Grade 7 Natural Science - Learner Book

Natural Sciences
Grade 7
Learner's Book
This textbook is a derivative work of the Grade 7 Natural Sciences workbooks originally produced and published by
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Natural Sciences Grade 7 Learner’s Book
First published in 2017
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Contents
STRAND Life and Living 1
Unit 1 The biosphere 2

Unit 2 Biodiversity 17
Unit 3 Sexual reproduction 50
Unit 4 Variation 82
Glossary Life and Living 89
STRAND Matter and Materials 93
Unit 5 94
Unit 6 112
Unit 7 134
Unit 8 148
Glossary 165
STRAND 167
Unit 9 Renewable and non-renewable energy 168

Unit 10 Potential and kinetic energy 179
Unit 11 Heat: energy transfer 204
Unit 12 Heat insulation and energy saving 220
Unit 13 Energy transfer to surroundings 233
Unit 14 The national electricity supply system 242
Glossary Energy and Change 255
STRAND Planet Earth and Beyond 257
Unit 15 Relationship of the Earth to the Sun 258

Unit 16 Relationship of the Moon to the Earth 287
Unit 17 Historical development of astronomy 312
Glossary Earth and Beyond 331
STRAND
Life and Living

1 The biosphere
Key questions
What is the biosphere?
• What are the coldest or hottest places where life can exist?
• How deep can you go in the sea before you do not find anything living anymore?
• Are there living organisms on top of the world’s highest mountains?
• How can you tell if something is alive or if it was never alive?
• What do organisms need to stay alive?
• Why can some organisms can live in certain places while others cannot.
Let’s start exploring the world around us and how it works! Remember that
Keywords this is your book! You must use it to explore and ask questions about the world
• biosphere around you, and also to learn about yourself and who you are. Do not be afraid
• depend to make notes in the margins of this book – make your own scribbles and notes
• habitat to yourself about points to remember or questions you would like to ask. Be
• hydrosphere curious! Explore and imagine the possibilities of what you can do with science!
• lithosphere
• micro-
organism
1.1 What is the biosphere
• organic Have you heard the word ‘sphere’ before? Do you know what it means? A sphere
organisms is normally used when talking about a round shape (like a ball). Now, what do
we mean when we talk about the biosphere? The prefix ‘bio’ indicates something
to do with life. For example, ‘biology’ is the study of living organisms. So, can
you put these two meanings together to work out what ‘biosphere’ means?
Take note The Biosphere

All the ‘Keywords’ The biosphere is the place where life exists on planet Earth. When we talk
listed in the about the biosphere, we are talking about a huge system (the whole world!)
boxes in the and how all the different parts work together to support life. We will look
margin are at these different parts in more detail a bit later. Do you remember learning
defined in the about the different states of matter? The hydrosphere includes all water in all
glossary at the states of matter.
the end of this
strand.
Figure 1.1 The biosphere is where life exists on our planet, including the soil and rocks,
water and air.
2 STRAND Life and Living

We can also use the term biosphere in different ways. When we speak of all
life on Earth as it interacts with the non-living rocks and soil, water and air
(atmosphere), we call this the biosphere.
We can also call a specific part or region on Earth that supports life
a biosphere, especially when we refer to the living organisms and the
environments in which they live.
Keywords
• adapted
• aquatic
• atmosphere
• environment
Figure 1.2 A biosphere refers to the living organisms and the environments in which they live.
ACTIVITY Where do you think life exists on Earth?
Instructions
• The following table contains some photos of different places on Earth. Describe what each photo
is showing.
• Then decide if you think life exists there or not. If you do think so, list some of the organisms
which you think live in this place.
• Many plants, animals and microorganisms have adapted to live in an aquatic habitat.
A place on Earth What is this image showing? Do you think there is life there?
If so, what?
Unit 1: The biosphere 3

Components of the biosphere
In the previous activity we saw that life can be found in water, soil and rocks,
or the air around us. These components form part of the biosphere and have
special names:
• Lithosphere, which includes the soil and rocks.
• Hydrosphere, which includes all the water.
• Atmosphere, which includes all the gases
The biosphere includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The
biosphere includes all living organisms, and also dead organic matter.
ACTIVITY Describe the components of the biosphere.
Instructions
Study the following illustration that shows the components of the biosphere.
Did you
know?
The Earth’s
atmosphere
has changed
overtime. Our
oxygen rich
atmosphere was
formed by algae
millions of years
ago.
Figure 1.3 The lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere on Earth.
Identify and describe the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and

atmosphere that you can see in the photo.
a) Lithosphere
b) Hydrosphere
c) Atmosphere
d) Even though you cannot see living organisms in this photo, there are
many living and dead plants and animals that could live on a beach
found in this biosphere. Make about 10 plausible (believable) guesses of
the types of organisms which would live in this environment.
(Hint: Think about what might be living in the sea, sand or air.)
Different organisms can exists in different places in the biosphere. Let’s

have a look at the different components of the biosphere and which types of
organisms exist there.

Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. The three most
important gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The atmosphere is made up of several layers.
ACTIVITY The atmosphere
Questions
1. Discuss with your partner whether you think organisms could live on
Earth without the atmosphere. Explain why you think so.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere consists of all water on Earth in all its forms.
ACTIVITY The water cycle
Instructions
Study the following diagram describing the water cycle on Earth.
Answer the questions that follow.
Take note
The word
‘aquatic’ is used
freezing precipitation (rain) to describe
something to
do with water.
melting
Therefore aquatic
animals are
run-off animals that
live in or near
water. The word
evaporation ’marine’ describes
evaporation
organisms that
live in salt water
or the sea.
So someone
Questions
studying the
organisms in the
1. Look at the diagram of the water cycle and identify water in the different
sea is called a
states of matter.
marine biologist.
2. The water cycle shows different sources of fresh water and salt water.
A very small percentage of the world’s water sources are fresh water
and the rest is salt water. Write down as many different types of aquatic
habitats that you can think of where different organisms exist.

Lithosphere
As we have said, the lithosphere includes the rocks, soil and sand on Earth.
Organisms depend on the lithosphere in many different ways. We find out
how in the next activity.
ACTIVITY How do organisms depend on the lithosphere?
Instructions
1. Below are several photos depicting different ways that organisms depend
on and interact with the lithosphere.
2. Use these images to write a paragraph about how different organisms
depend on the lithosphere in different ways.
Figure 1.4 Birds’ nests Figure 1.5 A rock pool
Figure 1.6 A termite mound Figure 1.7 A tree growing in the ground
Figure 1.8 An earthworm in soil Figure 1.9 A mud hut

Characteristics of living plants and animals Keywords
There are seven processes that all living organisms perform that determine
whether they are alive or not. Let’s have a look at the seven life processes: • abiotic
1. All living things need to be able to move. Moving does not have to • cellular
consist of big movements. Even plants move, for example as the flowers respiration
and leaves turn to face the sun during the course of the day. • respire
2. All living things need energy to perform the life processes.
3. All living things need to be sensitive to their environment. Think of an
example of why animals need to be sensitive to their environment and
write it down below.
4. All living things need to be able to grow.
5. All living things need to be able to reproduce so that they do not die out.
6. All living things need to be able to excrete waste.
7. All living things need nutrition, as they need to break down nutrients
during cellular respiration to release energy.
1.2 Requirements for sustaining life

After studying the seven life processes, we now know what animals, plants
and other living organisms need to do in order to be classified as living. In
order to stay alive these living organisms require (need) certain things or
specific conditions. In this section we are going to study the requirements
necessary to sustain life.
ACTIVITY Identify the requirements for sustaining life

Imagine that you are the design team for the first International Moon Space
Station, similar to the International Space Station already orbiting Earth, but
situated on the Moon!
Figure 1.10 The international space station that orbits Earth, seen from above.

Take note Instructions
1. Work in groups of four.

‘Sustain’ means to
2. What do you think the astronauts and plants living on the new Moon
keep things alive
Station will need in order to live? Discuss the five most important
or in existence.
requirements that you need to provide in order for the astronauts and
We also use the
plants to remain alive on your Moon Space Station.
word ‘sustainable’
3. Explain why your group chose these five requirements as the most
when we want
important to sustain life. Write down your notes from your group
to say that
discussion. Decide which member of your group is going to report back
something can
your findings to the rest of the class.
continue or be
4. Have a class discussion after you have finished discussing this in your
continued for a
group.
long time.
Keyword
• favourable
Figure 1.11 All living things need a source Figure 1.12 All living things need oxygen to
Did you of energy. The grass and trees get their respire, such as this dog, which is breathing air
know? energy from the Sun to photosynthesise. in through its nose.
When The cow gets its energy by eating the
grass.
astronomers
search for life
outside of our WATER is vital to life. Every organism on our planet needs water to live.
solar system,
they search for
planets that
might contain
liquid water,
believing that
where there is
water there is
life.
Figure 1.13 Water is vital for life on Earth. Figure 1.14 Most plants need soil to grow in.

Requirements for growing seedlings
Take note
Let’s find out what the requirements are to grow seedlings. We will learn how
to conduct a scientific investigation to do this. In Natural
Sciences, when
Investigation What are the requirements to sustain life we use the word
in plants? ‘favourable’
we mean
In this investigation, we are going to germinate bean seeds (or any other something that
seeds that your teacher provides you with). Each group in the class is is advantageous,
going to be testing a different requirement for germination and growth of helpful, or
the seedling. optimal. For
example, we
Aim
can talk about
A scientific investigation always has an aim or question that needs to be favourable
answered. What is the aim of this investigation? Write down what you conditions for life.
aim to find out.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is where you propose (suggest) what the outcome of the
investigation will be. It is a prediction of what the results will be. Write a
hypothesis for this investigation.
Variables
Scientists often use investigations to search for cause and effect
relationships. This means that they design experiments to investigate
how changes to one part will cause an effect on another. These changing
quantities are called variables. There are usually three kinds of variables:
1. Independent variables: These are the things that you are changing in
the investigation. You are in control of the independent variables.
For example, if you wanted to investigate if eating a lot of sugar
makes you gain weight, then the amount of sugar you eat is the
independent variable. You control how much sugar you eat. We want
to achieve something called a FAIR TEST which means that only
ONE independent variable is changed at any given time. Once the
independent variable has been changed, the scientist then observes
what the effect will be. In the example of investigating if sugar makes
you gain weight, you cannot at the same time investigate whether
exercise makes you lose weight. This would not be a fair test. Keywords
2. Dependent variables: The dependent variable is the thing that you
• dependent
observe in an investigation. You do not change it. The dependent variable
variable will change depending on the independent variable. For • fair test
example, in the investigation to see if eating a lot of sugar makes you • hypothesis
gain weight, the dependent variable will be how many kilograms you • independent
gain (or lose) as a result of eating sugar. How much weight you gain variable
will depend on how much sugar you have eaten. Dependent variables • scientific
should be measured in an objective way using numbers as far as method
possible. • variables

Take note 3. Controlled variables: These are the quantities that a scientist wants
to remain the same or unchanged throughout the experiment. The
A hypothesis is controlled variable needs to be carefully monitored to make sure that
an educated or it stays the same. In the example to see if sugar makes you gain weight,
calculated guess you could have one person eat a lot of sugar and the other person eat
about what the no sugar and then see the changes in weight. There are some things
outcome of the that need to stay the same for both of these people so that it is a fair
investigation test. For example, both people must do the same amount of exercise so
will be. The that this does not influence their weight. This is a controlled variable.
hypothesis is
stated before You can also do a control test. For example, in this investigation about
starting the the growth of plants, you will be taking away one of the requirements for
investigation, growth. You need to do a control test where another plant is given all the
must be written requirements, including the one you took away in the other plant. You can
as a statement then compare your plant where you took one requirement away to the
and must be in control plant that has that same requirement to see if there is a difference.
the future tense.
Identify the variables for this investigation.
1. Independent variable. What will you change?
2. Dependent variable. What will you measure to see the effect of the
Take note independent variable on the germination and growth of the plant?
3. Controlled variables and control group. What will your control test
Remember your
be, and what will you keep the same between the control plant and
control group
the tested plant?
is a special kind
of comparison Method
group. In your group, plan how you are going to do the investigation. Think
about which requirement you are testing and how you will take this
Did you requirement away. For example, if you are looking at light, where could
know? you place the seeds so that they do not receive light? Remember, if you
are looking at light, then you need to make sure that the control and test
Every solar seeds both receive the same amount of water. Once you have planned the
system has investigation on rough paper and discussed it with your teacher, write up
a habitable the method below (in numbered steps), explaining what you will do.
zone, which is
a region that Materials and apparatus
is not too hot Write a list of all the materials and apparatus that you will be using in this
(close to the investigation.
sun), and not Results and observations
too cold (far
Use this space to record the results for your investigation. If you are
from the sun)
seeing whether plants germinate or not, then you need to draw a table to
to be able to
show this. If you are measuring how much the plants grow, then you will
sustain life.
also need a table for this.
Earth is in the
middle of our
solar system’s
Goldilocks.

