10 yrs, he worked in a cloth factory while attending evening classes/night school.
At the age of twenty three (1836) he entered the University of Glasgow to study
medicine and theology
After getting his doctorate in medicine in London, in 1840 he came to Africa
as an ordinary missionary under the London Missionary Society (LMS).He met Robert
Moffat who encouraged him to join the London Missionary Society for Africa. In
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1846, he married Mary Moffat and thereafter went to set his own mission at Koloberg
(Botswana) He did some exploration while at Kolobeng.
.c
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In 1851 he met Sebitwane at his capital - Linyanti and decided to make
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Kololo kingdom the base for his missionary work in Central Africa. He became an
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explorer and Missionary.
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David Livingstone‘s aims can be summed up by the 3Cs

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These are Commerce, Christianity and Civilization. Aimed at social change and
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civilization in Central Africa. He however, later concerned himself with the evils of slave
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trade, which he saw as a hindrance to his work.

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His work can be measured by looking at the three Great journeys he made into
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Central Africa between 1851 to 1873 before he died.

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In his first journey he travelled from Cape Town in June via Kuruman to
Kolobeng and then to Lake Ngami in 1851, he reached Linyati were he met
Sebetwani before his death. For six months, Livingstone tried to preach among
the Kololo. He later left for Luanda which he reached on May 31 st 1853 in
his effort to try and find a route from the West coast to Kololo country. He
came back to Linyati but did not stay long, by November he tried to find a
route to the East Coast.
Page 37
He saw the Victoria Falls in 1855 and travelled through Tonga land were
he met chief Moonze the Tonga rain maker. He reached Kafue river which he
followed up to the place were it joins the Zambezi river, he followed the
Zambezi untill he reached Quelimane at the East coast in 1856 and then went
back to Scotland.
The aim of this journey was to open a route for missionaries and trade.
This journey was a failure because Linyati was unsuitable for a Mission Station.
Both routes to the East and to the West were untraceable.
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The effects of the journey were that, back home Livingstone gave
speeches, made reports and published a book called ―Missionary Travels.― All
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these aroused a lot of interest in England. The area was explored and used by
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slave traders to capture more slaves.
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The Second Great Journey (1858 – 1864) was sanctioned by the queen of
England, financed by the government and the chember of commerce,
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Livingstone was helped by Thomas Baines and John Kirk. The aim of this
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Second journey was to find the navigable ways into the interior e.g Zambezi
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river in May 1858 but it was a failure due to the Kaborabasa rapids. He used
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a steam ship called Ma - Robert in memory of his mother in law. It proved

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useles before the rapids.

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Next expendition was on the shire river which failed due to the
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Murchison rapids. Livingstone was happy with the view of the Shire Highland
ahead of him and togetherr with Kirk thet went further on foot up to lake Chirwa and
came back to the foot of rapids. The whole team then tried this difficult route until they
reached Lake Nyasa in 1859.
A lot of people died due to malaria including his wife the rest persuded
Livingstone to abandon his expedion because they had lost confidence in his
Page 38
leadership. He continued with the expeditions on the Rovuma river which also
failled due to rapids.
In 1861 a team of missionaries arrived and set up a mission station . They

were led by Bishop Mackenzierenzi with his freinds who decided to set up a
mission at Magomero. These missionaries belonged to the Universities Mission to
Central Africa. (U.M.C.A) and where the first to respond to Livingstone `s call. These
mission did not take off because the place was infested with mosquitoes and
attacted mostly by Yao slave traders . In 1864 Livingstone was recalled by the
British Government.
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The result of the journey,it was a vernment upon recipt of report of hostile
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slave raiders and malaria cases..
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This was a failure because the river was not navigable due to rapids.
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Magomere was unsuitable for a mission station and was full of Yao slave
raiders.
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The effects were as follows: On the bright side Bishop Mackenzie arrived at the
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head of the U.M.C.A to set up a mission in 1861.Slave trade increased. On the dark
side many people died like Mackenzie and Livingstones wife. Further more slave
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trade did not stop but instead increased

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The aim of the third journey (1866 – 1873) was to find the sourse of the
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Nile river within the vicinily of Lake Bangeulu and Mweru.

Livingstone was alone in this expedition. He stated off by exploring
lake Bangweulu, Mweru, Tanganyika and Luapula rivers. In 1871 he fell sick and
was taken to Ujiji to recover. All his medicines were stolen. While at Ujiji he
met Henry Morton Stanley - a reporter for the New York Herald in 1871. He
was sent to look for Livingstone and report on him since he had been away
for many years without any news.
Page 39
Since he found him very sick he persuaded him to go back to Europe but
he refused and after recovering a bit he continued with his expedition until 1873
when he died at Chitambo`s village south of lake Bangweulu. However his
journey was a failure.The area he had explored only helped traders to capture
slaves easily especialy the Bemba, Lunda, Arabs and Swahili.
Coming to the importance of David Livingstone‘s work in Cental Africa, one of
the important contribution was that through his journeys, books, speeches and appeals
he encouraged many people to explore, for example, Stanley Morton , resigned
as a reporter annd became one of the greatest explorers of Central Africa while Fredrick
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Selous came to explore Mashonaland and Cecil Rhodes used him as a guide when he
emabarked on his occupation of Mashonaland in 1890.
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Secondly, Europeans changed their mind from slave trading to legimate
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trade in goods immediately after the death of Livingstone.
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Thirdly as an explorer he was successful because he mapped out most of
Central Africa and provided a lot of information.
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Fourthly, due to the north ward route from Cape Town to Kuruman famously
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known as the Missionary road Boers were unable to expand Westwards into
Bechunaland during thhe scramble for Africa. Instead the British governmennt in an
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effort to try and protect the Missionary road declared a British protectorate over
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Bechuanalnd in January 1855.

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Fifthly, as a missionary he achieved nothing but following his death many

Missionaries took up his aims and accomplished them for him.
Furthermore, because of his penetration of Central Africa, later Missionaries

