METERING OF FLUIDS

G.MUGAISHUDEEN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

23-Sep-19
 Introduction
In chemical process industry, it is desirable to know the amount of
fluid flowing to or from the process equipment.
Many different types of flow meters are used industrially to measure
the rate at which a fluid is flowing through a pipe or a duct.
The accuracy of flow measurement will vary from instrument to
instrument and the desired accuracy will vary from application to
application
Measuring flow is one of the most important aspects of process
control
It is one of the most frequently measured process variables
Flow tends to be the most difficult variable to measure
No single flow meter can cover all flow measurement applications
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 Introduction
The major factors affecting the flow of fluids through pipes are
The velocity of the fluid
Fluid viscosity
Fluid density
Pipe size
Pipe friction
Conditions of fluid

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 Classification and selection of flow meters
Flow measuring devices or flow meters (for closed conduits) are
classified as,
1.Variable head meters ( Differential Pressure flow meters)
Example: Venturi meter, Orifice meter
Differential pressure type flow meters provide the best results
where the flow conditions are turbulent.
2.Variable area meters
Example: Rota meter (float type)
Variable area flow meters are simple and versatile devices that
operate at a relatively constant pressure drop and measure the
flow of liquids, gases, and steam

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 Classification and selection of flow meters
3.Mechanical flow meters (Positive displacement meters)
Example: Wet gas meter
Mechanical flow meters that measure flow using an
arrangement of moving parts, either by passing isolated known
volumes of a fluid through a series of gears or chambers OR by
means of a spinning turbine or rotor (turbine flow meters)
4.Electromagnetic flow meters
Example: Magnetic flow meter
Electronic flow meters represent a logical grouping of flow
measurement technologies. All have no moving parts and are
made possible by today's sophisticated electronics technology

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 Classification and selection of flow meters
5.Mass flow meters
Example: Cariolis meter
Traditionally fluid flow measurement has been made in terms of
the volume of the moving fluid even though the meter user may
be more interested in the weight(mass)of the fluid. Volumetric
flow meters also are subject to ambient and process changes,
such as density, which changes with temperature and pressure

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 Variable head meters
1. Venturi meter

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 Venturi meter

Principle
The basic principle on which venturi meter works is that by
reducing the cross sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure
difference is created and the measurement of the pressure
difference (between inlet of the meter and at a point of reduced
pressure) enables the estimation of the discharge/ flow rate
through the pipe

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 Venturi meter

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 Venturi meter

It is a device used for the measurement of flow in a pipeline.

Based on Principle of Bernoulli’s theorem.
It consist of 3 parts:
a) Converging Cone.
b) Short cylindrical throat.
c) Diverging cone.
 Venturi meter

Converging Cone:
The function of converging cone is to accelerate
the flow and create pressure difference between
the inlet to converging cone and the throat.
Angle of Diverging cone is from 15˚ to 20˚ and
length parallel to the axis equal to 2.7 (D-DT)
 Venturi meter

Short Cylindrical throat:

The function of throat is to stabilize the flow
and facilitate the provision of pressure tapping.
Diameter Ratio:
d/D = 0.4 to 0.7
Where, D= Diameter of Pipeline
d= Diameter of throat
 Venturi meter

Diverging cone:
The function of diverging cone is to reduce the
velocity and increase the pressure to its original
value to the extent it is possible practically.
Large portion of Kinetic Energy is recovered (I,e
converted back to pressure energy)
Angle of Diverging cone is from 5˚ to 7˚
 Venturi meter
Working
In this meter, the fluid is accelerated in the converging cone and
then retarded in the diverging cone gradually
An increasing in flow velocity at the throat (min flow area) results
in decreasing pressure at the throat
The pressure difference developed between inlet and throat is
measured with the help of manometer or pressure gauges after
the steady state is attained
This pressure difference is then related to the flow rate by a
mathematical flow equation for the meter
The value of coefficient of discharge varies from 0.95 to 0.99
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 Venturi meter
Flow Equation for Venturimeter

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 Venturi meter
Advantages
✔ Low permanent pressure loss and hence high pressure recovery
✔ High accuracy over wide flow ranges
✔ Used for compressible and incompressible fluids
✔ Used where only for a small pressure head is available
✔ High reproducibility