Analysis Did you
Once we have collected our results in a scientific investigation, we need to know?
analyse them. This often involves drawing and interpreting the graph. If
you measured the growth of the seedlings over time, then you can draw Not all plants
a line graph to show this. If you have counted the number of seeds that need to grow in
germinated, you can express this using a bar chart (provided you used the soil. Epiphytes,
same number of seeds in each group), or you can express the percentage of such as mosses
seeds that germinated as a pie chart. Your teacher will help you do this. and orchids,
are a group of
Conclusion plants which
After collecting all your results and drawing a graph using these results, grow on other
you will need to use this to draw a conclusion about the requirements to plants or rocks.
sustain life in plants. The following questions will guide you in drawing They get their
your conclusion. moisture and
1. I found out... minerals from
2. I know this because... the air and rain
3. The investigation was fair because...
4. I can trust the results because...
5. While I conducted (did) this investigation I also discovered that...
6. If I did this investigation again I could improve it by...
Adapted for life

Do you think you could put a polar bear in the Kalahari desert or a gemsbok
in Antarctica, and they would survive? Why, or why not?
These animals are specifically adapted to live in their specific environments.
All organisms are adapted to their specific environments. In the next activity
we examine some more examples of how organisms are adapted to their
environments.
ACTIVITY Adaptations in organisms
Instructions
1. Study the photos below showing different organisms in different
environments.
2. Answer the questions.
3. You may need to do some extra research in books and on the Internet to
complete your answers.
Questions
Look at the photos of a penguin in the water and an eagle flying in the air.
Both of these are birds, but they live in very different environments that
make the penguin adapted for the water and the eagle adapted for flight.

Figure 1.15 A penguin in the water.
Figure 1.16 A flying fish eagle about to catch some food.
1. How do you think the penguin is adapted to swim in water?

Hint: What are its wings used for? Does it have small or large feathers?
How do you think this helps?
2. How do you think the eagle is adapted to fly and catch its prey?
Hint: Look at its feathers and wings.
South Africa is home to two very skilled predators, the great white shark
and the lion. Both of these animals are very skilled at catching their prey,
but in very different environments.

Figure 1.17 A great white shark in Gansbaai, Western Cape.
Figure 1.18 A lion attacking a buffalo in Kruger National Park.
3. What characteristics does the shark have that makes it adapted to living
and feeding in the sea? Hint: Look at its streamlined body shape and
sharp teeth.
4. What characteristics does a lion have that makes it adapted to living and
hunting in the savanna? Hint: Look at the colour of its fur and the colour
of the grass, and its strong limbs.

Summary
Key concepts
• Life on planet Earth exists in the biosphere.

• The biosphere consists of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, as well as the many
living organisms and dead, organic matter.
• Many different kinds of living organisms exist in the biosphere.
• Things can be classified as living if they perform the seven life processes:
−− Movement
−− Reproduction
−− Sensing the environment
−− Growth
−− Respiration
−− Excretion
−− Nutrition
• Living things need energy, gases, water, soil, and a favourable temperature to survive.
Concept map
Do you know what a concept map is? This year in Natural Sciences, we are going to learn more
about how to make our own concept maps.
Above you have the ‘Key concepts’ for this unit. This is a written summary and the information
from this unit is summarised using words. We can also create a concept map of this unit, which
is a map of how all the concepts (ideas and topics) in this unit fit together and are linked to each
other. A concept map gives us a more visual way of summarising information.
Different people like to learn and study in different ways: some people like to make written
summaries, while others like to draw their own concept maps when studying and learning.
These are useful skills to have, especially for later in high school and after school!

Have a look at the concept map for ‘The Biosphere’. Complete it by filling in the seven life
processes in the blank spaces.
hydrosphere
lithosphere atmosphere
life exists
dead organic matter
includes
where
The biosphere made up of

provides plants
requirements
for life have living things can be animals
micro-
organisms
energy such as
adapted to carry out
gases
favourable temperatures
water
soil
environment seven life processes
these are
Unit 1: Summary 15

Revision
1. Explain what the biosphere is. (2)
2. What makes up the following?
a) Lithosphere:
b) Hydrosphere:
c) Atmosphere:(3)
3. Discuss why the atmosphere is important for life on Earth. (2)
4. Imagine an alien creature arrives on Earth attached to a meteorite (fallen space rock).
You were tasked with deciding whether it lives in the conventional way that we understand
organisms to live. Draw up seven questions to determine how this organism lives and
whether it can be classified as alive. (7)
5. What are the requirements for sustaining life on Earth? (5)
6. Look at the following photos of different
organisms in their environments. Answer the
questions about how they are adapted.
a) Giraffe (1)
How are giraffe adapted to eat their food?
Hint: They eat the leaves of trees.
b) Cactus (1)
This cactus is adapted to live in hot
environments. How do you think
it stores water for long periods?
Hint: Look at its leaves.

How do you think the cactus has adapted (1)
to prevent other animals from eating it?
Hint: What is on the leaves?
c) Stick insect (1)

Can you see the stick insect in this photo?
How do you think it is adapted, especially
to hide away from predators?
7. Think back to the scientific investigation you did in this section. Evaluate how well you
think you followed the scientific method to make your experiment fair or not fair. (2)
Total [25 marks]

2 Biodiversity
Key questions
• How do we group or classify all the living organisms in the world?
• Why do we need to group or classify living things?
• How can we classify all the animals on Earth?
• What is the difference between reptiles and amphibians?
• Are insects and arachnids (spiders) different?
• Is there a way to classify plants?
• What is the diversity of plants and animals in South Africa.
Over millions of years each species living today has changed and adapted
to live in a specific type of environment in order to ensure the survival of
that species. Biodiversity is a term used to describe the great variety of living
organisms on Earth and their varied habitats.
There are just so many types of organisms. How can we make sense of all
the organisms on Earth? We need some way to group them. This is called
classifying. Let’s find out how we do this!
2.1 Classification of living things

Grouping has been a common activity in humans for thousands of years as
we make sense of the world around us.
Think back to the example of how we classify learners at school. First, school
is divided into pre-primary school, primary school and high school. If we
compare school to the way we classify organisms, we can say that the school
system has three kingdoms. But we need to divide learners up further.
So primary school is divided into seven grades (Grades 1–7) and high
school is divided into five grades (Grades 8–12). The classification system
for organisms also needs to divide organisms up further as each kingdom
contains thousands of different types of organisms.
Think of your school again. Your primary school contains many learners.
When you divide your entire school into grades, there are fewer learners in
each grade. Your grade might be divided into different classes, and each class
has fewer learners in it. When we classify organisms, the same thing happens.
ACTIVITY Group some everyday objects
Materials
• objects from home

• shoeboxes/ice-cream tubs
Unit 2: Biodiversity 17

Keywords Instructions
• characteristics 1. Work in groups of four.

• classify 2. Each member of the group should bring five items from home. Choose
• kingdom items that are easy to carry around and will fit into a standard shoebox.
• order 3. Carefully observe each of the items that everyone in your group has
• phylum brought.
4. Use the shoeboxes to group the items according to your observations.
5. Place all objects brought by the whole class on a display table in the front
of the class.
6. Discuss the different grouping methods that each group has used as a
class. Work towards a standard grouping or classifying method that you
could use to classify ALL the items that all of you brought to school.
Questions
1. Draw a table in the space below and record all the items in your class in
the groups you assigned them to.
2. How did your small group classify your items to begin with? What
features did you use to classify the items?
3. Write three or four sentences about the standard classification method
that you decided to use in your class. What characteristics of the items
did you use to classify and group them? Were these different from what
you used in your small group?
Aristotle’s classification system

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and thinker who lived about 2 400 years
ago. Aristotle came up with the following grouping system that was used for
almost 2 000 years after his death!
• He divided all organisms into either animals or plants.
• Then he divided animals into those ‘with blood’ and those ‘without blood’.
• Lastly animals are divided into three groups based on their method of
movement: walkers, flyers or swimmers.
ACTIVITY Aristotle’s classification system
Instructions
1. Look at the following photos of different kinds of animals.

2. Use Aristotle’s method of classification to group the animals based on
the way that they move.
3. Draw a table of your groupings in the space provided after the photos.
Give your table a heading.

Did you
know?
Scientists
estimate that
there are up
to 30 million
species of
Figure 2.1 A penguin Figure 2.2 A butterfly Figure 2.3 A cat
organisms on
Earth! If they
use systems to
classify these
organisms, they
can see patterns
in nature and
can see how
organisms relate
Figure 2.4 An elephant Figure 2.5 A crocodile Figure 2.6 An eagle to each other
Take note
The kingdom
Bacteria is often
also referred to
as Monera.
Figure 2.7 A human Figure 2.8 Dolphins Figure 2.9 Bats
Questions
1. Were there any animals which you battled to classify into one group?
Which ones were these?
2. Do you think Aristotle’s classification system has any problems? Explain
any problems that you might find when using it.
Carl Linnaeus classification system

In the 1700s Carl Linnaeus developed the classification system that classified
organisms according to their similarities, functions and relationships with
other organisms.
Today with the use of modern microscopes and genetics we can classify
living organisms very accurately. In this way we are able to classify living
organisms according to their shared characteristics.

Our classification system living organisms
Take note
All living organisms can be divided into five kingdoms:
Be careful to a) Animals
use these words b) Plants
correctly: one c) Fungi
phylum, many d) Protists
phyla. Similarly, e) Bacteria
one genus, many
genera.
5
kingdoms
Take note
A mnemonic
takes the first
letters of a group
of terms to make
a funny phrase
that helps us Each kingdom is divided into smaller groups or divisions called phyla.
to remember Organisms with similar traits (characteristics) will occupy a similar phylum.
something. In each phylum, smaller divisions called classes are found and each class is
further divided into orders, families, genera and then species.
kingdom very general:

Study this diagram to help you remember
contains many the order:
organisms
phylum
A kingdom is a very big group, whereas a
class species is a much smaller group.
order
A mnemonic to help you remember this
family order is: King Phil Cuts Open Five Green
Snakes
genus
We need to be able to distinguish between
species
very specific organisms too.
contains closely-
related organisms
Now that we have seen how to classify
organisms, let’s take a closer look at the
differences between plant and animal
kingdoms.

Differences between plant and animal kingdoms
Take note
ACTIVITY Comparing plants and animals When we
compare plants
Instructions and animals
we can often
1. Study the diagram on page 20 that shows the five kingdoms that we compare them
commonly use to classify organisms. Pay close attention to the plants based on the
and animals kingdoms. way that they
move, what
Questions they eat and
how they
1. What are some common features that you can see in all the animals?
get food or
2. What are some features that are common to all plants?
nourishment,
3. Draw a table in the space below and compare the characteristics of plants
and how they
that make them different to animals. Discuss your plant and animal
reproduce.
comparisons with your group and then with the class.
Fungi
Most people will not eat bread covered in bread mould but will eat a plate
of fried mushrooms, truffles and morels. These are all examples of fungi,
including yeast.
Did you
know?
Morels are a
type of edible
mushroom.
They have a
Figure 2.10 Morel Figure 2.11 A truffle Figure 2.12 Bread mould
distinctive
appearance
because of their
caps, which
have pits and
ridges that
resemble a
honeycomb.
Figure 2.13 Yeast cells Figure 2.14 A very poisonous Figure 2.15 Button mushroom
mushrooms (like the ones we buy in
shops)
Fungi play a very important role in our biosphere since they break down
dead organic material and return nutrients to the soil for plants to use. Some
fungi cause diseases while others, such as penicillin (an antibiotic) are very
useful to us. Yeast is used in many of our products, such as making bread rise
and fermenting wine and beer.

Protists and Bacteria
We will look at Protists and Bacteria in more detail later on in Grade 9. For
now, let’s look at some of the basic features of these kingdoms.
Organisms in these two kingdoms are microscopic which means you cannot
see them with your naked eye. However, we can see them if we look at them
under a microscope.
Different bacteria
Figure 2.16 Escherichia coli Figure 2.17 Staphylococcus Figure 2.18 Pseudomonas Figure 2.19 Actinomyces
bacteria, commonly found aureus (yellow cells) which aeruginosa found in soil and bacteria cause diseases in
in the intestines of animals often causes skin infections water causes infections in the mouth
and pneumonia animals
Different Protists
Figure 2.20 Phytoplankton Figure 2.21 Asterionella Figure 2.22 Nitzschia Figure 2.23 Different
from the Antarctic sea formosa kerguelensis coloured amoebas
Now we will look at the amazing diversity of animals and plants on Earth,
Did you and especially in South Africa.
know?
You can find out 2.2 Diversity of animals
lots more online
by visiting the Classifying animals
links provided in All the animals in the world form part of the animal kingdom. There are
the Visit boxes. two distinct divisions or groups of animals within the animal kingdom: the
Be curious and vertebrates and the invertebrates. Can you remember what is used to classify
discover the an animal as a vertebrate or invertebrate? Look at these x-rays of animals for
possibilities! a clue.

Locust
Dolphin
Goose
Dog
Crab
Animals that have a backbone with a hollow tube inside to hold the nerves
Keywords
are vertebrates. As we can see in the x-ray images of the dolphin, dog and
goose, we can see the skeletons of these vertebrates. They are made of bone. • diversity
We say that vertebrates have an endoskeleton. • invertebrate
• vertebrate
What about the grasshopper and the crab? Why can we not see their bones?
This is because crabs and grasshoppers are invertabrates and do not have
skeletons. The grasshopper and crab have a hard shell covering on the
outside of their bodies. This supports their soft bodies inside. We say they
have an exoskeleton. But not all invertebrates have an exoskeleton.
What about a jellyfish? It does not have a backbone, so it is not a vertebrate,
so it must be an invertebrate. Does it have a hard, outer covering called an
exoskeleton? Discuss this with your class. Make sure to take note of the third
type of skeleton in your discussion.
Did you
ACTIVITY C
lassifying animals as either vertebrates or in- know?
vertebrates
Almost 98% of
all the animals
Instructions that have been
1. In the table identify the type of skeleton that each animal has and write it discovered
down beneath each picture. on Earth are
2. Write down whether the animal is an invertebrate or a vertebrate. invertebrates.