activities in Central and East Africa led to the colonisation of the areas under their
influence like, Nyasaland, Rhodesia, Congo, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
Lastly, the fact that he died in Africa was an achievement in the sence that he
had a heart for Africa. His companions buried his heart in chief Chitambo‗s
village, three of them Susi, Chuma and Jacob wraped up the body in a cloth
Page 40
to look like a bale of goods and carried it to the coast to be handed over to
the British council who sent it to England where he was burried at West
Minister Abbey.
One of the failures, was that he was too idividualistic considering himself to
be always right, so he led many people into dificulties as he lacked the
qualities of a good leader.
The other one was that he was poor , restles and impotent missionary he did not
achieve anything as a missionary immediately but it was only after his death that others
achieved them for him.
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THE UNIVERSITIES MISSION TO CENTRAL AFRICA (UMCA).
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This mission began as a result of David Livingstone‘s journey. His appeal at Cambridge
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in 1857 played a major role in the creation of the mission. He drew support from the
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Oxford, Cambridge and Durban Universities. Bishop Mackenzie was taken on as leader
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of the First expedition to Malawi. The party set out in 1861. Among the people on the
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trip was Livingstone himself. These settled at Magomero. The area proved unhealthy.
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Not only was that but slave raiding also was rampant.
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The demise of Mackenzie and others was due to malaria. Bishop Tozer took over
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mission work to Zanzibar in the year 1863. Tozer began work among the freed slaves.
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When the slave market was closed in 1873, a cathedral was built on the site. The
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period after 1875 saw a chain mission stations being established at Likoma Island, for
use by missionaries.
The above was done due to Charles Maples, who had drowned in 1895. This happened
together with William Johnson. The cathedral was built later in 1905, hence, Likoma
Island becoming the main centre of Bishop of Nyasaland. This was because translations
into vernacular languages became possible. This tool of education won against slavery
and freed slaves.
Page 41
Result of the work of Universities Mission
The Universities mission spread Christianity, built schools to reduce illiteracy and clinics
and hospitals to eradicate diseases. They translated the bible into local languages. They
campaigned against slave trade and replaced it with trade in goods. Warlike tribes were
pacified while cruel customs were abandoned. They offered shelter to many refugees.
Northern Rhodesia was very much influenced by the work of the mission as they
opened up a number of missions.
Expansion of the work of Universities Mission.
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They opened the following:
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1. Livingstone Mission by Bishop Hine in 1901.
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2. Mapanza mission among the Tonga in 1911 ia
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3. Msoro mission (1911)among the Kunda of Chipata was started by an African
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Priest helped by the teachers

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4. In 1915 Chipili mission near Mansa was opened by Bishop May while in 1918
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Fiwila mission near Mukushi was started by Bishop may and in 1947 Katete
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mission opened.
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COLONISATION OF NORTH WESTERN RHODESIA.

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The territory called North western Rhodesia was defined by lewanika who
calaimed that his territory extended from the Lovale country in the north- west to
Katanga in the north. To east it included all the territory as far as the countries of the
Ila and the zambezi valley Tonga north of the Falls. This ofcourse was an exaggeration
of the extent of the Lozi political authority and effective contol.
Lobosi or Lewanika was firmly restored to the Lozi throne in 1885.the Litunga ‚s
restoration to throne came at the height of the european ‚scramble ‚ for territorial
possessions in Central Africa and , indeed, in the whole continent.
Page 42
Lewanika feared that his land would be taken by the British South African
Company (BSA Co.), Germany traders from present day Namibia and from the
Portuguese traders and settlers.Lewanika was also afraid of a possible Ndebele invasion
of Bulozi. Thus he asked his missionary friend and adviser on European matters,
Francois Coillard, to write to Queen Victoria requesting her to extend her protection to
his country.
HOW LEWAKANIKA SOLVED HIS PROBLEMS
First in January 1889 with the help of Francois Coillard, a French missionary in
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his kingdom and chief Khama of the Ngwato people of Bechuanaland, Lewanika applied
for British protection through Cape Town,. The British government refused due to lack
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of money and man – power.
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Secondly, in June 1889 Lewanika, hard pressed by the Europeans, signed a
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limited concession with Ware, a German trader, to mine in Tonga country.
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Thirdly, at this point a worried Rhodes stepped in after forming his B.S.A.C and
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bought the Ware concession then sent his own agent called Frank Lochner. He was to
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persuade Lewanika to accept B.S.A.C. protection under cover of the British government.
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Fourthly, in 1890 Lochner had managed to persuade Lewanika so they signed

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the Lochner concession with the help of Francois Coillard and chief Khama. Lewanika
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was under the impression that he was dealing with the British government.
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TERMS OF THIS TREATY.
The B.S.A.C gained exclusive mineral and commercial rights in Tongaland.
Secondly, the B.S.A.C persuaded Lewanika not to enter into any further agreements
with any other power
Thirdly, in return Lewanika gained British protection especially against ndebele

attacks; a pay of 2,000 British pounds per annum,; mineral royalties and to have a
Page 43
British resident at Lealui. British government ratified the Lochner concession. None of
these terms were bkept by the B.S.A.C until 1897 and Britain was slow in sending a
resident at Lealui until 1897. Reasons being the for B.S.C.It had many slow activities
south of the Zambezi river between 1890-1897 which kept it busy –occupation of
Mashonaland, Matebele war of 1893.-occupation of Manicaland, jameson raid of1895-
6 and Ndebele and shona rebellion of 1896-97.For the British government; she
was embarrassed with the company ‚s activities south of the Z ambezi river which
were very disgraceful especially the jameson Raid. She was discredited by many
European nations so out of anger she withdrew the Royal Charter restored.Rhodes had
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to work very hard to regain British confidence and to have the Royal Charter. Rhodes
had to work very hard to regain british confidence and to have the Royal Charter
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restored. He risked his life by going personally to meet the rebelling ndebele in their
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Matope Hills and holding meetings with them in 1896 then later he approached the
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rebelling Shonas. Due to this bravery the British government was impressed with his
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bravery so the royal Charter was restored, but some of its status were removed as
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punishment.
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In 1897 Robert Coryndon arrived as the first British Residents at Lealui. His first
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move was to negotiate for a further treaty in 1899 with Lewanika through Lawley. This
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was because the BSA CO.‘s loss of some of its status due to its involvement in the
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Jameson raid necessitated the rewording of the Lochner Concession.

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The proposed Lawley treat merely repeated the terms of the Lochner Concession
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only that the BSA CO. Lost its administrative monopoly.
In 1898 the Lawley proposals were tabled before Lewanika to sign. Before
Lewanika could sign, the British government early 1899 issued the ``Barotseland North
Western Rhodesia Order in Council``
TERMS
Page 44
It gave the BSA CO the right to rule and govern the area west of the Kafue river
which was under Lewanika.
Western borders were defined and more land on the Angolan side was
taken.(this is why the shape of Zambia is like that in Mwinilunga).
Therefore Lawley proposals remained unratified by the British government and

unsigned by Lewanika.
In 1900 Lewanika signed another treaty at the Victoria Falls so it was called
Victorial Falls treaty. The author of this treaty was Coryndon so it is also known as the
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Coryndon Concession.
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TERMS:
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Mostly a repeat of the unratified and unsigned Lawley proposal to pin down
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Lewanika.
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THE NEGOTIATIONS BETWEEN LOBENGULA AND THE CONCESSION SEEKERS