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 Venturi meter
Disadvantages
✔ Highly expensive
✔ Occupies considerable space
✔ Cannot be altered for measuring pressure beyond a maximum
velocity.
✔ Not suitable for highly viscous slurry
✔ Relatively complex in construction

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 Venturi meter
Applications
✔ Calculating flow rate of fluid in a tube.
✔ Setting the flow of gasoline in the ignition system of a motor
vehicle.
✔ In the field of medicine, has also designed venturi meter is used
to measure the rate of blood flow in the arteries.

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 Variable head meters
2. Orifice meter

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 Orifice meter
It is a variable head meter used for measuring the discharge/ Flow
rate through a pipe
In this meter, the fluid is accelerated by causing it to flow through a
sudden contraction (orifice).
The kinetic energy of fluid increases and the pressure energy
therefore decreases.
With this meter, the overall pressure drop across the meter is high- a
large percentage of the pressure drop across the meter is not
recoverable.

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 Orifice meter

Principle
The basic principle on which Orifice meter works is that by
reducing the cross sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure
difference is created and the measurement of the pressure
difference (between inlet and orifice) enables the estimation of the
discharge/ flow rate through the pipe

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 Orifice meter

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 Orifice meter

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 Orifice meter

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 Orifice meter
An orifice consists of a flat circular plate with an accurately machined
and drilled circular hole called an orifice
The thickness of the plate is less than (or) equal to 0.05 times the
diameter of the pipe
The edge of the orifice is made flat for a thickness less than or equal
to 0.02 times the diameter of the pipe and remaining portion of the
plate is beveled with the bevel angle of 30˚ to 45˚
The orifice may vary from 0.2 to 0.85 times the pipe diameter, but
generally the orifice diameter of 0.5 times the diameter of pipe is
used.

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 Orifice meter
Flow Pattern
▪ The flow lines run parallel and widely spaced on the upstream
side of the plate but as the flow approaches the orifice plate, the
flow lines slowly converge at the orifice and then diverge out to
pipe area smoothly.
▪ Since the flow lines converge and then diverge, the flow area
becomes minimum at a short distance on the down stream side of
the orifice plate which is known as the “vena-contracta”.
▪ The jet of fluid issuing from the orifice plate gradually expands
from the vena-contracta to again fill the entire cross-section of the
pipe.

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 Orifice meter
Working
✔ It is based on the same principle as explained in
venturi meter.
✔ The value of Cd varies between 0.60 to 0.65.

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 Orifice meter

Flow Equation for Orifice meter

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 Orifice meter
Advantages
✔ Simple in construction and cheap
✔ It is easy to install (installing a new orifice plate with different
opening is a simple job)
✔ It can be used with all types of differential pressure transmitters
✔ The ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter can be changed

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 Orifice meter
Disadvantages
✔ Substantial loss of pressure over the instrument and the pressure
recovery is poor
✔ Considerable power loss
✔ It cannot be used for slurries that may clog the orifice opening
✔ For accurate readings, it requires a certain straight run of pipe
(without any fitting or valve on both sides of meter)

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 Orifice meter
Applications
✔ Both venturi and orifice meter are used to measure the flow rate
of gases and liquids
✔ In aviation : to measure the speed of the air around the plane
✔ In automotive : to measure the fuel and air distribution in
carburetor
✔ In chemical : to measure the flow rate of chemical through pipes
✔ Other : in water treatment plants, power generation, gas
generation and distribution.

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 Variable area meters
Rotameter

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 Variable area meters

In the orifice meter or venturi meter (variable head meter) the area of
construction is constant and the differential pressure (pressure drop)
across the meter varies with flow rate (discharge)
While in variable area meter, the pressure drop across the meter is
constant and the flow rate is a function of the area of construction.
Hence any change in the flow rate can be measured in terms of
change in area of flow.
Most important variable area meter is rotameter.

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 Rotameter (Float type)

Principle
Rotameter operates on the principle that, the pressure drop
across the meter is nearly constant and the area through which
the fluid flow changes with flow rate. Thus change in area is
related to the flow rate through a proper calibration.