A
BB CC
Figure 2.24 A grasshopper Figure 2.25 A bluebottle Figure 2.26 Cape sparrow
DD EE FF
Figure 2.27 Butterfly Figure 2.28 Tortoise Figure 2.29 Frog
G H
Figure 2.30 Crab Figure 2.31 Earthworm
Classification of vertebrates and

invertebrates
Vertebrates belong to the phylum Chordata. Vertebrates are
subdivided into five classes.
Have a look at the following diagram which shows the different
classes of vertebrates and phyla of invertebrates. Remember, all
vertebrates belong to the phylum Chordata.

Vertebrates
elephant
crocodile blue
crane
rat
ostrich
human
sponges
s
mal
bird
mam
snake s
ge
s
re n
ptile po
s s
newt
amphibians jellyfish
jellyfish
frog
anemone
wo
fish rms
s
od
mo
rop
starfish
llu
sturgeon
h
sc
art
shark spider
snail flatworm
starfish
crab
butterfly octopus
Invertebrates
sea urchin
ACTIVITY Identify the five classes of vertebrates
Instructions
1. Study the previous chart showing vertebrates and invertebrates and

identify the names of the five classes of vertebrates.
2. Collect different picture of different animals that can be classified as
vertebrates and invertebrates.
Questions
Identify at least one distinguishing characteristic that each class shares or has
in common (that makes that class different from other classes.) Write this on
the line next to the classes that you identified above.

Vertebrates
Keywords
The five classes of vertebrates are:
• amphibian 1. Fish
• cartilage 2. Amphibians
• ectothermic 3. Reptiles
• endothermic 4. Birds
• gill 5. Mammals
• larva/larvae
• mammary Fish
gland Fish come in all sorts of shapes, sizes and colours. There is huge diversity
among fish. Have a look at some of the following drawings of different types
of fish.
Did you
know?
Only about
2% of all the
animals on Figure 2.32 Scorpion fish Figure 2.33 Swordfish Figure 2.34 Sole fish
Earth have a
backbone.
Did you
know? Figure 2.35 Hammerhead shark Figure 2.36 Puffer fish Figure 2.37 Goldfish
The coelacanth
was thought
ACTIVITY Identify defining features of fish
to be extinct
for 65 million Questions
years, but was
1. Carefully study the drawings of the fish shown above. Although they
discovered in
are different shapes, sizes and colours, you should be able to identify
a catch of fish
features common to all fish. List as many of the defining features of fish
in 1938. Since
as you can.
then, more have
2. Some of the features that you listed might apply to other animals that
been found
are not fish. Look at your list again. Make a tick next to any of the
along the coast
features you listed that apply only to fish, or perhaps a combination of
of Southern
characteristics that apply only to fish.
Africa.

The largest group of all vertebrates are bony fish. Bony fish have a hard,
bony skeleton. Did you
know?
Challenge question: Is a seahorse a fish? Search books and the internet to
find out and explain why we can or cannot consider it to be a fish. A whale shark is
a shark and not
a whale. It is the
world’s largest
fish and eats
only plankton.
Did you
know?
The male
seahorse
actually
becomes
pregnant! The
female squirts
her eggs into
the male’s
Figure 2.38 A sea horse pouch and he
then fertilises
Amphibians
them and
Did you know that the word ‘Amphibia’ comes from two Greek words, incubates them
‘amphi’ meaning both, and ‘bios’ meaning life? So an amphibian is an animal until they are
that has ‘both lives’. What does this mean? ready to hatch.
Amphibians are animals that include salamanders, newts, caecilians, frogs
and toads. Let’s find out what is meant by amphibians having ‘both lives’.
ACTIVITY Describing amphibians
Instructions
1. Study the photos of different amphibians in the following table.

2. Answer the questions which follow.
Amphibian Larvae (young) Adult

Frog

Did you Toad
know?
A group of birds
is called a flock,
a group of cattle
is called a herd,
Salamander
a group of lions
is called a pride,
but a group of
frogs is called an
army.
Newt
Did you
know?
Salamanders
can regenerate
(regrow their
limbs and tail)
within a few Questions
weeks if they
are lost due to 1. What do you notice about the habitat of the young amphibians
predator attacks. compared to the adult amphibians?
2. What do you think the larvae need to breathe underwater? What do the
adult amphibians need to breathe when they are on land?
Did you 3. Can you now explain why amphibians have a name which comes from
know? two Greek words and means ‘double life’ or ‘both lives’? Write your
explanation below.
You can tell
4. Amphibians are ectothermic. Explain how an amphibian keeps its
the difference
body warm.
between frog
5. Most amphibians have a slimy, moist skin. Discuss possible reasons why
eggs and toad
they need to have this specific type of skin.
eggs because
6. Is a caecilian a snake, a
frogs lay their
worm or an amphibian? Give
eggs in clumps
distinguishing characteristics
and toads lay
to support your answer.
their eggs in
7. Caecilians lay their eggs in
strings. Have
water, like this frog. Why do
you ever seen
you think they need to do
frog or toad
this? Give two reasons. Figure 39 A caecilian that lays eggs
eggs?
Visit

Reptiles
Reptiles have survived on Earth
for millions of years. The first
reptiles on earth lived 310 to 320
million years ago and included the
dinosaurs.
Most reptiles live on land although
some, like crocodiles, terrapins and
turtles, and some snakes and lizards
Figure 2.39 A lizard lying in the sun to warm up
spend large portions of their lives
in water. Reptiles are ectothermic. They cannot regulate their body heat but
depend on their environment for heat.
Reptiles are covered in dry scales. Reptiles reproduce by laying their eggs on
dry land. The eggs are covered by a leathery or hard shell.
ACTIVITY Reflect on reptiles

Did you
Questions know?
1. Complete these sentences. Turtles are
a) Since reptiles all have a backbone they are one of the classes of found only
……………. in the sea,
b) Reptiles are ectothermic which means that ………………….. terrapins are
2. Draw and label a lizard. found in fresh
3. We can divide reptiles into four main groups. Each of the photos in the water, and
table below shows an example of a reptile from each of these groups. Try tortoises do
to identify the four groups based on the animal in the photo. not swim
around, but
walk on land.

Birds
Figure 2.40 The blue crane is South Africa’s national bird.
ACTIVITY Identify characteristics of birds
Instructions
1. Work in groups of three.

2. List the identifying characteristics of birds following these steps:
3. Do you remember learning about birds in previous years? Work with a
different group and brainstorm identifying characteristics of birds. Study
the photo of the blue crane above for some clues.
4. Use one specific colour to list the characteristics that your group can
think of.
5. As you learn more about characteristics of birds add these in a different
colour to help you remember the new characteristics.
Questions
1. Birds are one of the five classes of vertebrates. Write a sentence to explain
what all vertebrates have in common.
2. Just like mammals, birds are also endothermic. What does this tell us
about their bodies?
3. What type of body covering do all birds have in common?
4. Is it accurate to say that birds have wings and can therefore fly? Explain
your answer. What would be a better way to write this statement?
5. Study the pictures of these flightless birds and compare them with the
flying birds in the next column. Use the pictures to write a paragraph
explaining the observable differences between flightless and flying birds
and why you think these characteristics help some to fly and others not.

Flightless birds Flying birds
Did you
know?
While the larger
cats (lion and
leopard) prefer
to hunt at
night to avoid
overheating,
Ostriches An albatross cheetahs hunt
in the middle
of the day.
There is then
less chance of
their losing their
catch to the
larger cats.
Penguins A hummingbird
Mammals
Did you
Mammals are vertebrates, meaning that have a backbone. Almost all know?
mammals are endothermic. This means they are also able to maintain (keep)
their body temperature at a constant level. The Naked
Mole Rat has
Mammals give birth to live young which are fed milk. The milk is produced lost the ability
by the mother’s mammary glands (in the teats or breasts). Mammals also to regulate
have hair on their bodies. This varies greatly between mammals. Mammals its body
also have teeth that look different in different parts of the mouth. temperature,
while other
mole rats have
weakened
abilities to
do this since
they live
underground in
areas where the
temperatures
are generally
very stable.
Figure 2.41 Kittens drinking milk from the Figure 2.42 A seal pup suckling from its
mother cat. mother.

Figure 2.43 Lions are mammals. Figure 2.44 A warthog is a mammal.
All mammals breathe using lungs. Many mammals therefore live on land.
Take note Those mammals that do live in water, such as whales and dolphins, have to
‘Thermic’ means come to the surface of the water to breathe.
to do with
temperature
and ‘endo’
means inside,
so mammals are
endothermic as
they can regulate
their body
temperature from
the inside.
Keywords
• antennae
• arthropod
• exoskeleton
• jointed Figure 2.45 Dolphins surfacing to breathe air
(segmented) Now that we have studied the five main classes of vertebrates it is easy to
limbs
compare them!

ACTIVITY Comparing vertebrates
Instructions
1. Use the table below to compare the vertebrates shown in the photos
based on the features in the first column.
Tortoise Chimpanzee Frog Guinea fowl Goldfish
Class
Skin covering
How babies
are born
Habitat
Ectothermic or
endothermic
Distinguishing
features
Now that we have looked at all the classes of vertebrates, let’s have a look at
the invertebrates.
Invertebrates
What should you look out for when you have to decide if an animal is an
invertebrate?
• All invertebrates do not have a backbone. They either have a hard
outer shell or a fluid-filled structure that acts as a skeleton (for example
jellyfish and slugs).
• All invertebrates are ectothermic.
Did you know that 98% of the animals on Earth are invertebrates? Due to the
huge diversity in the invertebrates, it can sometimes make classifying them
a bit tricky. The invertebrates are divided into several phyla. Some of the
invertebrate phyla are:
1. Molluscs (for example snails and octopuses)
2. Arthropods (for example insects, spiders and crabs)
3. Echinoderms (for example sea urchins and starfish)
4. Cnidaria (for example jellyfish)
5. Porifera (sponges)
6. Annelids (segmented worms)
7. Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

There are also some other phyla. As you can see, the invertebrates are a very
large and diverse group of animals. We are only going to focus on two phyla,
Arthropods and Molluscs.
The word arthropod comes from two Greek words arthron meaning ‘joint’
and podos meaning ‘leg’, so together it means ‘jointed legs’. Arthropods have
an exoskeleton and they have jointed (segmented) limbs.
Let’s now find out more about Arthropods!
Arthropods
The invertebrates that fall into the phylum Arthropoda all have a hard outer
covering called an exoskeleton. The exoskeleton protects the animal and
provides a place for its muscles to attach and function.
ACTIVITY Classifying arthropods
Centipedes are 1. Study the photos of different arthropods below.

venomous and 2. Answer the questions that follow.
have a very
painful sting!
Did you
know?
The mosquito is Figure 2.46 A spider Figure 2.47 A prawn
responsible for
more human
deaths each
year than any
other animal on
earth! Malaria
is carried by
mosquitoes
and passed to
humans when Figure 2.48 A butterfly Figure 2.49 A scorpion
an infected
female bites.
Figure 2.50 A millipede Figure 2.51 A centipede

Did you
know?
The coconut
crab (Birgus
Latro) is the
largest land-
living arthropod
Figure 2.52 A crab Figure 2.53 A grasshopper on Earth and
weighs up to 4
kg! It can crack
whole coconuts
with its pincers.
Figure 2.54 A crayfish Figure 2.55 A dung beetle
Questions
1. Study the bodies of each of these animals.

a) Describe how the bodies of the different arthropods look. If you
could touch them, what do you think they would feel like?
b) Do you think their bodies would be warm or cold?
2. Study the legs of the different arthropods.
a) Describe how the legs of the different arthropods look in general.
b) How are the legs able to bend?
c) One way to classify an arthropod is to count its legs and to group
these animals according to this. Count the legs on each of these
arthropods and write their names in the appropriate column in your
exercise books using the table below. You will know the groups they
belong to.
Insects Arachnids Crustaceans Diplopodia and

= 6 legs = 8 legs = 10 legs Chilopoda
= many legs
3. As you probably noticed, an arthropod’s body is covered by a hard

exoskeleton. Explain how you think an arthropod can grow and get
bigger since the hard exoskeleton cannot grow with it.
4. What habitat would you say most crustaceans live in? How does this
differ from the habitat of the other classes of arthropods?
5. Which class of arthropods has wings? Do all of the animals in the class
have wings?

Molluscs
Molluscs are a very diverse phylum of invertebrates. They have a huge range
of body shapes and sizes. Molluscs are often given a general description,
which is that they have internal or external shells and a single muscular ‘foot’.
However, there are lots of molluscs which do not strictly fit this description,
such as slugs.
The group of molluscs includes snails, squid, octopuses, periwinkles,
abalone, mussels, oysters, and other soft-bodied animals.
Figure 2.56 A reef squid Figure 2.57 An octopus
Figure 2.58 A sea slug (nudibranch) Figure 2.59 Blue Dragon nudibranch
Figure 2.60 A cuttlefish Figure 2.61 Limpets in a rock pool
Figure 2.62 An abalone Figure 2.63 A garden snail

ACTIVITY Observing molluscs
Instructions
1. Carefully study the above photos of different animals that form part of
the phylum Mollusca.
2. Answer the following questions.
Questions
1. Identify some characteristics that molluscs have in common.