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AND THE SUBSEQUENT OCCUPATION OF MASHONALAND BETWEEN 1870

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AND 1891
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The BSA Company was a commercial company under the leadership of a British
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imperialist in the name of Cecil Rhodes who had come to South Africa at the age of
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seventeen.
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BSA Company and other agencies penetrated Central Africa because of their desire
to exploit Africa of its natural resources particularly its precious stone such as copper,
silver, gold and diamond. They had no intention to develop Africa but simply milk it of
its abundant raw material and minerals. Infact the dreams of the imperialist Rhodes
about Africa were vast. He for instance, wanted to take the whole of Africa for Britain
from the Orange River of South Africa and sweeping right through Cairo in Egypt.
Page 45
To achieve these motives of exploitation, the BSA Company and other Agencies
signed treaties or concessions but when ever this failed to work, force of arms was
used. What must be remembered is that all the promises that were made to Lobengula
were verbal ones.
The Boers through their agent Pieter and Grobbler managed in 1887 to sign an
agreement with Lobengula, the Grobbler treaty as it came to be known was an
agreement of friendship between the Transvaal and Matabeleland in which Transvaal
was allowed to maintain a permanent representation at Bulawayo. This was a move
which was aimed at gaining access to the minerals of the area it was not long after the
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signing of this treaty that Rhodes heard of it and to him this threatened his desire to
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gain control of the mineral rich area.
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In a move to defer the Grobbler treaty, Rhodes sent to Lobengula to John smith
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Moffat to go and negotiate a treaty. Fortunately for Rhodes, Lobengula had known
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Smith Moffat as a friend much earlier when he was head of the Linyati mission.
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Preoccupied with this notion of friendship, Lobengula offered no trouble in concealing

m
the Grobbler treaty and infact went into further treaty known as the Moffat treaty in
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1888 under which Lobengula agreed to be a friend of the British Queen and promised
that he would not enter into any other concession with anybody without the High
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commission. All these agreement had been entered into on the understanding that he
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was doing it with old friend of the Ndebele, but little, however did Lobengula realize
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that Moffat was no longer a friend of his but someone who was determined to destroy
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them completely.
To further secure the aims and objectives of the BSA Company Rhodes sent three of
his representatives to Lobengula to go and negotiate for a mineral concession. These
were Charles Rudd, Francis Thompson and Richard Maguire, due to the influence of sir
Sydney Shippard, the British Commissioner for Bechuanaland, Charles Helen, the Luis
leader in Matabeleland and Lobengula own senior Indunas and his trusted advisors
Page 46
Lotshe and Sikombo, Lobengula signed a treaty which became known as the Rudd
concession on 30th October,1888.
Lotshe and Sikombo influence Lobengula into signing the treaty because they had
earlier been bribed by Rudd and his party Lobengula was told that Rhodes would
protect his country from European occupation and that if the British were allowed to
enter Mashonaland, only £10 would come and would leave their weapons and be his
people. Lobengula was further promised £10 per month, 1000 rifles and 100 000
rounds of ammunition and in return also granted mining rights to the BSA company.
However, all the promises that were used to him were verbal and were not fulfilled. It
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was the BSA Company that benefited from all these treaties.
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THE CAUSES AND RESULTS OF THE NDEBELE AND SHONA UPRISING OF 1896
ls
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REASONS FOR THE NDEBELE UPRISING
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- Ndebele loss of their state and traditional land

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- Loss of the Ndebele cattle

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- The outbreak of rinderpest

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- The aspect of forced labour

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- Ndebele military towns were broken up and the age- regiment system
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abolished
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REASONS FOR THE SHONA UPRISING
- the Shona were stopped to trade with the Portuguese

- loss of land
- introduction of Hut tax
- the law of justice
REULTS
Page 47
- Rhodesia became a conquered country as the Ndebele were conquered in 1893

and the Shona during the 1897 rebellion
- Reserves were created in Mashonaland and Shonas were moved into them by
force
- Shonas were refused to build their houses in the kopjes just as the Ndebeles
were refused to live in the Matopo Hills for defence purposes.
- Power of local chiefs was restricted and local government arranged on more
direct patterns with native commissioners in charge.
- Local police administration was established
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- Africans lost hope in their religion and god; they became disillusioned and even
lost hope of ever becoming independent so they remained inactive until in the
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late 1950‘s which was a bit too late. Europeans were given a lot of time to
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consolidate their hold on the country
-
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Railway lines reached Mafeking 1897, Bulawayo 1898; Umtali and Beira. This
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gave new confidence, prosperity and determination to white settlers in
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Southern Rhodesia.
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- Colonization paved the way for Zimbabwe‘s present prosperity.

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ARGUMENT FOR AND AGAINST THE FORMATION OF THE

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FEDERATION OF RHODESIA AND NYASALAND.

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Federation meant that Northern Rhodesia , Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland

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would be united under one government, in which they would be called the
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Federal government, however, each state would have its own government to
decide its own affairs.
- Settlers in Southern Rhodesia hoped to benefit economically from copper in the
copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia
- Settlers in Northern Rhodesia hoped to benefit in the gold profit of Southern
Rhodesia
- Northern Rhodesia hoped by joining with Southern Rhodesia would change the
policy of Africa paramouncy and create self government
Page 48
- The White settlers for federation argued that it was going to be in the best
interest of all the three territories if they came together as it would make them
economically strong.
- Each country/territory was dependant on one export product for example
Zambia depended on copper, Malawi on tea and Rhodesia on tobacco
- Argued that although the Africa in Northern Rhodesia were opposed to
federation federal constitution gave them security by provision of an Africa
Affairs Board which would block any bill which tended to discriminate against
the Africans
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- British strongly argued that a British state in Central Africa was important
because it was going to balance off the influence of South Africa which was
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slowly extending ideas of apartheid to Central Africa
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- Formation of the federation was supported by Africans in Southern Africa-
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because it emphasized the idea of partnership which they thought was much
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better than racial discrimination which they had been subjected in Northern
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Rhodesia
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- Africans particularly in Northern Rhodesia were bitterly opposed to federation

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because they didn‘t want to have any link with Southern Rhodesia where they
were pass law, land and labour segregation
.z
Africans were aware of the motives of the white settlers to introduce a

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permanent white controlled dominion of Central Africa and feared that if
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federation was allowed it would be their first step towards a settler controlled
Africa on similar lines to that of apartheid South Africa thus they opposed the
federation
- Settlers like Roy Welensky in Northern Rhodesia argued because he knew that
a Whiteman was just lying and that they were already used to the idea of
African paramouncy
- Robinson Nabulyato conceived the idea of partner as a mere ladder for
Europeans to trample on the Africans.
Page 49
QUESTIONS
1. OUTLINE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZAMBIAN CONSTITUTION

FROM 1964 TO 1996.
Zambia gained independence in 1964 and it followed the constitution

which was of west minister model bequeathed by Britain to her colony
and it was not much of participation by Zambian Citizens from 1964 to
1973.
It contained basic human rights priorities traced through the United
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Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It was also fashioned
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around the usual government trinity namely the Executive, the Legislative
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and the Judicature. The executive dominated over the two, powerful office
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of the president. The parliamentary system was retained.
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The Western style of Multi-party system was adopted with independent
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judiciary and neutral civil service. All laws enacted during the colonial
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period continued into force for example state of emergency on 24th July
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1964.
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The second Republic which introduced one Party State existed from 1973
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to 1990. On 30th March 1972 president Kaunda appointed Chona

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commission to consider and examine changes in Republican and UNIP