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 Rotameter (Float type)

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 Rotameter

The tapered tube contains a freely moving solid float

The diameter of the float is smaller than the diameter of the bottom of
the tapered tube.
The density of a float material is higher than that of the fluid
Perforated plate is provided at both ends of the tapered tube for
arresting the float in the tube
A guide is provided for the float so it always remains at the centre in
the tube along the axis of the tube
The float is usually constructed out of corrosion resistance materials
such as SS, Aluminum, Monel, Bronze, Nickel etc.

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 Rotameter

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 Rotameter
The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid flows through the annular
gap around the edge of the float.
The restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the
pressure forces the float upwards.
Because the tube is tapered, the restriction is decreased as the float
moves up.
Eventually a level is reached where the restriction is just right to
produce a pressure force that counteracts the weight of the float
The level of the float indicates the flow rate
If the flow changes the float moves up or down to find a new balance
position

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 Rotameter

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 Rotameter

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 Rotameter

Flow Equation for Rotameter

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 Rotameter
Advantages
No external power or fuel.

Manufactured of cheap materials.

Since the area of the flow passage increases as the float

moves up the tube, the scale is approximately linear.

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 Rotameter
Disadvantages
Impact of gravity.

Accuracy of rotameter.

Uncertainty of the measurement.

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 Rotameter
Applications
✔ Rotameters are widely used in the chemical industry for the
measurement of flow rates of compressible as well as in
compressible fluids.
✔ They provide a direct reading of the flow rate.
✔ To measure the flow of gases and air at low flow rates.
✔ When cost is the main consideration.
✔ When high accuracy is not required.

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 Insertion type meters
Pitot Tube

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 Pitot Tube
It is a device used to measure the local or point velocity by
measuring the difference between impact pressure and static
pressure.
The orifice meter and venturi meter measure the average velocity of
the entire fluid stream, whereas the pitot tube measures the velocity
at one point only.

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 Pitot Tube

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 Pitot Tube
Principle
✔ The basic principle is that if the velocity of flow at particular point
is reduced to zero (known as stagnation point), the pressure at
that point increases due to conversion of the kinetic energy in to
the pressure energy and by measuring the increase in the
pressure energy at this point, the velocity may be determined.

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 Pitot Tube

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 Pitot Tube (simple form)
Working
✔ The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the
fluid flow.
✔ As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the
moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to
allow flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of
the fluid, also known as the total pressure.
✔ The liquid flows up the tube and when equilibrium is attained, the
liquid reaches a height above the free surface of the water
stream.

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 Pitot Tube
Working
✔ Since the static pressure, under this situation, is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure due to its depth below the free surface, the
difference in level between the liquid in the glass tube and the
free surface becomes the measure of dynamic pressure.
Therefore, we can write, neglecting friction,
p0 - p= hρg

✔ where p0, p and V are the stagnation pressure, static pressure

and velocity respectively at point A (fig-1).

v= (2gh)½

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 Pitot Tube (simple form)
Working
✔ For an open stream of liquid with a free surface, this single tube is
sufficient to determine the velocity.
✔ But for a fluid flowing through a closed duct, the Pitot tube
measures only the stagnation pressure and so the static pressure
must be measured separately

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 Pitot Tube

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 Pitot Tube (types)

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 Pitot Tube
Working
✔ A pitot tube is simply a small cylinder that faces a fluid so that the
fluid can enter it.
✔ Because the cylinder is open on one side and enclosed on the
other, fluid entering it cannot flow any further and comes to a rest
inside of the device.
✔ A diaphragm inside of the pitot tube separates the incoming
pressure (static pressure) from the stagnation pressure (total
pressure) of a system.
✔ The difference between these two measurements determines the
velocity of the fluid and also flow rate.

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 Pitot Tube
Advantages:
Pitot tubes measure pressure levels in a fluid. They do not contain
any moving parts and routine use does not easily damage them.
Also, pitot tubes are small and can be used in tight spaces that other
devices cannot fit into.

Disadvantages:
Foreign material in a fluid can easily clog pitot tubes and disrupt
normal readings as a result.