2. Most of the molluscs shown in the photographs live in the sea. What do
you think would happen if these molluscs were exposed to the air for a
long time?
3. Walk through the school garden and see if you can find any garden
snails. If you do, or perhaps you have seen them elsewhere before, think
about their habitat. Describe the areas where you found snails.
4. If possible, collect a few snails to study in class. If you have a glass
terrarium or an old aquarium, keep the snails in there, or else keep a few
in large, clean, glass jars.
5. Carefully study their bodies and especially their long, slimy foot.
a) What do you think the slime is used for?
b) Describe how the snail moves.
c) How many tentacles (antennae) does the snail have? What do you
think these are used for?
d) What markings are on the shell? Why do you think the shell is
marked in this particular way?
e) Try and see if you can find male and female snails. What conclusion
can you draw from this.
6. Make a drawing of a snail. Include the following labels: hard shell, foot,
head, mouth, tentacle, eyespot.
In this section we will take a closer look at the organisms in the plant
kingdom. So how do we classify plants?
2.3 Diversity of plants

We can easily compare plants based on their characteristics. For example, Keywords
their leaf size and shape, whether there are flowers or not and what the petals • bulb
look like, the length and depth of the roots and the type of root system, and • rhizome
many others. • roots
• seeds
One particularly useful way is grouping plants according to how they
• shoot
reproduce sexually. If we group plants based on the way that they sexually
• spore
reproduce we can quickly see two distinct groups: stem
•
• Plants with seeds • symbiotic
• Seedless plants (or spore-bearing plants)

Did you
Seedless plants (or spore-bearing plants)
know? Plants that do not produce seeds include ferns, mosses and algae. These
plants produce spores. The spores often develop in structures found on the
Ferns have underside of the leaves or fronds. The spores grow into new plants.
been around
for about 400
million years.
That is even
older than
dinosaurs, and
they are still
living on Earth
today.
Figure 2.64 A common fern in South Africa Figure 2.65 The structures that produce
and release spores on the underside of a
fern leaf
The photo on the right above shows a close-up of the underside of a fern
leaf. Can you see the clusters of capsule-shaped structures that form the tiny
spores? The close-up photo on the right below shows a moss sporophyte.
This contains the spores of the moss plant.
MFigure 2.66 oss growing on the forest floor Figure 2.67 Close-up of a spore-
producing moss plant
Take note
Alga is singular
and algae is
plural!
Figure 2.68 Lichen growing on a tree Figure 2.69 Lichen growing on an old rock
Lichen actually consist of two different organisms growing together!

A fungus and a green alga grow together in a symbiotic relationship.

The fungus absorbs water from the environment and provides the algae with
an environment to grow in. The green algae photosynthesises, providing
food for itself and the fungus. Why can the fungus not make its own food?
Is the fungus a plant? Can you come up with a definition for a symbiotic
relationship? Discuss this with your class and take some notes.
Seed-bearing plants
The other group of plants produces seeds. These plants can either produce
seeds in flowers or they can produce seeds in cones. Most plants that
you see around you produce seeds. Plants that produce seeds in flowers
are called angiosperms and plants that produce seeds in cones are called
gymnosperms.
Gymnosperms
Have you ever seen a living prehistoric plant? If you thought about it, you
probably have without even realising it!
In South Africa we have plants called cycads that are often referred to as
‘living fossils’. Cycads grew in great numbers during the Jurassic period. They
have not been around for as long as ferns and algae, but they have been on
Earth for longer than all flowering plants. Flowering plants (angiosperms)
evolved after gymnosperms.
Figure 2.70 A cycad with cones. F igure 2.71 Cycads at Kirstenbosch Figure 2.72 This is a gymnosperm
Gardens in Cape Town. plant as it produces seeds in cones.
Can you see the large cones in the photo of the cycad above? They are in the
centre of the plant. The cones are made up of many individual seeds. Look at
the following close up images of cones.
Figure 2.73 A cycad cone. Figure 2.74 A cone from a pine tree. Figure 2.75 A Mountain Cypress.

The word gymnosperm means ‘naked seed’. Gymnosperms are considered to
Take note have naked seeds as the seeds are not covered in a fruit, such as we will see in
angiosperm plants.
Plants can also
reproduce Another gymnosperm which is native to South Africa, and grown a lot in the
asexually by Cape, is the Mountain Cypress, as shown in the photo. They grow especially
making a clone well at high altitudes, such as in the Cederberg Mountains.
or copy of
themselves. In There are several species of gymnosperms which are not indigenous to South
this way new Africa. What does this mean? Let’s find out.
plants can grow
from cuttings Indegenous and Invasive Plants in South Africa
and tubers (topic and discussion)
(like potatoes), Some examples of indigenous plants in South Africa are aloes, acacia thorn
from bulbs and trees, strelitzia flowers, rooibos, and the King Protea. An example is the
rhizomes, or Jacaranda trees with the purple flowers which are very common in Pretoria.
from shoots and
side branches.
ACTIVITY Invasive plants in South Africa
Instructions
1. Study the following photograph of an invasive gymnosperm plant in

South Africa.
2. Answer the questions that follow.
3. You will need to do some research in books and on the internet.
Keywords
• cotyledon
• dicotyledon
• herbaceous
• leaf vein
• monocoty-
ledon
• tap root
Figure 2.76 Pine trees in Tokai Forest, Cape Town
Questions
1. Find out what it means if a plant is indigenous to South Africa.

2. What is an alien species? Why do we call it invasive?

3. How do gymnosperm plants reproduce?
4. In many parts of South Africa, plantations of pine trees are regulated Did you
so that they do not impact on the biodiversity of the indigenous know?
plants. But there are some forests of pine trees which are not used for South Africa
timber anymore. The Tokai Forest in Cape Town is one of these. Many is considered
mountain bikers and runners enjoy doing their activities in this forest. a diversity
The city of Cape Town started to clear these trees in 2011 so that they hotspot for
could get natural, indigenous fynbos to grow again. There was an outcry cycads. Along
from some people as they said their shady riding spot had been ruined. with Australia,
What are your thoughts on this? Do you think Cape Town should, be Mexico, China
cutting down these trees or not? Give reasons for your answer. and Vietnam, we
account for 70%
of Earth’s cycad
Angiosperms
species.
Angiosperms are flowering plants. They produce flowers which develop into
seeds that can grow into new flowering plants. We will learn more about
reproduction in angiosperms in the next unit. Most of the plants that you
probably see around you in the gardens are flowering plants.
Figure 2.77 This is an angiosperm plant as it produces seeds in flowers.
We can group flowering plants into two major groups:

• monocotyledons
• dicotyledon
Define these terms.
All the angiosperm plants that we are studying have the following
characteristics in common:
• roots
• stems
• leaves
• flowers
• fruits
• seeds

A huge thorn tree does not look anything like a maize plant, yet they are
both flowering plants. They both have roots, stems, and leaves, and their
flowers produce seeds. So why can we group the one as a dicotyledon and the
other as a monocotyledon? Let’s find out!
ACTIVITY D
iscovering the differences between
monocotyledons and dicotyledons
Instructions
1. Study the photos of South African monocotyledons and then

dicotyledons.
2. Answer the questions which follow about each group.
Monocotyledons
Figure 2.78 Maize Figure 2.79 Sugar cane
Figure 2.80 Agapanthus Figure 2.81 Bull rushes
Questions
1. Describe the leaves of the monocotyledons in the photos. How would

you describe the veins in the leaves? Make a drawing to accompany your
description.
2. Describe the stems. Are they woody stems or green (herbaceous) stems?

3. Look at the following photos of typical monocotyledonous
flowers. Count how many petals are on each flower. What can you
generalise about the number of petals (and other flower parts) in
monocotyledonous flowers?
Figure 2.82 A disa Figure 2.83 Agapanthus flowers
4. Many of the crops that we grow are monocotyledons, such as maize and
sugar cane. Name two others.
Dicotyledon
Figure 2.84 Plumbago bush Figure 2.85 A geranium
Figure 2.86 Fig tree Figure 2.87 Protea bush

Questions
1. Describe the leaves of the dicotyledons in the photos. How would you
describe the veins in the leaves? Make a drawing to accompany your
description.
2. Describe the stems. Are they woody stems or green (herbaceous) stems?
3. Look at the following photos of typical dicotyledonous flowers. Count
how many petals are on each flower. What can you generalise about the
number of petals (and other flower parts) in dicotyledonous flowers?
Did you
know?
Hydrangea
flowers can
tell us about
the soil acidity!
An acidic soil
(pH below 7)
will normally
Figure 2.88 Geranium flowers Figure 2.89 Plumbago flowers
produce blue
flowers, whereas
an alkaline soil
(pH above 7)
will produce
more pink
flowers.
Figure 2.90 Hibiscus flower Figure 2.91 Hydrangea flowers
4. Look at the image of monocotyledonous seeds and dicotyledonous

seeds. Write the difference between the two.
5. Using the information, you have discovered in this activity, copy and
complete the following table in your exercise books to summarise the
differences between monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Cotyledons
Stems
Flowers

We can therefore classify plants as follows:
Plants
does it produce seeds?
no yes
spore-bearing
spore-bearingplants
plants seed-bearing plants
does it produce seeds in flowers or cones?
cones flowers
ferns mosses algae gymnosperms angiosperms
number of cotyledons
one two
Come back to complete this diagram once we have learned more about
angiosperms.

Summary
Key concepts
• All the plants, animals and microorganisms and their habitats make up the total
biodiversity of planet Earth.
• Living organisms are sorted and classified according to their shared characteristics.
• We use a classification system that groups living organisms into five main groups or
kingdoms: Bacteria, Protists, Fungi, Plants and Animals.
• All living organisms have to perform the seven life processes and the way in which they
perform these help us to classify them into different groups, putting plants into one group
and animals into another for instance.
• We can divide a kingdom into smaller and smaller groups, in this order: phyla, classes,
orders, families, genera and species.
• Animal kingdom, have get two main groups of animals: those with a backbone, called
vertebrates, and those without a backbone, called invertebrates.
• The vertebrates are divided into five groups: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fish and
Amphibians.
• The invertebrates make up the largest group of animals and there are many thousands of
species. We also divide the invertebrates into different groups or phyla like the arthropods,
molluscs, sponges and jellyfish, and many others.
• All arthropods have a hard exoskeleton and jointed legs, such as insects, arachnids (spiders)
and crustaceans (crabs).
• Molluscs have a soft body with or without a shell, such as snails and octopuses.
• Plant kingdom has, we also get two main groups: plants that produce seeds and plants that
do not produce seeds, but spores.
• Seedless plants produce spores, such as ferns and some mosses.
• Seed-producing plants can be further divided into angiosperms (seeds in fruit) and
gymnosperms (seeds in cones).
• Angiosperms can be divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
• Monocotyledons have seeds that have only one part or cotyledon. Their stems are
herbaceous. The leaves are simple, long and narrow, and their flower parts are arranged in
multiples of three.
• Dicotyledons have seeds with two parts or cotyledons from which their tap root grows deep
into the soil. Their stems can be woody or herbaceous. The leaves are varied in shape and
size and have a network of leaf veins. Flower parts are usually arranged in multiples of four
or five.

Concept map
This concept map shows how the concepts in this unit on Biodiversity link together. Complete
the concept map by filling in the five Kingdoms that living things are classified into, and also
giving the two major groups of angiosperm plants. Can you see how the arrows show the
direction in which you must ‘read’ the concept map?
habitats
and their
plants animals microorganisms
on Earth
spores rather no seeds either allows living based

have have plants in Biodiversity for classification of things on characteristics
in grouped Into
seeds
animals five main groups
can be
called
angiosperms gymnosperms can be these
Kingdoms are
two groups
vertebrates invertebrates divided into
five classes 2 Phyla

- Phyla
fish - Families
birds
- Classes
Arthropoda Mollusca
amphibians - Order
reptiles mammals - Genera
- Species
hard soft bodies

exoskeleton
Unit 2: Summary 47

Revision
1. Use the following diagram to fill in how we classify Life
organisms. The first 3 have been filled in
as we did not discuss domains in this unit. You will Domain
learn more about domains in
later grades. [6] Kingdom
2. Why was Aristotle’s method of classifying animals
as walkers, swimmers or flyers not very effective?
[2]
3. Draw a vertebrates and invertebrates classification
diagram of the animal kingdom.
Include the phyla and classes that we studied in
detail.[11]
Animals
Vertebrates Invertebrates
4. Give one word for the following or complete the sentence required:
a) The existence of a large number of different kinds of plant and animal species which
make a balanced environment. [1]
b) The animal kingdom can be divided into two main groups. [2]
c) The five classes of vertebrates are: [5]
d) The phylum of animals that have a hard exoskeleton. [1]
e) The phylum of animals that have a soft body often protected by a shell. [1]
5. Write true or false next to each of the following sentences. If the sentence is false, rewrite
it so that it is true. [10]
a) A small percentage of the living organisms on Earth are invertebrates.
b) Invertebrate animals do not have a backbone.
c) Spiders are examples of arthropods.
d) All molluscs have exoskeletons in the form of shells.
e) Birds have only feathers as their body covering.
f) Endothermic animals need to keep very still when it is cold.