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constitutions.
The Commission was instructed not to entertain submissions of desirability

of one party state but only the form it should take. ANC opposed and
unsuccessfully took the matter to High Court and Court of Appeal, but all
these failed and in December 1972 a one party state was born.
In August, 1973 One Party Constitution was put in place whereby the
party was supreme and Central Committee was superior to Cabinet. The
Page 50
president had enormous power both under party and republican

constitutions. Appointed all senior party, government officials and
parastatals heads.
In 1990 third republic was born. The Labour Movement led by ZCTU
under Chairman General Fredrick Chiluba fought against One Party State.
ZCTU refused to join the party structure and in March 1990 Kaunda
agreed to hold a referendum on political pluralism but said UNIP would
campaign against re-introduction of multi-partism. In June 1990 there
were food riots in Lusaka and on June 30 Mwamba Luchembe attempted
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coup which failed.
.c
In July 1990 a national interim Committee for Multi-party Democracy
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(MMD) was formed to press for plural politics. Hence in September 1990
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Mvunga Commission was appointed to draft a new constitution and in
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December 1990 Article 4 repealed and two five year terms for president
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was introduced. In January 1991 MMD became a political party and in the
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same year elections were held where MMD won.

ed
In 1996 through pressure from both local and international groups forced
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MMD to appoint Commission to review the constitution. Therefore in

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November 1993 a commission was appointed led by a renowned Lawyer

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John Mwanakatwe. The report came out in June 1995 and recommended
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among other things:- to hold a constituency Assembly to adopt the

constitution but government rejected most recommendations and instead
adopted a Constitutional Amendment Act.
This brought widespread dissatisfaction from Key Stakeholders and on

28th May 1996 Constitution amendment was enforced.
Page 51
2. GIVE AN ACCOUNT OF THE FORMATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES

AND THE PART THEY PLAYED IN THE STRUGGLE FOR
INDEPENDENCE IN EITHER ZAMBIA OR MALAWI.
In Malawi from 1907 to 1955 constitution remained typically Crown Colony

with nominated Unofficial Members; there was parity of officials, very slow
advance of African nominated members and no elected members.
Nyasaland African Congress in 1944 demanded direct representation in

Legislative Council (LEGCO) and vigorously opposed Federation in 1953.
om
In 1955 a new constitution was released with direct election introduced,
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though still cautiously hedged about by official safeguards. Africans
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returned to become members of Nyasaland African National Congress and
pressed for further reforms. ia
er
African National Congress become more militant because it was not
at
satisfied with its local leadership hence sent for Dr K. Banda he asked for
m
African majority, universal franchise and secession from Federation. Due

ed
to violence Banda and others were detained. There was an impact from
the Devlin Commission which recorded universal opposition to federation
.z
on both African and British Governments.

w
w
During this period in 195 9 African members increased to 7 and official by

w
2 still there was parity because two Africans were appointed to Executive
Council for first time. Malawi congress party was founded while Nyasaland
African Congress leaders in prison by Chirwa and had same aims. Banda
was released in 1960 and became leader of Malawi Congress Party in the
same year and constitution increased unofficial members of LEGCO to 28
and all directly elected Five unofficial members to executive Council and
all to hold ministerial positions. Elections took place in 1961 where Malawi
Page 52
Congress Party won 20 lower roll seats and two upper roll then four of
Malawi Congress Party appointed Ministers.
In 1963 responsible government gained and secession from federation

followed, Dr Banda became prime minister. Mainly African Cabinet and
prime minister could appoint members from outside LEGO to Cabinet. In
1964 Malawi Congress Party won all seats in Legislative Assembly and
independence followed in July 1964.
In Zambia after the Second World War, Africans felt that existing Advisory
om
Councils were inadequately expressed their grievances. There was
formation of Welfare Societies in 1946 which grew into the Northern
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Rhodesia African Congress in 1948. This opposed to any form of Union
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with Southern Rhodesia because the African National Congress in 1951
ia
under Harry Nkumbula, strongly opposed Federation. Demonstrations and
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boycotts followed and support from the Trade Union on the Copperbelt.
at
In 1948 Northern Rhodesia saw two Africans in the LEGCO with two un
m
officials appointed to represent African interests. By 1953 the number of

ed
Africans increased to four Africans gaining administrative and political

.z
experience at local government level but very few had the vote, restricted
w
to British subjects and not protected persons.

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The constitution of 1958 led the split in ANC and the formation of Zambia
w
Africa National Congress under Kenneth Kaunda who boycotted elections.

In 1959 ZANC was banned and its leaders were restricted to movement.
In 1960 Kaunda was released and became leader of the newly formed
United National Independence Party (UNIP) which wanted faster
constitutional advance than the UK offered. There were campaigns
violence in 1961, but further proposals from British Government and
Page 53
elections took place I November 1962. Coalition of ANC and UNIP gained
decisive majority and independence followed in October 1964.
SECTION B: SOUTHERN AFRICAN HISTORY
THE WAY OF LIFE OF THE SAN AND KHOI KHOI BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF
THE DUTCH IN SOUTH AFRICA. IN YOUR ANSWER MENTION THEIR TRIBAL
om
ORGANIZATION AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
San and Khoikhoi are believed to have come from an area south of the equator. They
.c
were forced downwards by a more powerful Bantu tribe.
ls
ia
Both are yellow or brown skinned people with a characteristic click sound in language.
er
Khoi khoi were taller than the San. The San were pastoralists and also gathered roots,
at
berries, leaves and insects like grasshopper

m
The San were nomads. They only kept dogs which helped them hunt. They were not
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farmers but kept cattle, sheep and goats. They killed their animals only on special
.z
occasions such as marriages but mainly depended on milk. They also moved from place
w
to place in search of pasture.

w
They were also hunters and gather who hunted wild games and collected honey. Like
w
the san, the khoikhoi did not grow any food.
Politically the san did not have any chief instead they had ritual leaders and lived in
groups. On the other hand the Khoikhoi lived in large which were made by several
clans. Chiefs were expected to settle disputes while succession to the throne was
hereditary.
Page 54
Socially, boys and girls got married at the age of 14 to 15 years and polygamy was
widely practiced. Like the khoi khoi, dancing was important among the San, they
imitated wild animals. The San painted drawings.
Both the San and the Khoikhoi believed in ancestral worship. The san believed in a god
called Keegan and a playing insect called Mantis. The Khoi khoi on the other hand
believed in a god called Tsuigoab.
The arrival of the Dutch at cape affected the San and the Khoikhoi differently. The
Boers held the San contempt and called them Bushmen and thought of them as animals
om
and hunted them down.
.c
BANTU SPEAKERS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
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FOR WHAT REASONS DID THE BANTU GROUPS OF PEOPLE MIGRATE TO
ia
SOUTHERN AFRICA SOUTH OF THE LIMPOPO RIVER BEFORE 1800? WITH
er
THE AID OF A SKETCK MAP SHOW WHERE THEY SETTLED AND HOW THEIR
at
WAYS OF LIFE DIFFERED FROM THOSE OF THE LATE STONE AGE PEOPLE
m
WHOM THEY FOUND THERE.

ed
Bantu is a linguistic term referring to people speaking related languages distinguished