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 Pitot Tube
Applications
✔ It is widely used to determine the airspeed of
an aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to measure
liquid, air and gas velocities in industrial applications.
✔ The pitot tube is used to measure the local velocity at
a given point in the flow stream and not the average
velocity in the pipe or conduit

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 MEASUREMENT OF FLOW IN OPEN
CHANNELS
NOTCHES AND WEIRS

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
A notch may be defined as an opening provided in the side of a tank/
vessel/ reservoir such that the liquid surface in the tank (the
upstream liquid level) is below the top edge of the opening.

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
✔ A weir is basically an obstruction in the flow path in an open channel.
✔ The weir will cause an increase in the water depth as the water flows
over the weir.
✔ In general, the greater the flow rate, the greater will be the increase
in depth of flow, The height of water above the top of the weir is the
measurement usually used to correlate with flow rate

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
A notch may have only the bottom edge and sides because its top
edge above the liquid surface serves no purpose
The bottom edge of a notch over which the liquid flows is known as
still or crest of the notch
Usually, a notch is made up of a metallic plate. It is used to measure
the rate of discharge of liquids/ the rate of flow of liquids flowing in
open channels (not in closed channels)
The notches are classified according to their shapes
✔ Rectangular notch
✔ Triangular notch/ V-notch
✔ Trapezoidal notch

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
The weirs are classified according to their shapes

A weir with a sharp upstream corner or edge such that the water
springs clear of the crest is a sharp-crested weir.

Sharp-crested weirs are classified according to the shape of the

weir opening, such as
✔ rectangular weirs,
✔ triangular or V-notch weirs,
✔ trapezoidal weirs, and parabolic weirs.

Weirs not sharp crested are classified according to the shape of

their cross section, such as broad-crested weirs,
✔ triangular weirs,
✔ trapezoidal weirs.

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
Triangular notch (V-notch)

Triangular or V-notch measure low discharges more accurately than

rectangular notch.
The V-notch is most commonly a 90° opening with the sides of the
notch inclined 45° with the vertical.
Since the V-notch has no crest length, much smaller flows are
represented by a given head than for a rectangular notch

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
Triangular notch (V-notch)

For a triangular or v-notch the flow rate can be expressed as:

Q = 8/15 Cd (2 g)1/2 tan(θ/2) H5/2

where
• Q = Volumetric flow rate
• θ = V-notch angle
• H= head of notch
• Cd= discharge constant for the notch
(usually 0.60)
• g = 9.81 (m/s2) - gravity

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
Triangular notch (V-notch) – Application

The V-Notch system uses the principle of gravitational discharge of

water over a triangular or rectangular notched plate.

Typical applications include:
✔ Long-term monitoring of dams
✔ Drainage systems in dams and tunnels
✔ Springs and artesian wells

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
Rectangular notch

For a rectangular notch the flow rate can be expressed as:

Q = 2/3 Cd B (2 g)1/2 H3/2

where
• Q = Volumetric flow rate
• B = Width or length of the notch
• H= head of notch
• Cd= discharge constant for the notch
(usually 0.60)
• g = 9.81 (m/s2) - gravity

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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
Rectangular notch- Applications
✔ The data gained from flow rate calculations over a rectangular
notch can be used in a number of ways.
✔ Flood control and general water management policies and
practices are often designed around such data.
✔ The flow data can be used to determine if a hydroelectric project
would be possible or profitable.
✔ Water flow data can also be useful for environmental impact
studies, specifically in determining how the notches / weirs or
other structures would affect the ecosystem of a stream or river.
✔ Irrigation and other water use needs programs also benefit from
this kind of data
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 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
Rectangular notch vs. Triangular notch
✔ For a triangular notch, the rate of discharge is proportional to the
liquid depth raised to a power of 2.5 and for rectangular notch to a
power of 1.5.Therefore triangular notch can handle a wide range
of flow rates
✔ For low discharge, triangular notch gives more accurate results
than a rectangular notch.
✔ In case of triangular notch if the angle of the notch is 900 then the
total discharge equation becomes very simple to remember.

Q = 1.417 H5/2

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