6. Look at the following sentences and underline the one that best describes mammals. [1]
a) Mammals are animals that breathe, move, eat, reproduce and excrete.
b) Mammals are animals that can regulate their body temperatures.
c) Mammals are warm-blooded animals that feed their young and have special organs for
breathing and a backbone.
d) Mammals are warm-blooded animals with mammary glands, a hairy body, lungs and a
backbone.
e) Mammals give birth to live young, can be found living on land and in water, and can
sense their environment with well-defined smell and touch senses.
7. Describe how the seeds of angiosperms differ from those produced by the cycads. [2]
8. Draw a classification diagram of plants. [10]
9. Differentiate between monocotyledons and dicotyledons by completing the table below:
Characteristic Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Roots
Stems
Leaves
Flowers
Seeds
[10]
Total [62 marks]
Unit 2: Revision 49

3 Sexual reporoduction
Key questions
In angiosperms
• How do plants make seeds?
• What is the role of flowers in reproduction?
• Flowers come in so many different colours, shapes and sizes. So, are there some structures that
are common to all flowers?
• What is a ‘pollinator’?
• Why are pollinators also important to humans?
• Is the flower on a rose the same as the flower on a sweet pea or on a daisy bush?
• Why are seeds in different shapes and sizes, or contained in fruits? Does it have something to
do with the way seeds are spread to new areas?
• Does fertilisation mean the same things in plants as it does in animals?
In humans
• Why is your body starting to change?
• What is puberty and what does it mean when we “reach puberty”?
• How is it possible that we all go through puberty at different times and rates?
• What changes take place inside our bodies during puberty?
• What do our reproductive organs look like when they are mature?
• How does reproduction occur?
• What is menstruation and why does it occur once a month?
• How does a baby grow inside a woman’s uterus?
There is a lot of awareness now of HIV/AIDS and STDs, but what exactly can
Keywords we learn in Natural Sciences to help us lead a safe and healthy lifestyle for the
• angiosperm rest of our lives?
• asexual All living organisms on Earth need to be able to reproduce so that their
reproduction
species does not become extinct. There are two basic ways in which
• cell
reproduction can take place:
• fertilisation
• fuse • asexual reproduction
• genetic infor- • sexual reproduction
mation (DNA) Asexual reproduction occurs when one parent organism makes offspring
• mate which are identical to the parent. The parent organism therefore does not
• pollen
need to mate to produce new organisms. Archaea, Bacteria, Fungi and
• pollination
Protists reproduce asexually. Many plants and algae reproduce asexually and
• pollinator(s)
• sexual also some animals, such as some species of insects, reptiles, sharks, snails
reproduction and crustaceans.
50 STRAND 1 Life and Living

Figure 3.1 These yeast Figure 3.2 A mother
cells are undergoing aphid with offspring
budding, a type of which were produced
asexual reproduction. asexually or sexually,
Can you see the smaller depending on the
offspring ‘budding’ off conditions.
the parent?
In this unit we are going to learn about sexual reproduction where two
parent organisms mate and their genetic information (DNA) combines
to make offspring which look similar, but they are not identical. Sexual
reproduction takes place in most plants and animals. We will look at
flowering plants (angiosperms) as an example of sexual reproduction in
plants and at human reproduction as an example of reproduction in animals.
3.1 Reproduction in angiosperms Did you

How do plants make new plants? In this unit we will learn about how know?
angiosperm plants reproduce. Sexual reproduction in angiosperms results
in the formation of seeds. Under the right conditions, these seeds will Some species
germinate and grow into a new plant. are able to
switch between
asexual
ACTIVITY Growing a bean plant and sexual
reproduction,
Materials depending
on certain
• bean seeds conditions, such
• paper towel, toilet paper or tissue as whether
• glass jar (or transparent plastic tub/jar) there is a
• water mate available
• measuring tape or ruler for sexual
reproduction.
Instructions Aphids are
able to do this.
1. Place some kitchen roll, toilet paper or tissue in your transparent jar.
This is called
2. Insert the bean into the paper and place it against the side of the jar so
heterogamy.
that you can observe the changes that occur.
3. Add a little bit of water so that the paper towel is damp.
4. Place in an area which gets sunlight.
5. Add a little sprinkling of water every day to keep the paper towel damp.
6. Each day, starting on the day that you plant your seed, measure the
length of the bean or height of the bean plant and record it in the
following table.
7. Take notes of your observations from day to day. For example, on what
day did your bean start to grow roots? On what day did the stem sprout?
When did you see the first leaf (or leaves)? How many were there and
what did they look like? Copy and use the table below to record your
results in your exercise books.
Unit 3: Sexual reproduction 51

Day Height of plant (cm) Comment /notes
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Questions
1. What is the term for when a seed starts to grow?

2. What are the requirements for a seed to grow?
3. Use your table of measurement to draw a graph of plant growth (height)
over the 14 days of your investigation.
Keywords
External flower structures
Many plants have both the male and female reproductive organs in the same
• anther flower, although some may have male and female structures on different
• component plants altogether.
embryo sac
• filament Flowers come in many different shapes, sizes and colours, as in the
• ovary photographs in the next activity illustrate, but there are components which
• ovule can usually be identified in all flowers. These are:
• peduncle • peducle (or flower stalk)
• petal(s) • receptacle
• pistil (carpel) • petals
• pollen • sepals
• receptacle • the male structures
• sepal(s) • the female structures.
• stamen
• stigma Flowers are typically set on a stem which may be long and rigid like a rose or
• style agapanthus stem, or short and flexible like those on a petunia. The stalk or
stem of a flower is called the peduncle.

The receptacle is the top part of the flower stalk, where the different flower
parts attach. Did you
know?
While the flower bud is forming, small green leaves protect and enclose the
young bud. These are the sepals. The sepals are often green and look like small Sunflowers
leaves, and since they are green they can also photosynthesise. Sometimes the are in fact
sepals may be the same colour as the petals, like in lilies or tulips. composite
flowers, made
Flower petals are usually the up of hundreds
brightly coloured parts of the of individual
flower. They attract pollinators, flowers working
such as insects and birds, and together. The
also bats and mice. We will look ‘petals’ are in
more at pollination a bit later. fact individual
In some plants, such as grasses, flowers called
the petals are very small and ray florets, and
may even be absent. This is the centre is
often because these flowers made of many
depend on the wind to carry disc florets.
the pollen away and therefore Each of these
do not need petals to attract has a pistil and
animals. Figure 3.3 Grass flowers stamens.
ACTIVITY Identify the outer structures of flowers
Figure 3.4 Rose Figure 3.5 Water lilies Figure 3.6 Petunias
Questions
1. What do we call the part of the stalk where the flower petals and sepals
attach to the flower stalk?
2. Explain why the petals on some flowers are brightly coloured, while on
other plants we can hardly see the petals, and sometimes they are absent
altogether.
3. Study the photos of the different flowers above. Describe the outer
structures of each of these flowers based on their peduncles (stalks) and
receptacles, and their sepals and petals.

Internal Structures of the Flower (Reproductive
Take note
structures)
What are Male reproductive structures
cells? Cells are The stamen is the male part
the smallest of the flower. There are two
building blocks parts to the stamen: the
of organisms. anthers and the filaments
There are many on which the anthers rest.
different kinds
of cells, for Anthers produce the pollen
example, cheek that contain the male
cells, muscle cells reproductive sex cells.
and nerve cells
Filaments are stalk-like
in some animals;
structures that support the
or leaf cells, root Figure 3.7 The male structures are clearly seen in this
anthers. In some flowers the
cells and petal close up photo of a flower with the anthers covered
filaments may be long and
cells in plants. in pollen and supported by the stalk-like filaments.
in others relatively short.
Female reproductive structures
The pistil is the female organ of the plant and is usually at the centre of the
Take note
flower. It consists of a stigma, style and ovary. All the parts of the pistil work
Each carpel specifically to help the plant receive pollen, transport it, and have it fertilise
consists of a the ovules (wich contain female sex cells). Ovules become seeds after
stigma, style fertilisation.
and ovary. Some
flowers have
one carpel, and
some have many. stigma
Therefore, in
some flowers,
the carpel and
the pistil are the
same thing, but
style
in others, many
carpels make up
one pistil!
ovary
Figure 3.8 The female flower parts making up the pistil.
The stigma is the structure that receives the pollen during pollination. It
is on top of a long narrow style and when it is ready to receive pollen it
becomes sticky providing a place for the pollen to stick to.

The style is a long tube that connects the stigma with the ovary and the
ovules. The style supports the stigma and holds it in the best possible
position to receive the most pollen grains. After the pollen has landed on the
stigma, the pollen grows long tubes called pollen tubes down through the
style from the stigma to the ovules in the ovary.
The ovary is the enlarged structure at the base of the pistil. It may be divided
into different parts (or locules) and produces the ovules that contain the
female reproductive sex cells. Within the ovule is the embryo sac. The
embryo or tiny seed will develop in here.
ACTIVITY Flower dissection
Materials
• dissecting needle
• dissecting knife
• petunia or hibiscus flowers
Instructions
1. Study the following diagram of a flower. Use your understanding

of the outer structures of a flower to add the following labels: petal,
sepal, receptacle and peduncle. Once we have done the dissection, we
will come back to label the inner structures.
2. Go out into your garden or explore the school grounds and
surroundings and select a flower of your own to dissect. If your teacher
has petunias or hibiscus flowers, dissect one of those.
a) First remove the outer sepals.
b) Then remove the petals. You have now exposed the ovary.
c) Identify the male and female structures. Label these on the diagram
above.
d) Using your dissecting knife or scalpel, cut the ovary in half.
e) Use the dissecting needle to carefully open up the ovary. See if you
can identify the ovules.
f) Label the ovary and ovule on the above diagram.
Questions
Can you identify the stamens covered in pollen and the stigma in this
hibiscus flower?
Now that we have learnt about the structures of flowers, let us take a look at
how flowers are pollinated.

Pollination
In order for a flowering plant to reproduce sexually, the male sex cells need
to fuse (join) with the egg inside the ovules. The stamen produces pollen that
contain the male sex cells. The pollen grains are usually very small – about
the size of a speck of dust.
Figure 3.9 This person’s hand is covered in Figure 3.10 A photograph of a variety of
millions of tiny grains of pollen. pollen grains from different plants taken
under a very strong microscope
Pollen from the stamen needs to be transferred to the stigma of the flower,
on either the same plant or another plant of the same species. This process is
called pollination. If pollination does not occur, there will be no fertilisation
and the plant will not be able to produce seeds or fruit.
Generally, plants produce a large amount of pollen to maximise the chances
of the pollen being transferred to as many different stigmas on as many
different flowers (of the same species) as possible.
Pollination involves the pollen moving from the stamens to the stigma of the
same or another flower. There are different ways that pollination of flowers
can take place. For example, flowers can be pollinated with the help of the
wind, water or animals. Angiosperm flowers have special adaptations which
help a specific type of pollination. Let us look at some of these methods for
pollination and how flowers are adapted to promote pollination.
Pollination by animals
Animals that pollinate flowers are
called pollinators. These animals
come to flowers to feed on the nectar
produced by the flowers. As they are
feeding, pollen sticks to their bodies.
When they move on to the next
flower to feed, some of the pollen
rubs off onto the new flower parts.
Figure 3.11 Can you see this bee has been
We call this process pollination.
covered in pollen as it is feeding on the
nectar?
Since pollinators feed on specific plants, they usually travel from flower to
flower of the same species, therefore pollinating them effectively.

ACTIVITY Identifying pollinators
Did you
know?
Instructions
There is a direct
1. There are many different types of pollinators, some of which are shown relationship
below. between the
length of the
A B
tongue or beak
of the main
pollinator and
the length
of the nectar
pouch in the
flower! This is
a very good
example of
C D natural selection
at play. You
will learn more
about that in
the last unit of
this term’s work.
E F
Questions
1. Identify the pollinator in each photo in the table and write the name
down.
2. What do you notice about most of these pollinators? (Which type of
animal is most common?)
3. What do you think these pollinators are getting from the flowers that
they visit?
4. What do you think attracts insects to flowers? In other words, how do
you think flowers are adapted to attract pollinators to them? See if you
can think of three adaptations and list them below.

5. Flowers are also adapted so that when the pollinators visit them, they
Did you make sure the pollen rubs off onto the pollinator to be transferred to
know? another flower. Look at the image of a bird visiting a flower to drink
Some animals nectar. How do you think this flower is adapted to make sure that it is
can see pollinated by the bird?
only certain 6. Unlike the flowers we have looked at so far which give off a sweet scent
colour ranges. to attract pollinators, the flower called a Voodoo Lily below gives off a
Although really bad smell, like rotting meat or cow dung. The colour of the petals
butterflies, birds is also dark, like meat. This shows that different flowers have adapted to
(and humans) different pollinators.
can see red, What types of pollinators do you think will pollinate this flower? Hint:
bees cannot Think of which insects you normally find when there is rotting food
see red colours around.
but they can
see ultraviolet
(UV) rays.
Some flowers
adapt their
petal colours
especially for
this reason to
attract different
insects. Figure 3.12 A bird drinking nectar from Figure 3.13 A Voodoo Lily
a flower
6. Work in pairs for the next 4 questions. Take a walk around your school
and identify plants that you think are pollinated by pollinators. Make a
drawing of at least 3 of these.
7. Identify the common names of these plants and try to find the correct
scientific name.
8. Explain how each of these plants’ flowers have been adapted to be
pollinated by pollinators.
9. How could you easily distinguish which plants used pollinators to
pollinate them?
Pollination by wind and water

Many flowers are pollinated by animals, as we discussed in the last section,
but wind and water can also help pollination.
There are some challenges that plants face if they rely on the wind or water
for pollination. These plants have adapted to overcome these challenges so
that they can be pollinated by the wind or water.
Plants that are pollinated with the help of water usually live in water. We say
they are aquatic. When pollen is released it floats on the surface of the water.
The stigmas of the receiving plant are generally close to the water surface.
This is so that they can be pollinated when the pollen in the water washes up
against them.