.z
by division of nouns into classes and by use of similar prefixes for these nouns and
w
words.
w
They were believed to have originated in Western Sudanic areas of West Africa before
w
moving to other regions of East, Central and Southern Africa.
Reasons for migrations include:- shortage of arable land and pastoral land due to
population increase; suspicion of witch craft; internal conflicts that is succession
disputes; tribal wars; cruel leaders; drying up of the Sahara desert; slave trade; mere
adventures; deliberate expansion of kingdoms by some chiefs etc.
Areas settled depended on time of arrival and geographical factors. The Nguni speakers
arrived possibly as early as 9th century and took up favourable areas near coastland and
Page 55
east of Drakensberg Mountains from Swaziland to the Great Fish River by 16th century.
The main subgroups were Ngwane, later Swazi, Pondo, Venda, Tembu, Xhosa and Zulu.
The Shoto-Tswana speaking arriving rather later than the Nguni were scattered over a
wide area on the Veldt between the Limpopo in the north and Orange and Caledon
Rivers in the south. Subgroups were Tlokwa, Pedi, Tlapin, Rolong, Kwena, Fokeng and
Phuting.
Latest arrivals, Herero and Ovambo, Okavago relegated to drier areas in the west
mainly in Northern Namibia. The southern limit Bantu penetration before 1800 was
om
halted by confrontation with Boer frontier farmers in the vicinity of the Great Fish River.
.c
Unlike the late Stone Age Khoisan who were nomadic hunters, gatherers and
ls
pastoralists, Bantu were sedimentary and practiced mixed economy of crops and had
more advanced economy. ia
er
Tribal land was communally owned, but first person to cultivate piece of land had right
at
to use it, although chief had power to decide the use of land.
m
Unlike the Khoisan, Bantu had more permanent homes and lived in large more stable
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communities, ruled by Kings or Chiefs assisted by sub-chiefs and indunas who looked
.z
after districts and villages. Although chiefs had absolute power in theory, a council of
w
elders could overrule chiefs decision in practice.

w
A well elaborated map can earn up to 4 marks, hence the need for teachers to draw
w
good maps.
ARRIVAL OF THE DUTCH AT THE CAPE.
EXPLAIN WHY AND HOW THE DUTCH ORGANIZED THE CAPE IN THE PERIOD
1652 TO 1800. WHAT REACTIONS DID THEIR COMING PRODUCE AMONGST
OTHER PEOPLES IN THAT REGION?
Page 56
The Dutch East India Company decided to establish a small permanent station at the
Cape of Good Hope in 1652 for fresh water, vegetables and meat. They also wanted a
workshop to repair ships and a clinic for sick sailors.
In 1649 the ship of Haarlem was wrecked in Table Bay were the crew settled and grew
crops while awaiting repatriation and recommended the Cape as a refreshment station
because of fertile soil, good climate, friendly natives and cheap cattle.
Jan Van Riebeeck was sent by the company in 1652 and founded a depot of provisions
for the company. In the early years life was difficult due to insufficient and unwilling
om
military labour. In 1667 Free burghers and slave life was introduced and there was an
increase in contact with Khoikhoi and other natives as the Dutch farms and ranches
.c
extended the frontiers of the colony northwards and eastwards.
ls
ia
Under Simon Van der Stel in 1679 population was deliberately increased and economy
er
built up against possible foreign threats to the station. Son Willem Van der Stel
extended settled area and introduced modern agricultural methods in raw crops such as
at
Vines. This was further stimulated by the arrival of the French Huguenots from 1688
m
onwards.
ed
All these increasing activities demanded further land and cheap labour. It also
.z
encouraged the frontier spirit and possibilities of expansion which led to the trek idea.
w
w
San who were Stone Age hunter were roaming everywhere and could not recognize
w
Dutch possessions, hence raided Dutch farms, houses and livestock. The farmers
pursued the san and sans were forced into mountains. This was done as the company
allowed commandos to hunt the san down who fled to the Kalahari Desert.
The Khoikhoi traded with the Dutch to start with and exchanged their sheep, cattle and
goats for iron stools, ornaments, liquor and tobacco. Their land was incorporated into
large frontier farms but the Khoikhoi murdered some settlers. Dutch waged war twice
with the Khoikhoi in 1659 and 1673-77 respectively. The Khoikhoi were defeated and
turned into herdsmen and household servants. Khoikhoi were introduced to drinking
Page 57
beer, smoking tobacco which brought diseases. In 1713 the Khoikhoi were infected with
smallpox epidemic which wiped many out leading to importation of slaves for plantation
work.
The Bantu Xhosa clashed with the Trek Boers as the latter continued to expand
eastwards into the zuurveld. By 1770s trek Boers claiming land east of the Fish River
fought wars of disposition in 1779, 1789-93 and 1799-1803. Conflicts resulted from
differing attitudes towards land tenure. Conflicts which existed between differing races
led to intermarriages and the resultant was the production of Cape Coloureds and also
led to the development of strong European attitudes and prejudices concerning race
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and colour.
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ARRIVAL OF THE BRITISH AT THE CAPE
ls
WRITE SHORT NOTES ON THREE OF THE FOLLOWING ia
er
THE BLACK CIRCUIT
at
- The name given to the Boers mobile courts through which non whites could
m
sue their masters for ill-treatment

ed
- these were introduced by the British government in1811 at the cape

.z
- changes by the Hottentots were encouraged by the local British missionaries

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- the Boers hated the courts more when the magistrate was shot dead by a
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farmer when he was trying to arrest him.

w
- a rebellion broke out and 7 Boers who were ring leaders were hanged at the
slaughters Nek.
- In 1813 court proceedings were held which were hated by the Boers and called
it black circuit because it favoured the blacks.
THE 1820 SETTLERS
- British settlers who settled at cape colony in 1820
Page 58
- It was one of the solution to the eastern frontier wars

- They were settled on Zulu small 100 acre mixed farms
- It was hoped to strengthen British elements on the frontier, increase military
potential of whites and led to more economic use of the land
- This was a failure because the British abandoned them for pastoral farming
others moved to towns like Grahams and Port Elizabeth to start a new life.
THE 50TH ORDINANCE
om
- A law was introduced at the cape colony by the British
- It was introduced by the missionaries who had but pressure on the
.c
improvement
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- It was aimed at the change to better lives on non whites e.g.
-
ia
Repealed all former restrictions on the freedom of non whites
er
- Provide the ownership of land to non whites
at
- Provide for payments of wages to servants

m
- Abolish apprenticeships contract between master and servant. Boers hated it

ed
because it was a blow to their economy which was based on slave labour. It
strike at the whole base of white attitudes, hence the need to move
.z
THE 1833 EMANCIATION OF SLAVE ACT

w
w
- It was introduced in1833 by the British and came into effect in1834, by this act
w
slavery was compulsory abolished at the cape with a total compensation of

$1.25 million. Boers lost their cheap labour and the process of getting
compensation was long.
- It involved lawyers who chased exorbitant fees.
- Many Boers ended up getting nothing as they had to travel to Britain.
Page 59
GREAT TREK
ACCOUNT FOR THE ORGANIZATION, MAIN STAGES AND RESULT OF THE

GREAT TREK IN THE PERIOD BETWEEN 1835 AND 1854.
The Boers who were known as Voortrekkers started their mass movement called Great
Trek in 1835 when they packed their belongings into wagons and migrated in family
groups. They took Khoikhoi and Coloureds as servants to herd livestock; poor Boers
joined groups of wealthier families and accepted leadership of head of family. They
travelled slowly over difficult terrain covering about 10km a day. There was little unity
om
among various voortrekkers and clashes of personality were very common. They
headed northwards onto the Highveld in distinct groups and formed laager for
.c
protection at night.
ls
ia
In 1835 to 1836 Louis Trichardt and Van Rensburg started separately and joined in
er
1836, separated again, one group headed to Albany, Grange River while Portgietor
headed towards Delagoa Bay. They were attacked by diseases and Tsonga attacks
at
destroyed Van Rensburg‘s party; Trichardt and many others died of diseases at Delagoa
m
Bay the remnants sailed to Natal.

ed
Portgietor and Cilliers started from their base at Thaba Nchu, heavily attacked at
.z
Vegkop, hence one branch crossed Vaal River and another the Limpopo river in 1838.
w
They later founded Potchestroom in 1844 and East Zoutpansburg in 1848.

w
w
In 1837 Maritz and Retief decided that the Ndebele would have to be driven out hence
fought battles at Mosega and Marico River in 1837. They crossed Drankensburg to
upper Tugela valley where they captured Sekonyela and confronting Dingane.
In 1838 retief and 500 Boers were massacred by Dingane and Boers revenged under
Pretorius at Mcone River (Blood River) and managed to establish Natal Republic.
Two later stages took place when the British in 1843 annexed Natal and Boers moved
onto Highveld by 1845. Boers at this time were hot in large numbers trekked into
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Basutoland and came in conflict with Moshesh. Trekking was done in large parties
under recognized leaders or as individual families.
The results were that Blood River shattered Zulu Empire which Shaka had built, Mpande
rebelled against half -brother Dingane and joined Pretorius in defeating him.
Boers Republic of Natal was later annexed by Britain in1843. The Sand River
Convention signed by Pretorius and British Commissioner in 1852 granted independent
to Transvaal as South African Boer Republic. The 1854 Bloemfontein convention
recognized Orange Free State as an independent Boer Republic.
om
Area of contact with Bantu increased; constant wars; treks revealed major internal
.c
differences among the Boers.
ls
FEDERATION OF SOUTH AFRICA
ia
HOW DID SIR GEORGE GREY AND LORD CARNARVON ATTEMPT TO
er
FEDERATE THE WHITE SOUTH AFRICA STATES AND WHY WERE THEY NOT
at
SUCCESSFUL?
m
ed
Before 1880, the Cape was relatively prosperous compared to Boer Republics, standard
of living in the Cape was better than that of the Boer Republics. At the time major
.z
power was that of the British at the Cape and Natal. British at this time had no real
w
interest in controlling the interior.

w
w
The interior had problems arising from friction between African and Boers, skirmishes
were common, insecurity of the interior began to worry certain British administrators
who felt that British authority should have greater influence. Spread of white settlement
was a major reason for suggesting Federation of all different regions.
In 1854 Sir George Grey replaced Sir Harry Smith as Governor at the Cape and in order
to use the experience he had in New Zealand; Grey saw the need to federate all white
states as best and cheapest policy for South Africa to reverse tendency to disruption.
Page 61
His plan was to mix white and black races together in White South African States. He
wanted to civilize African through education and work, teach them European culture
and farming thereby making them peace-loving citizens. Hence he settled some German
immigrants on land.
Grey raised the question of federation, urging this on colonial secretary and Cape
colony parliament. Britain refused and the Cape was not interested because of poverty
of Boer Republics.
Grey‘s plan failed mainly because of various different racial policies practiced in various
om
areas. In Cape, in theory there was political and civil equality between blacks and
whites. In Natal, Africans were restricted to reserves under African law administered by
.c
local chiefs with European ‗Native‖ magistrates. In Transvaal, frontier‘s policy was one
ls
of ―master‘ and ―servant‘.
ia
er
Grey was recalled in 1859 and the scheme was turned down, only allowed to return to
Cape on condition that he dropped the idea of federation. Some interest in federation
at
from Lord Kimberly the colonial secretary from 1870 to 1874 for economic reasons, only
m
aroused Boer republics hostility and suspicion.

ed
In the period 1874 to 1880 Lord Carnarvon also proposed the federation when he was
.z
appointed by Disraeli who was the British Prime Minister at the time. From 1874 Disraeli
w
promised a progressive colonial policy, hence appointed Lord Carnarvon as a colonial

w
secretary, due to his experience of federation in Canada and he was determined to

w
unite South Africa under British Crown.
In 1875, Carnarvon proposed a Conference in South Africa to consider Federation and

other interests. He appointed Wosely as special commissioner in Natal but this plan
misfired elsewhere because Cape objected to imperial interference. In Transvaal
President, Burgers was trying to resist British Commercial in road.
Page 62
Carnarvon felt deceived by Burgers and rebuffed by Molteno of the Cape, next he
suggested a Conference in London in 1876 but the conference was boycotted by all and
federation was not discussed.
Carnarvon plans failed because; the Cape was not prepared to accept interference so
soon after gaining self-rule in 1875 and Cape was not prepared to share her prosperity
with other States. Molteno was against extension of imperial influence.
Orange Free State was suspicious of British initiative after annexation of Griqualand
West in 1873.
om
Transvaalers were against giving up their newly won freedom and were against the
.c
liberal racial policies of the Cape. Due to failure of London Conference, Carnarvon
ls
suspended his federation plan.
ia
Carnarvon next tried Commercial policies by gaining control of Transvaal and railway
er
routes. Shepstone‘s task to annex Transvaal was achieved in April, 1877 but no clear
at
plans for its administration.

m
Shepstone‘s Crown colony rule of TV precipitated 1879 Zulu war and demonstrated
ed
British incompetence. Final victory war removed Zulu menace from Transvaalers who
.z
opposed British annexation and defeated the British at Majuba Hill in 1881. At peace of
w
Pretoria, Transvaal regained independence and the idea of federation was for the time
w
been forgotten.
w
THE MFECANE;
WHAT IS THE MEANING, CAUSES AND IMMEDIATE RESULTS OF THE

MFECANE SOUTH OF THE LIMPOPO RIVER BEFORE 1800.
Mfecane is a Nguni word meaning turmoil, time of troubles and the disturbances which
occurred amongst tribes in the area of the Highveld between Drankensburg mountains,
Kalahari desert and the Limpopo river in about 1816 to 1836.
Page 63
CAUSES
Basic causes were population growth and pressures on the land and tribes turned on
each other in competing for limited resources, eg for control of trade with Portuguese
at Delagoa bay and space due to growth of large tribal units eg the Mtwetwa of
Dingiswayo, Ndwandwe of Zwide and the Ngwane of Sobhuza and pressure from white
expansion.
- favourable environment that is good fertile land in the Highveld.