ACTIVITY S
tudying the flowers of wind- and water-
pollinated plants
Instructions
1. Study the following photos of the flowers of different types of grasses

that are pollinated with the help of the wind.
Figure 3.14 In this grass plant you can see Figure 3.15 These white, feathery ends are
the small yellowish flowers attached to the the flowers of this grass.
green stem.
Figure 3.16 Can you see the small, brown Figure 3.17 This image shows the silky
flowers sticking up from the maize plants? female flower of the maize plant.
These are the male flowers of maize.
Questions
1. Write a description of the flowers in the photos. Your description must

show that you have observed the colour of the flowers, the size, the
shape, and how many there are on each plant.
2. Why do you think these flowers are not colourful like the flowers in the
previous activity?
3. Do you think the flowers in wind pollinated plants produce nectar?
Why do you say so?
4. What types of plants are generally pollinated by the wind?
5. The flowers in these photos generally produce a huge amount of pollen.
They produce much more pollen compared to the flowers pollinated
by animals. Why do you think this is so? Hint: Think of the chances of
a flower being pollinated by an animal which visits it to drink nectar,
compared to the chances of being pollinated by pollen that is carried in
the wind.

6. In animal-pollinated flowers, the pollen is often sticky and clumps
together. This is so that it sticks to the animal which is visiting the flower
for nectar and can then be carried to the next flower. In wind-pollinated
flowers, the pollen is very different. The pollen is smooth and not sticky.
It is also very light and small. Why do you think this is so?
7. The structures of the male and female parts in wind-pollinated and
animal-pollinated flowers are also different. For example, in wind-
pollinated plants, the stamens (male structures) often have much longer
filaments, and the anthers hang down and can move easily. The stigmas
(female structures) are also often large and look like feathers, as you can
see in the photos in this activity. How do you think these adaptations of
the stamen and stigma help the flowers to be pollinated by the wind?
8. Copy the table below into your exercise books and complete it. Use
the results to compare the structures of wind-pollinated plants and
pollinator- (animal-) pollinated plants.
Structure Wind-pollinated plants Animal-pollinated plants
Petals
Scent
Nectar
Amount of pollen
Structure of pollen
Anthers
Stigma
9. Do you think plants that are pollinated by the wind or water need
colourful, sweet-smelling flowers with nectar? Why do you think this?
Plants that are pollinated with the help of water usually live in water. We say they
are aquatic. When pollen is released it floats on the surface of the water. The
stigmas of the receiving plant are generally close to the water surface. This is so
that they can be pollinated when the pollen in the water washes up against them.
Pollinators and us
Pollinators play an extremely important role in the life cycle of flowering
plants. These flowering plants include the crops that farmers grow for us to
eat, such as maize and sunflowers. Since angiosperms produce a very large
amount of the world’s food crops, without pollinators, we would be without
most of the food crops produced for us to eat.
ACTIVITY Article from The Earth Times
Instructions
1. Imagine it is the future – it is the year 2056!

2. Read the following article from a newspaper called The Earth Times.

Loss of pollinators lead to crop destruction
– third year of famine
23 May 2056
The loss of pollinators in Southern Africa, specifically wild bees and butterflies, has led to further
crop failures three years in a row. Very few viable seeds remain to plant the next crop. The next
crops planted may be the last ones unless another means of pollination can be found.
The entire region has been severely affected by the sudden death of large swarms of bees and
butterflies in the past 5 years. Bees and butterflies, which were once so common, are almost extinct.
One group of researchers has been working to preserve the last remaining colony of bees. It
was found hidden away in the mountains of the Helderberg Nature Reserve. So far they report
that the colony is doing well they and have added 127 new worker bees this week. It is hoped
more colonies will be found in other remote mountain regions.
The researchers are still trying to identify the cause of the extinction of these insects. They
think that the huge increase in air pollution and acid rain has affected the wings and flight of
these insects. They are therefore not able to fly to food sources, such as the nectar of flowers,
and therefore die.
The lead researcher, Dr Wimple, has indicated that they have wild bee larvae from other
parts of the world which were frozen several years ago to preserve them. The team is now
close to reintroducing these bee larvae into the remaining colony. They hope this will increase
the diversity of the population. Dr Wimple’s team is working closely with other similar teams
around the world to find a possible solution.
The team is also looking at ways to modify the
crop plants to increase how efficient they are at being
pollinated by the wind, for example maize crop plants.
They hope that this will increase the production of
maize. They need to do this by changing the DNA of the
existing crop plants. This is called genetic modification.
“It’s a long shot, but one we hope will bear fruit,”
Figure 3.18 Bees, and other pollinators, are
commented Dr Wimple.
dying as a result of air pollution.
Questions
1. Find the following words in the article and underline them. Then look
up a definition for each word and write it down. Identify whether the
word is a noun, verb, adverb or adjective. Do not copy the definition
word for word, but write it in your own words.
a) famine:
b) failure:
c) severely:
d) extinct:
e) preserve:
f) remote:
g) diversity:
h) modify:

2. Write down the title of this article.
Keywords
3. What is the message that is brought across by the title and article?
• disperse 4. Explain what the link is between the loss of pollinators and crop failures.
• pollen tube 5. Which specific pollinators were lost?
6. What reason did the article provide for the loss of these pollinators?
7. Explain at least two ways in which the structure of wind-pollinated
plants’ is adapted for wind-pollination.
8. How do you think the researchers could modify the crops’ flowers so
that they are able to be pollinated more efficiently by wind?
9. Do you think the situation described in this article could happen in the
future? Write a paragraph where you explain your reason for your answer.
Fertilisation
We have now looked at pollination, but what happens next? What happens
after the pollen lands on the stigma of the flower?
Do you remember that the pollen grains contain the male sex cells, and
Take note the ovary contains the ovules or female sex cells? The male and female sex
An ovary can cells each contain only half of the genetic material (DNA) from the parent
contain more plant. After pollination, the male sex cell in the pollen grain needs to fuse
than one ovule. with a female sex cell in the ovary to produce a fertile seed. This is called
If each ovule is fertilisation.
fertilised, then the In angiosperms, each pollen grain contains two male sex cells. See if you can
fruit will contain identify the reason for this as you read through the steps for fertilisation.
more than
one seed. For The process of fertilisation in plants occurs in clearly defined steps:
example, think of 1. After the pollen grain lands on the mature stigma of a flower from the
an apple which same species, the pollen produces a tube called a pollen tube.
has a few seeds 2. This pollen tube starts to grow from the stigma and down the style. This
inside the fruit. transports the male sex cells to the ovules.
pollen
grain
pollen
tube
petal
ovules
Figure 3.19 The pollen tube growing down the style to the ovary.

3. There is a small structure inside the ovule called the embryo sac. When
the pollen tube bursts into the ovule, one of the male sex cells fertilises Did you
the female sex cell in the embryo sac. know?
4. This fertilised egg develops into a seed. There is a direct
5. The other male sex cell joins with another cell in the embryo sac to form relationship
the endosperm. The endosperm is the starchy food that is stored in the between the
seed once it has ripened. Later this food is used to feed the germinating length of the
seed until it has formed leaves and can produce its own food through tongue or beak
photosynthesis. of the main
6. The ovary then starts to swell and enlarge, and becomes a fruit. pollinator and
the length
of the nectar
pouch in the
flower! This is
a very good
example of
natural selection
at play. You
will learn more
about that in
the last unit of
this term’s work.
Did you
Figure 3.20 Can you see the pollen tubes growing here from individual pollen grains?
know?
After fertilisation, the ovule inside the ovary starts to develop into a seed and
The Coco de
the ovary wall becomes the rest of the fruit. There is huge variety in the types
Mer seed is
of seeds and fruit in the world.
larger than
the size of the
human head!
Keyword
Figure 3.21 This is one seed Figure 3.22 Seeds from different orchid species. They are
from the Coco de Mer plant, really small – like dust particles. • gravity
and it has been cut in half.
Think about all the different fruits that you can buy in the shops – there are
many different shapes, sizes and colours!

This is because the seeds need to be
spread to other areas to grow into a new
plant. The shapes and structures of seeds
help with this, and so too does the fruit.
We say the fruit and seeds are dispersed.
Let’s look at some ways that seeds can be
dispersed.
Figure 3.23 There are many colours,

shapes and sizes of fruit!
Seed dispersal
Plants use different methods to disperse their seeds as far from the parent
plant as possible. Why do you think seeds need to be dispersed? Discuss this
with your teacher and your class and take some notes.
Different plants have different ways of dispersing the seeds and fruit. Let’s
have a look at some of these.
Gravity: Fruit can fall off a tree and roll as far as possible from the parent
Did you tree. When the fruit has fallen it can be taken further from the parent plant
know? by water, by rolling along the ground, or by animals.
The tiny hooks Animals: Animals may eat the fruit from the plant or the fallen fruit, and
on seeds and carry the seeds in their digestive systems. The seeds have a tough outer
burrs that stick covering so that they are not digested by the animal. Some seeds also have
to fur inspired spiky structures that can stick to the fur of animals. They are then carried
the design of along as the animal walks and drop off later.
Velcro. One part
of Velcro tape
hooks into the
other part of
the Velcro tape
in just the same
way as seeds
hook into fur.
Figure 3.24 Many wild animals love to eat the fruit from the marula tree, such as this
elephant, which has pushed the tree over to get to the fruit. The seeds are dispersed later
far away in the elephant’s dung.
Explosive force: In some plants their seed capsules mature and then
‘explode’, shooting the small, light seeds far away from the parent plant.

Did you
know?
The Sandbox
tree that grows
in the Amazon
Rain Forest can
fling its seeds
anything from
45 to100 m
away at speeds
of up to
Figure 3.25 The seed pods of jewelweed (shown on the left) explode when they are
252 km/h!
touched (shown on the right) and shoot out the seeds to disperse them.
Wind: Wind dispersal requires very light, small seeds that can be carried
on the wind. Some seeds have ‘wings’, such as dandelion seeds that can be
carried across great distances by the wind.
Figure 3.26 Dandelion seeds are dispersed by the wind.
Water: Plants that grow in

or near water use the water
to disperse their seeds.
Mangrove seeds start to
germinate while still on the
parent plant, then drop into
the ocean and wait until
the sea washes them onto
a shore, where they can
continue germinating and
growing.
Figure 3.27 A mangrove seed floating in the water.

Do you remember how we spoke about the different flower structures and
how they are adapted for pollination by either animals or wind or water? In
the same way, the seeds and fruit are adapted for their method of dispersal.
ACTIVITY Studying different kinds of seeds
Instructions
1. Look at the following table which contains different kinds of seeds. Each
one is dispersed in a different way.
2. In the second column, state how the seed or seeds are dispersed (for
example, by an animal, by the wind, by water, and so on.)
3. In the third column, write a couple of sentences describing how you
think this seed is adapted for dispersal. You need to think about what
would most help this seed to be dispersed.
Seed How is it dispersed? What adaptations does the seed or plant

have for dispersal?

Seed How is it dispersed? What adaptations does the seed or plant
have for dispersal?
We have now finished looking at how angiosperm plants reproduce. We are

now going to look at how animals reproduce. Specifically, we are going to Keywords
look at how humans reproduce so that we can learn about our own bodies • hormone
and how they function. • maturing
• menstruation
3.2 Human reproduction • penis
• puberty
If you look around at your Grade 7 classmates, you will probably notice that
• sperm
your friends, and you, have changed quite a bit since you started Grade 1.
Apart from growing taller, changing hairstyles, or changing the way you dress,
your bodies are changing and growing up. We say you are maturing.
Understanding the changes that occur in your body and more specifically,
understanding why they occur, will help you to manage and cope in the next
few years until you become a young adult.
Why do humans need to reproduce?

Humans need so that we can reproduce to have children to continue the
existence of our species. As with angiosperm plants, humans reproduce
sexually. This means that human reproduction requires a male and a female
and a new human being is formed by combining the genetic material (DNA)
from the parents. The child will have half its genetic material (DNA) from its
mother and half from its father. In order for this to happen, the sperm (from
the male) has to combine with the egg cell (from the female) to produce a
baby. Our sexual organs are adapted for these functions.
Our sexual organs need to reach maturity. This takes place during a stage in
our lives called puberty.

Puberty
When a boy or girl reaches a certain point of growth and development,
the sexual organs in the body also start to mature. Girls and boys do not,
generally, go through puberty at exactly the same time:
• Girls go through puberty between 10/11 – 14/15 years of age
• Boys go through puberty between 12/13 – 15/16 years of age
During puberty, you will experience different physical and emotional
changes as your body develops towards sexual maturity and adulthood. Let’s
take a look at some of these changes that take place during puberty.
Puberty is a time when the human reproductive organs start to develop,
maturing about 5 – 6 years after puberty has started.
ACTIVITY What happens during puberty?
Instructions
Study the images of a girl at 10, 12 and 17, and of a boy at 10, 12 and 17 shown
below.
Questions
1. Identify the changes that both go through during puberty and write your
results in a table.

Figure 3.28 Changes in the girl Figure 3.29 Changes in the boy
2. Study the following graph and answer the questions that follow.

Average height of girls and boys from birth to 18 years
200
180 boys
girls
160
140
height (cm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 16 18
age (years)
2.1 What type of graph is this?

2.2 What information is this graph providing?
2.3 In a graph, there are two variables. The independent variable is
placed along the horizontal x-axis. The dependent variable is the
variable that changes according to the independent variable. It goes
along the vertical y-axis. Identify the independent variable and the
dependent variable that was used in this study based on the graph.
2.4 What is the unit of measurement that height is recorded in? What is
the unit of measurement for age?
2.5 Explain in words what you think this graph is telling us about
how boys and girls grow from 0 to 18 years old. Compare the two
different lines for boys and girls and see what you can tell from the
average heights as they grow older. Answer the following questions
to help you interpret this graph.
a) There are two lines on this graph. What does each line
represent? Use the colours in your answer.
b) Why are the graph lines for boys and girls overlapping from 0 to
6 years old? What does this tell us about the height of boys and
girls up until 6 years old?
c) After 6 years old, and until 10 years old, the graph lines for boys
and girls split. Which line is on top? What does this tell you?
d) At what age are boys and girls on average the same height again?
How can you tell this from the graph?
e) At age 18, are boys or girls generally taller? What is the average
height of boys and of girls at 18 years old? Read this off the
graph.
2.6 A growth spurt occurs when children grow quite rapidly over the
years, faster than over other years. Answer the following questions to
help you understand this.
a) What can you use to identify a growth spurt in the graph?
Hint: A growth spurt means that the boys’ and girls’ height is
increasing faster than at other times.
b) On the graph, we can see that there is a growth spurt for girls
and a growth spurt for boys. Do the growth spurts take place at
the same age for boys and girls?

c) At what ages do the growth spurts take place for boys and girls?
d) Why do you think these growth spurts took place when they
did? Hint: Think back to the ages of puberty for boys and girls
and how they differ.
2.7 Make an X on the graph to indicate where you are in this process
according to your age.
2.8 Using the data on the graph, what changes in your height can you
expect to experience if you were to follow the typical growth trend?
2.9 Based on your family history and the height of other members of
your family, predict whether you will ‘follow the curve’ or whether
you will be shorter or taller than the average person your age.
During puberty, many young people have commented that their emotions
are like a roller-coaster. This time in your lives is not only about growing up
and maturing physically, but also emotionally.
Many events are taking place in your life, so let’s draw a timeline to show this!
Keywords
ACTIVITY Draw a timeline of your life
• fallopian tube A timeline shows us a representation of how time passes and the events
(oviduct) which take place.
• ovary(ovaries)
• ovulation Instructions
• scrotum
• testes 1. Draw a personal timeline of your life so far.
• uterus 2. You can include photos and pictures.
• vagina a) You can possibly include:
• conception b) Your birth – where and when
• ejaculate c) Your first tooth, first word, first step that you took, and so on.
• sexual d) Your different birthdays – perhaps you have some photos you can
intercourse stick on for some of your birthdays
• umbilical cord e) Your first day at school, playing a team sport, on stage as a performer,
and so on.
3. Celebrations and memorable events in your life.
4. Locate puberty on your timeline.
Human reproductive systems

Male Reproductive system
In males, the reproductive organs include the penis and two testes hanging
in a pouch or bag of skin called the scrotum.
• At the start of puberty, the scrotum starts to grow larger and pubic hair
starts to appear. The penis also grows bigger.
• Inside the scrotum, the testes mature and start to produce sperm.

When the male reproductive organs
are mature in an adult, they will look Take note
as they do in the following illustration:
‘Sustain’ means to
keep things alive
or in existence.
We also use the
word ‘sustainable’
when we want
to say that
something can
continue or be
continued for a
long time.
Female Reproductive system
The female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, two fallopian
tubes (oviducts), and two ovaries.
• Inside the girl’s body the uterus becomes longer and the lining of the Take note
uterus becomes thicker.
You are 100%
• When a girl is born she already carries millions of eggs (also called ova)
unique – there is
in two organs called the ovaries. During puberty, the ovaries mature, and
no one like you
start to release one mature egg each month. This is called ovulation.
on Earth!
• Two tubes connect the uterus with the ovaries – these are called the
fallopian tubes or the oviducts.
When the female reproductive
organs are mature in an adult,
they will look as they do in the uterus
following diagram: oviduct
ovary
We now know more about the
male and female sexual organs
cervix
and how these organs mature
during puberty. vagina
Different stages in human reproduction

Although you are not ready for the responsibility of having a baby and
parenthood, your body starts to prepare itself for reproduction during
puberty. The main purpose of the human reproductive organs is to produce a
mature sperm or egg that can fuse and create a new human baby.
Ovulation
Normally once in 28 days, one of the ovaries in a girl or woman’s body will
release a mature egg into the fallopian tube (oviduct). From here it moves
to the uterus. This Process is called ovulation. During this time the uterus
develops a thick lining of blood in preparation for the possible arrival of a
fertilised egg.

Menstruation
After ovulation, if the egg in the oviduct does not fuse with a sperm and
fertilisation does not take place, then the egg cell will still travel down to
the uterus. But instead of implanting into the uterine wall, the unfertilised
egg cell will be discarded through the vagina, together with the thick blood-
rich uterus lining that had developed in case of fertilisation. This is called
menstruation.
Myths about menstruation
Do you know what a myth is? A myth is a story that may or may not be true.
Often, myths are quite old stories that are passed down from one generation
to the next. Myths are often told and people believe them even when there is
no proof that they are actually true.
One such Greek myth is about a lady called Medusa. She had hair made
of real snakes and could turn anyone into stone if they looked directly at
her. One day, the hero Perseus fought her by looking at her reflection in his
Figure 3.30 Do you
think the myth about
shield instead of directly at her. He was protected from her deathly stare and
Medusa is true? managed to cut off her head and kill her.
There are many myths about menstruation and sex which are told by people
in our society. A lot of these myths are not based on proof. Now that you
know more about human reproduction, you need to decide if these stories
and myths are true or not. Let’s discuss this some more.
Human reproductive systems
ACTIVITY Conduct a survey
Instructions
1. Read some of the following comments people have made about

menstruation and sex.
2. As a homework assignment, read these to at least five separate members
of your family and friends.
3. Copy the following table into your exercise books and make a small
cross if the people you are consulting thinks it is not true, and tick if they
think it is true or correct.
Myth Responses
(tick or cross)
“Women who are menstruating are dirty and unclean.”
“During your period you should never have cold food or
walk with bare feet. If you get cold your period will be worse.”
“Exercise is bad for you when you menstruate.”
“Don’t ever swim when you are having a period!”

Myth Responses
(tick or cross) Take note
“Virgins cannot use tampons - they will lose their virginity.” A virgin is
“It is unhealthy to have sex at the time of the month when someone
you are menstruating.” who has not
“You cannot fall pregnant during your period.” had sexual
intercourse.
“You cannot fall pregnant or make someone pregnant if you
have sex in water.”
“Women are always moody and irrational during menstruation.”
“Drinking and drugs make sex more fun.”
“If you have a shower after sex, you will not fall pregnant.”
“You cannot fall pregnant if it is your first time.”
“Everyone is having sex.”
Questions and discussion
1. How many people in the homework survey believed that the comments
were in fact true? Tabulate your results as indicated in the table below
Most believed About half believed they None believed they were
they were true were true and the other half true
believed they were not.
2. Discuss with your class which of the comments were most widely
believed to be true by the people you surveyed. Take some notes on the
following lines.
3. Which of these comments had the strongest reaction from the people Take note
you surveyed? (Either positive or negative reaction.) Discuss their
reactions with your class. Take some notes on the following lines. ‘Contra-’ means
4. Did anyone laugh at any of the comments? Which ones? Did they tell against, so
you why they laughed? Share this with the class. ‘contraception’
means ‘against
Which of these statements do you think are true? Discuss this with your class conception’.
and take some notes on the following lines.
Fertilisation
In order for a baby to develop in the mother’s uterus, the egg needs to be
fertilised. During sexual intercourse, the male ejaculates (releases) millions
of sperm into the woman’s vagina. From the vagina, the sperm travel into the
uterus and up into the oviducts and to the egg cell.

The sperm reach the egg cell, and only one of them
enters through the outer layer of the egg cell. The
layer then hardens and no other sperm are allowed
to enter. This moment, when the male sperm and
the female egg cell fuse, is referred to as the
moment of conception, or fertilisation.
Figure
Only3.31
one Only
sperm one
willsperm willthe
fertilise fertilise the egg cell.
egg cell.
Themillions
The other millions willwill
of others notnot
bebe able to to
able enter.
enter.
Pregnancy
This leads to pregnancy as the foetus starts
to develop.
Once the egg cell is fertilised, it
continues its journey to the uterus.
When it arrives in the uterus, it is
safely attached in the thick lining of
the uterus. The foetus starts to grow
and develop. An umbilical cord grows
between the foetus and the uterus.
A placenta forms to supply food and
oxygen to the developing baby and to
remove waste. The developing foetus
receives food and oxygen from the mother
through the placenta and umbilical cord.
Birth Figure 3.32 A baby developing inside
the mother’s uterus. Can you see the
At the end of pregnancy, the mother
umbilical cord?
gives birth to the baby through the
vagina. Sometimes there are complications and the doctors perform a
Caesarean section. This is a surgical procedure where a cut is made in the
mother’s abdomen and the baby is removed.
As we have seen, if the egg is fertilised after sexual intercourse, the mother
falls pregnant. But what happens to the egg if it is not fertilised?
Contraceptives
To avoid falling pregnant, you can use contraceptives. There are different
contraceptives available today. They prevent the sperm from reaching the egg
and thus prevent fertilisation from taking place. Or else, they can prevent the
fertilised egg from implanting in the uterus wall.
Male condoms are rubbery sheaths that are placed over a man’s erect penis
before sex, and are worn during sexual intercourse to prevent the sperm
from entering the woman’s vagina. Condoms also help to prevent the spread
of STDs.

Female condoms also prevent the sperm from reaching the egg. However,
these are placed in a woman’s vagina to act as a barrier to the sperm, and are
much less commonly used.
Oral contraceptive pills are used by many women today. Many
of these prevent ovulation. Pills need to be taken at the
same time every day, otherwise they are not effective. If the
woman has an infection with a high temperature, or is on
antibiotics, this may also reduce the pill’s effectiveness.
While the pill is excellent at preventing pregnancy, it
offers NO protection against STDs.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
There are various very dangerous and harmful diseases that are spread from
one person to another during sexual intercourse. Some of these are life- Take note
threatening, like the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), while others
If you have been
cause very painful and long-term symptoms.
a victim of sexual
You can prevent yourself from being infected with an STD by doing the abuse you can
following: receive guidance
• Get the facts: Make sure you know up-to-date information about STDs and help by
and how they are spread, their symptoms, and how you can protect contacting
yourself during sexual intercourse. Lifeline at
• Take control of your sex life: The more sexual partners you have, the 0800150150. The
higher your risk will be of contracting an STD. Lifeline website
• Be faithful: If you or your partner has sex with someone else, you risk for victims of
infecting the other person with the STD. sexual abuse
• Using condoms significantly reduces the risk of contracting STDs. can be found
at http://www.
It is your decision whether you want to participate in sexual intercourse lifelinesa.co.za/
with a romantic partner or not. There are two very important points to
remember here:
1. No one, no matter who they are, has the right to force you or pressurise
you to have sex with them or with anyone else. Therefore, you are the
only one who should be permitted to decide when you are ready to have
a sexual relationship.
2. If you decide to have sex, you should do so in a responsible manner. This
includes protecting yourself against possible pregnancy and against any
STD infection.
Ways to prevent pregnancy and Sexually Transmitted

Diseases (STDs)
As we discussed above, your body prepares itself to reproduce during
puberty. However, you are in control of your body and can make the
decision when you are ready to become a parent and to fall pregnant.
If you decide to become sexually active, it is important to think very
carefully of two risks involved in sexual activity:
• Pregnancy

• Being infected by a Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) like HIV/AIDS,
Herpes or Syphilis.
• There are different things that you can do to prevent pregnancy.
ACTIVITY Write a letter

Often we make promises to other people and work very hard to keep them,
but when we make promises to ourselves we often neglect to honour these.
Write a letter to yourself in which you explain what you want to do with
regard to sexual activity. Do you want to engage in sex, or do you want to
wait until you are older? Explain why you made this decision.
Add to your letter what you promise yourself that you will do to protect
yourself from contracting an STD or from a pregnancy before you are ready
to be a parent. Explain how you see yourself practising responsible choices
regarding sex.
Put your letter in a safe place at home where you can often see it to remind
yourself of your promise to yourself. Remember this is a private letter and
you can choose whether you want to show it to anyone else or not.