- geographical barriers such as the Drankensburg mountains, Kalahari in the
om
west and Indian ocean in the east.
- great desire to have more land by the whites
.c
- search of new land
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COURSE
ia
Movements were caused by wars of Dingiswayo, Zwide and Shaka and the rise of the
er
Zulu nation. Main agents on the Highveld were three bands of refugees from Shaka.
at
These are:-
m
- Hlubi under Mpangazita

ed
- Ngwane under Matiwane.

- Ndebele under mzilikazi
.z
These groups set off a chain reaction amongst the Sotho tribe.
w
Origins of disturbances go back to attacks first by Sobhuza who ran away and
w
founded the Swazi Nation, then attacks on Dingiswayo and lastly on Zwide. Next
w
Zwide attacked Matiwane who fled westwards and in turn attacked the Hlubi who
fled over the Drankensburg. Later when Shaka invaded Natal, Matiwane was also
driven over the mountains.
The Sotho tribe which first bore the brunt of these invasions over the
Drankensburg were the Tlokwa under Mantatisi who was ruling for her son
Sekonyela. She fled and gathering refugees from other Sotho tribes embarked on
campagns in the region of the Caledon valley.
Page 64
Chain reaction followed the plundering of Matiwane, Mpangazita and Mantatisi

and chaos extended west to Kalahari and north to Transvaal where Mzilikazi was
also causing problems. Widespread chaos for several years as Sotho peoples
competed with Nguni invaders and with one another for diminishing supplies of
grain and cattle.
RESULTS
These can be argued on both constructive and destructive
om
Constructive
.c
- brought the emergence of strong centralized state by amalgamating the small
ls
fragmented states
-
ia
For instance the Bantu were able to emerge into a favourable group and later
er
founded the Gaza empire in Southern Mozambique. Sobuza found the Swazi
at
empire in Swaziland and Mzilikazi of the Ndebele founded the Ndebele kingdom
m
in the present country Zimbabwe

ed
- Defensive kingdom- Moshesh kingdom at Theba Bosiu and Bapedi who

established themselves in the Zoutpansberg range in present eastern Transvaal
.z
of south Africa
w
EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATION-
w
w
- Mfecane brought about the new type of leadership in Eastern and Southern
Africa. The new leaders such as Moshesh, Shaka and Sobhuza and Mzilikazi
- And Mirambo a Tuta captive who was a chief in Tanzania changed the old
traditional rule which relaxed rules and brought instead law and order which
was effectively maintained
DESTRUCTIVE
- loss of thousands of human lives and property. Whole huts and crops were
destroyed resulting in the land becoming full of human skeletons
Page 65
- severe starvation
- Xhosa stands out as a good example of a tribe that suffered the worst effects
of Mfecane, they were caught up in the middle of two powerful groups
- BOERS BENEFITTED; Boers as they were leaving cape and encouraging deep
in the interior found un occupied fertile land which facilitated their farming and
pastoral activities
- Boer encroachment however, caused future clashes with the Bantu.
THE JAMESON RAID 1895
om
The Uitlanders appealed to Rhodesia and Jameson for help in their struggle for political
.c
and civil rights in the Transvaal. There were differences between the Uitlanders and
ls
Cecil Rhodes.
ia
er
Uitlanders wanted self-government for Transvaal Rhodes wanted an association with
the rest of South Africa. The Boers knew about his invasion.
at
m
The major result of the unsuccessful raid was that a peaceful solution to the difference
ed
between the Transvaal and British became almost impossible.

.z
The Bambata rebellion

w
The development of the white economy in South Africa was based on the extraction of
w
valuable minerals. This caused the growth of large urban areas and had a profound
w
effect on the system which is still followed today by most of the South Africa non- white
population. The reserves became the areas where the women, children and old people
lived while the young men took up temporal residence in the white urban areas where
they worked in unskilled jobs.
Lack of land poverty, disease and taxation drove thousands of Africans into the towns.
The basic fact to grasp is that life in these towns meant poverty, insecurity and fear for
the Africas while in contrast many of the Whites enjoyed lives of wealth and privilege. A
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resentment, hatred and a defiance of their white employees, and administration, grow
up in place of the traditional life.
Ethiopiarism, a separatist religious movements, which used the slogan ‗Africa for the
African‘ gained a consideration following among Zulu in the cities. It prevented rebellion
and the message found its way back to Natal and Zululand In 1906 a resistance
message became widespread in Natal. ―All pigs must be destroyed as also all white
fowls.‖ The interpretation of the order was clear enough. The white man was to be
swept into the sea. The Zulu in Natal followed the instructions with regard to the
slaughter, both of pigs and fowl, against the wishes of Dinzulu, Cetswayo‘s successor,
om
who did not identity himself with the resistance movement.
.c
The imposition of a poll tax of one pound per head whether European, Africa, Asian or
ls
Coloured- resulted in outbursts all over Natal. The tax, involving the payment of the
ia
same amount of money by everyone, was resented by Africans, when Europeans were
er
earning at least twenty-times as much money as they were. Some of the men had not
at
brought their tax money so Bambara failed to comply with magistrate‘s order. But he
m
stayed with his men trying to persuade them comply with the new regulations. On 10th
ed
June 1906, Bambata and his followers were trapped in the Mome Gorge and
slaughtered.
.z
w
MOSHESH AND THE BASUTO NATION

w
Moshesh the founder of the Basuto Nation was born in 1786. He was the son of
w
Mokachane the chief of Mokoteli. He first settled at Butha Buthe where he established a
well protected fortress. He recognized the usefulness of the flat topped mountain.
By 1821 he was attacked by Tlokwa led by Mantatisi who was ruling for her son
Sekonyela. In 1824, Tlokwa made a second attack on Moshesh threatening to starve
him and his people but made an alliance with another local tribe for food supplies which
made his people survive. After proving that Butha Butha was not safe, he moved his
people to a more protected fortress called Thaba bosiu. He gained support of the
Page 67
phuting, the first people to live in Basutoland. After a short fight Moshesh treated
Morosi, the phuting, chief with generosity that he got his support. He placed other
ethnic groups to keep their own leaders provided they were royal to him.
He brought different groups together at council and public assemblies of which

important matters were discussed. He followed a system which saw a value of peaceful
agreements. When he was attacked by Matiwane of the Ngwane, he defeated him.
Moshesh defeated the Griquas and Korenna from Orange Free State with mounted
soldiers which resulted into greater mobility in the Basuto regiments.
om
The Basuto faced both defeat and starvation when Sir Philip Wode Louse announced a
protectorate over Basutoland in 1868. The coming of the white farmers brought
.c
problems to Moshesh. He hoped to prevent more Boers coming into his country.
ls
ia
The quarrel between the Orange Free State and Moshesh forced Basutoland to seek
er
British protection. Boers threatened Moshesh to accept the Warden line. The treaty of
Thaba Bosiu left government agreed that the protection should be given to Moshesh
at
provided the Basutoland was annexed to Natal with the consent of Orange Free State.
m
Moshesh died in 1870 but not before the survival of Basutoland was assumed.
ed
THE LIFE AND CAREER OF MZILIKAZI AND HIS NDEBELE UP TO THEIR

.z
ARRIVAL IN ZIMBABWE.
w
w
The Ndebele of Mzilikazi were originally called the Khumalo and were under the
w
authority of Zwide of the Ndwandwe it was after Zwide killed Mashobane Mzilikazi‘s
father that Mzilikazi assumed leadership of the Khumalo.
Mzilikazi left Zwide and transferred his royalty to Shaka. Shaka was impressed by
Mzilikazi‘s military ability and appointed him as an Induna over a regiment which largely
comprised his own people.
In 1821 Mzilikazi disobeyed Shaka by refusing to dispatch cattle to him he had obtained
after defeating a Sotho tribe to the north west of Zululand, fearing punishment Mzilikazi
Page 68
escaped into the interior plateau. About 1824, he reached the upper olifants river where
he built a settlement which they called Eko-pume-leni the resting place here he raided
the Bapedi, the Tswana and Kololo.
In 1825, he abandoned this area and moved westwards into central Transvaal because
the area was to close to Zululand. Between 1825 and 1834, Ndebele warriors devasted
the central and northern area of Transvaal bringing an era of peaceful development
among the northern Sotho to a sudden and violent end. The Kwena were badly broken
up later Ndebele established there capital at Mosage.
om
In 1836 a party Boers led Erasmus and Liebenberg families passing through Ndebele
territory was mistaken for Griqua warriors. The Ndebele attacked them and the party
.c
was largely destroyed.
ls
ia
However, in January 1837, a combined attacked by the Boers, Tlokwa Griqua and
er
Korana forced Ndebele out of Mosega to another military town of E.Gabeni.
at
In 1837 when the Ndebele were attacked by the Boers, they began their northward
m
journey. They were divided into two groups. E.g. the royal family of kuluman and
ed
Lobengula, the two sons of Mzilikazi women, children and what was left to their cattle
left to their called was led by the chief.
.z
w
Induna Gundwane Ndiwena and built their first settlement near Matopo hills, they called
w
it Gibixhegu (kill the old men) in memory of shake‘s military towns.

w
The second group led by another Induna Magsekeni Sithole and containing Mzilikazi got
lost and wandered as far as north as Zambezi when they had the undeceive battle with
the Kololo of Sebitwane at about 1838. Meanwhile the first group waited in vain for
their leader where split occurred between those that wanted a new king install.
However, a search party found them and then moved to Zimbabwe Mzilikazi built his
new royal capital at Nyati near Bulawayo. Those that wanted to over throw him were
killed. They were five Indunas including chief Gundwane were handled at a hill which
Page 69
still is called the ―hill of Indunas‖ Mzilikazi died in 1868 and was succeeded by his son
Lobengula who ruled the Ndebele up to January, 1894.
THE AIMS AND FEATURES OF SOUTH AFRICAN POLICY OF APARTHEID FROM

1948 TO 1994.
Apartheid is a dispute word for separateness between white and non whites. It was the
exploitation of the non-whites (majority) by the whites (minority) in South Africa.
The aims of the apartheid policy were to:
om
Firstly, promote racial inequality between whites and non-whites, secondly preserve the
supremacy of whites over non-whites and finally to protect and preserve Afrikaners
.c
power in South Africa.
ls
The features of apartheid policy were: ia
er
The 1948 elections won by the Afrikaner Nationalist Party preserved the racial purity of
at
the whites in order to ensure continued purity white supremacy.

m
In 1949 marriages between the white and non-whites were made illegal. In 1950, the
ed
group areas Act gave the government power to divide South Africa into separate
.z
districts for each race.

w
In 1950 Act classified the people of South Africa into separate districts into three
w
groups:
w
Whites, Coloureds and Bantu/blacks issued with a pass. The Bantu Self Government Act
of 1959 divided the African population into eight tribal units called ‗Bantustans‘ or
‗reserves‘ each governed by a puppet ‗government‘. Some of the Bantustans were:
Transkei (largest), Ciskei, Kwazulu, Venda, Bophuthatswana
Voters Act of 1951 repeated in 1956 aimed at removing the Cape Coloured from
common roll of voters. The Major Carrier Transport Amendment Act of 1955 imposed
segregation on transport services. The 1956 Industrial Conciliation Act banned mixed
Page 70
trade unions. The group Areas Amendment act of 1957 segregated the public cinemas
and restraints. Lastly was the 1962 Sabotage Act (General Law Amendment).
om
.c
ls
ia
er
at
m
ed
.z
w
w
w
Page 71

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MATERIAL PRODUCTION FOR IMPROVED ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

MATERIAL PRODUCTION TEAM-2018

EARLY SOCIETIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA

EARLY STONE AGE.

THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE

ones could have been used as a club.

No bones of Early Stone Age creatures have been found in Zambia.

roots, leaves and edible grasses.

THE MIDDLE STONE AGE (40 000- 10 000 years ago)

squares in mathematics and was found at Nsalu, Nachikufu and Nakapapula.

found at Chifubwa in Solwezi.

BANTU MIGRATION INTO CENTRAL AFRICAN BEFORE 1800 AD

Causes of the Bantu migration

1. Drying up of the Sahara

Moreover, land became exhausted so they had to migrate.

BANTU EARLY WAY OF LIFE

paying lobola during marriage ceremonies.

2. LUBA LUNDA MIGRATION INTO CENTRAL AFRICA BEFORE 1800 A.D.

Causes of the Luba – Lunda Migrations

the two Katanga states of Luba and Lunda.

Effects of the Bantu Migrations

THE LUBA EMPIRE.

POLITICAL ORGANISI TION

COLLAPSE OF THE LUBA EMPIRE

fully controlled by the Loyal hood.

THE LUNDA KINGDOM

kingship each person appointed to a position of authority had to be related to

the king in one way or the other.

their successor in those respective positions would continue to relate. It has

people relied for its sustenance entirely on tribute in food form.

It reached its peak about 1680 under Mwata Yamvo Muteba.

EXTENT OF MWATA YAMVO’S KINGDOM.

- Kinguri went to Angola

base in terms of trade goods.

kingdom eastwards. He was accompanied by Chinyata. Sad to say Mutanda Yembe

Reasons for Expansion

Mporokoso‘s Lungu, and Nkuba‘s Shila.

Lualaba to Zambia‘s Luapula valley.

ivory and food.

Factors that led to its decline.

expanding Bemba kingdom.

THE BEMBA KINGDOM

Origin of the Bemba Kingdom

The following were some of the reasons for expansion:

Good leadership as shown by Chileshe Chepela managed to conquer some of the

common people organized in families.

negative consequences on the strength of the Bemba.

ALUYI (LOZI) KINGDOM UP TO 1835

IN ZAMBEZI FLOOD PLAINS

1. LITUNGA: Strong and efficient

2. MULONGWANJI COUNCIL: (a) To advise the Litunga

The Litunga capitalized on this trade to gain more political power.

Tenth Litunga: Mulambwa ruled approximately between 1778-1830. He brought

AFTER THE DEATH OF MULAMBWA

REACTIONS OF THE LUYI

into his royal council.

RULE OF SEKELETU 1852 – 1863

up to 1878 when he was overthrown by Lubosi who became Lewanika.