Summary
Key concepts
• Sexual reproduction occurs when a sperm and an egg from two people combine to make
offspring which look similar but not identical to the parents.
• In angiosperm plants, seeds are produced in the flowers.
• The male structures of flowers are the anthers and filaments, making up the stamens.
• The female structures of a flower are the stigma, style and ovary, forming the pistil.
• Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower of the same species.
• Pollination is assisted by animals (pollinators), the wind, and/or water.
• Pollinators play an important role in the production of crops for humans.
• The pollen grows a pollen tube down the style to deliver the pollen nucleus to the ovules in
the ovary.
• The fertilised ovules become seeds and the ovary may swell to form a fruit.
• Seeds are dispersed in various ways by animals, the wind, water and explosive force.
• In humans the main purpose of reproduction is for the sperm and egg to fuse and develop
into a baby during pregnancy.
• Puberty is the stage in the human life cycle when sexual organs mature for reproduction.
• During puberty, boys and girls experience physical and emotional changes.
The male reproductive organs include the penis and testes that produce sperm.
• The female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, oviducts and the ovaries.
• The ovaries produce one mature egg each month during ovulation which is then
transported to the oviduct.
• If sexual intercourse takes place, the sperm travel to the egg and one will fuse with it in the
process of fertilisation.
• The fertilised egg then moves to the uterus, is embedded in the lining of the uterus, and
grows for approximately 9 months before the baby is born.
• If fertilisation does not take place, the egg moves to the uterus from where it is discarded
in the vagina. The uterus lining is broken up and discarded through the vagina during
menstruation.
• Pregnancy and STDs can be prevented mostly by wearing a male condom
Unit 3: Summary 77

Concept map
Study the concept map below. Does it make sense to you? Are you starting to see what concept
maps do? To complete the concept map below, fill in the blank spot. Look at the concept it is
linked to in order to find the answer: ‘In humans, fertilisation is prevented by … .’
angiosperms in Sexual Reproduction in humans go puberty

through
produce
requires produce
male parts seeds pollinators
in pollination by combine egg
males in sperms in females
have flowers
for water, wind
have have
produce produce
have fertilisation
female parts fertilisation
ovaries vagina
produces penis testes then uterus
adaptations
develops
seeds in fruit baby develops if no
prevented by
thick layer
then during
shed
dispersed
pregnancy
menstruation

Revision
1. Study the following diagram of a flower and the reproductive parts. Provide labels for
numbers 1–11. [11]
1
2
3 11
9
4 10
8
7
5
6
2. Copy the table below in your books and describe the function of the following structures: [5]
Structure Function
Petal
Ovules
Pollen grains
Filament
Recept
3. Look at the following image of a bat busy drinking nectar from the flower. How is this
flower adapted for pollination by the bat? [3]
Figure 3.33 A bat drinking nectar
Unit 3: Revision 79

4. Look at the following image of the seed. How do you think this seed is dispersed?
How is this seed adapted for this kind of dispersal? [3]
Figure 3.34 A seed
5. Grade 7 learners were trying to explain the process of the human reproduction cycle, but they
muddled up the order of the cycle. Write numbers 1–6 to place their sentences below into the
correct order. [3]
−− The sperm arrive in the oviduct.
−− During sexual intercourse, the sperm is propelled from the penis.
−− One sperm enters the outer cover of the egg to fertilise it.
−− The fertilised egg is implanted in the uterine lining.
−− The sperm travel from the vagina, through the uterus to the oviduct.
−− The egg is released from the ovaries and travels along the oviduct.
6. Explain the difference between ovulation and menstruation. [2]
7. Once an egg is fertilised, where is it implanted or embedded? [1]
8. The reproductive organs are structured in a very specific way – to make fertilisation and
pregnancy possible. Explain the function of each of these structures in the male and female
bodies. [12]
Reproductive organs Their function

Ovaries
Oviducts
Uterus
Vagina
Penis
Testes

9. During puberty the penis and testes develop and mature to fulfil their function in
reproduction. Explain what changes occur and why these changes are necessary. [2]
10. Explain what changes occur inside the ovaries of a girl during puberty and why these
changes are important for reproduction. [2]
11. Grade 7 learners were asked to define the terms puberty, menstruation, fertilisation,
pregnancy, and conception. First evaluate how well they defined each of these terms and then
correct or improve their definitions in each case. [10]
Term and definition Evaluation Improvement

Puberty: when you grow up.
Menstruation: when a girl bleeds.
Fertilisation: when you put stuff into
the garden to make it grow better.
Pregnancy: when the mom’s stomach
grows and a baby pops out.
Conception: when the baby starts to
come alive.
Total [54 marks]
Unit 3: Revision 81

4 Variation
Key questions
• Are all dogs part of the same species if there are so many different sizes, shapes and colours?
• What about humans? What does it mean that we have different skin colours, heights and other
differences if we are all part of Homo sapiens?
• What does ‘variation’ mean?
• What causes variation?
• Why is it important that we study variation?
Keywords 4.1 Variation within a species

In the last units we looked at how to classify organisms on Earth. Do you
• inheritance remember what the classification levels are? What is the smallest group in
• natural the classification system?
selection
• variation A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed with each other to
• litten produce fertile offspring. In this section you will learn why the ability to
create a fertile offspring is the single most defining characteristic of a species.
Wherever organisms in a species live, they need to survive in those
conditions. We say they are adapted to their environment. Those individuals
within a species, that have characteristics that make them more successful
at surviving, will reproduce more and pass on their characteristics to their
offspring. However, environments change over periods of time. This means
that the species need to change constantly over time to better survive the
conditions of their changing habitat. If the organisms do not adapt to their
environment, they may not survive, and the species will die out. But how do
species adapt? Does it happen quickly or over a long time?
What does variation mean when we use it in Natural Sciences? Let’s take
a look at some animals with which we are all familiar to find out what
variation means.
ACTIVITY S
mall, big, long-haired, short-haired, black,
white, brown or spotty?!
Do you have a dog, or have you seen some dogs in your neighbourhood?
Think of those dogs, and use the following image to answer the questions.

Materials
1. What kingdom of animals do dogs belong to?

2. What phylum do dogs belong to? Why do you say so? Give a reason for
your answer.
3. What class do dogs belong to? Give three reasons why you would classify
dogs in this class.
4. Look at the dogs in the above picture and write down some common
characteristics of the animals.
5. Do you think these dogs are part of the same species? How would you
know? Discuss this with your class and teacher.
6. Although these dogs share many characteristics, there are many
differences between them. What are some of these differences?
Variation among horses

Another example of variation is horses. Horses all belong to the same species
as they can mate and produce offspring which are fertile. This means their
offspring are able to reproduce. But there are many different colours and
sizes of horses.
Figure 4.1 A white horse with a brown foal. Figure 4.2 A donkey
Horses and ponies are from the same species. But what about donkeys?
If a horse and a donkey mate, they are able to produce offspring, but the
offspring are infertile. They are called mules or hinnies. Do you think
donkeys and horses are the same species? Give a reason for your answer.
All living organisms that reproduce sexually produce
offspring that are different from the parent organisms.
Remember that we learnt about sexual reproduction in
angiosperms and humans in the last unit. This allows the
new organisms to be different from other organisms within
the same species. We call this difference, variation. As we
saw in the last activity, all dogs on Earth are actually the
same species, as well as horses, but there are huge differences Figure 4.3 Five kittens from the same litter
between all the individuals. We say there is variation. but they all look different!
Even animals from the same litter or children from the same parents have
differences. Take a look at the kittens in the box below. They are all from the
same litter so they share the same parents, but they all look different.
Unit 4: Variation 83

All humans on Earth are from the same species, and yet there is huge variation
among us. Look at the following photos of people from around the world.
Humans are all one species. Do you remember what the species name is
for humans?
South Africa is an amazing example of diversity amongst our people. Just have
a look at your class and how much variation there is between all of you in one
class. Some learners may be tall and others may be shorter, some have dark
hair, some have blonde or brown hair, and there is a range of skin colours in
South Africa. Since you are all from the same species this is another example of
variation. Let’s have a look at how your class varies in height.
ACTIVITY The height of learners in your class

Take note
Do you Materials
remember how
to calculate an • 2 m measuring tape
average? You • pencil, table drawn on scrap paper and clipboard to work on
need to add up
all the individual Instructions
measurements,
1. Attach a measuring tape or similar apparatus to a wall in your class.
then divide by
2. Learners who are having their length measured must be barefoot and must
the number of
place their heels against the wall, standing up straight against the wall.
learners you have
3. Learners who are taking the measurement must stand on a chair and
measured.
place a ruler or pencil horizontally on the person’s head (and flatten the
hair) when taking the measurement.
4. Another learner should record the name and height of each learner.
5. Use this method to record the height of each learner in the class.
6. Draw a table to record the measurements.
7. Represent these results on a bar graph.
Use your books to record the heights of learners in your class in a table.
Take note Questions
A correlation is 1. Now use this information to draw a graph to represent the information.
a relationship You will need to draw a bar graph. Think about what must go along the
between two horizontal x-axis and what must go along the vertical y-axis. Remember,
or more sets of the x-axis is for the independent variables and the y-axis is the
measurements or dependent variable. Give your graph a heading.
2. Who is the tallest and who is the shortest in your class?
3. What is the average height of all the learners in your class? Use your
books to show your working for this calculation.
4. What is the average height of the boys and what is the average height of
the girls? Use your books to show your working for this calculation.
5. As a homework activity, measure the heights of some of the adult
members in your family. Record these heights in the following space to
discuss with your class the next day.

6. Discuss these results with your class.
a) Do the shorter people in your class also have shorter family
members, and do the taller people in your class also have taller
family members?
b) Is there a correlation (relationship) between the heights of learners
in your class and the adults in their family?
c) What other similarities are there between family members?
d) Write down some notes from your class discussion in your books.
4.2 Inheritance in humans

We have now seen that there is huge variation between all the people
on Earth, and even in your class. But, there are also lots of similarities,
especially between family members, such as height and skin colour. These
characteristics (or traits) are passed down from one generation to the next in
a family. We say they are inherited traits.
We say that certain traits are passed down from generation to generation
over many years, from parent organisms to their offspring. This is called
inheritance.
There are some traits which are very easy to see how they are inherited, such
as skin colour or height. Did you know that some people are able to wink
with one eye but not with both? Or that others can see only some colours but
not all the colours. This is called colour blindness. Let’s find out a bit more
about some of these inherited traits.
ACTIVITY What is your inheritance?

1. Think about your most recent family event or family photo. Is there Did you
something that you all have in common? It can be something about your know?
physical appearance, or your behaviour or something that you can each
The location of
do. Discuss any inherited traits or characteristics that get passed down
this fabulous
from generation to generation in your family.
example of
2. One of the very interesting inherited traits is the ability to roll your
natural selection
tongue.
was the city of
Can you roll your tongue? Can your family members roll their tongues?
Manchester in
3. There are many other traits and abilities that are inherited from our
England. The
parents, that they inherited from their parents, which they inherited from
first observation
their parents, and so on. Below is a table detailing some of these traits.
of a dark black
4. Count how many people in your class can do each or have each of these
Peppered Moth
traits or characteristics.
occurred in
5. Record the number of learners in your class who have each
1848. However,
characteristic.
by 1895, 9,8% of
6. Calculate the percentage of learners who have this characteristic.
Peppered Moths
7. When you have collected all the data and have worked out the
in the city were
percentage of learners that have a certain trait, draw a bar graph in your
dark!
books. Remember to label your graph and to give it a heading.
Unit 4: Variation 85

Characteristic Illustration Number of learners Percentage of learners
with the characteristic with the characteristic
Tongue rolling
Thumb shape Hitchhiker thumb:

Straight thumb:
Dominant hand Right-handed:

Left-handed:
Attachment of earlobe Attached earlobe:

Unattached earlobe:
Dimples
Second toe length Longer second toe:
Vulcan sign
Visit How does variation in a species help it to survive?

10 reasons to
love Science We have now looked at how variation within a species helps it to adapt to
(video). its changing environment and therefore survive. But, these changes do not
bit.ly/1bf3K5r happen quickly. Although small changes can happen within a few generations,
big changes take a very, very long to happen – they take thousands of years.

Summary
Key concepts
• A species is a category within the classification system.

• Living organisms of the same type belong to the same species.
• Organisms from the same species can reproduce sexually and produce offspring that are
fertile and can reproduce.
• People belong to the species Homo sapiens.
• Variation is the difference between individuals from the same species.
• This variation can be passed on from one generation to the next.
• Small changes can take place in a species over shorter periods, for example from one
generation to the next.
• Over very long periods these small changes can accumulate so that big changes occur
over time.
Concept map
This was a short section and so we have a smaller concept map than in the previous sections.
tongue rolling
can such
differences is the Variation in humans inherited height
be as
eye colour
between exists in
dogs
of such
individuals species
same as
humans all
Homo sapiens
part of
part of
classification
system
Unit 4: Summary 87

Revision
1. Are Dobermans, terriers and bulldogs from the same species? Give a reason for
your answer. [2]
2. A new breed of cat has been developed, called the Munchkin Cat. Breeders specifically
tried to breed a cat with very short front legs. Explain how you think they achieved this. [2]
3. Predict whether you think Munchkin Cats would be able to hunt as well as other cats with
normal-length front legs. [2]
4. Do you think it is correct for humans to breed animals in this way? Explain your answer. [2]
5. Explain in your own words what you understand by the term ‘inherited characteristics’. [2]
6. Why do you think it takes a long time for a species to change and adapt to its changing
environment? [2]
Total [12 marks]

Glossary: Life and Living
abiotic non-living elements of the environment characteristic a typical feature or quality that
such as soil, water and air makes one thing different from another
adapt/adapted to change the way that class: the major taxonomic rank below
something looks or the way something phylum and above order that includes
is done based on the surroundings/ groups of vertebrate animals such as fishes,
environment amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals,
amphibian any of a class of vertebrate animals and the invertebrate groups such as insects
that live on land and in water at different and arachnids
times in their life-cycle, are ectothermic and classify a systematic grouping of objects,
have a naked skin, where the larvae hatch items or organisms based on characteristics,
in water and have gills, and later transforms relationships and processes
into the adult that breathes with lungs component one of the parts that something is
angiosperm a plant that has flowers and made of
produces seeds that are enclosed in a fruit conception moment of fertilisation when the
antenna (antennae) one of two long thin male sperm and the female gg cell fuse and a
parts on the head of some arthropods (such new individual is formed
as insects and crustaceans) used for touch, cotyledon the seed leaf that is involved in the
smell and taste storage or absorption of food reserves
anther the part of the male sex organ of a plant
that contains the pollen depend/dependent to need something or
aquatic being in or near water somebody to do their part in providing a
arthropod any of a large group of animals with shelter, food, air, and so on, for an organism’s
a hard body, no backbone, and legs that are survival
divided into sections dependent variable the variable of interest that
asexual reproduction reproduction of plants is measured to get the results
and fungi that doesn’t require male and dicotyledon a plant that has a seed with two
female sex cells to fuse in order to make a cotyledons, nodes and internodes on its
new organism stem, a tap root, and generally, leaves on
atmosphere the layers of gas that surround the small stalks called petioles; the leaves have a
Earth net-type leaf vein
disperse spread over a wide area
biosphere the parts of the Earth’s surface, water diversity the number and variety of species
and atmosphere in which life can exist (and present in an area and the location of their
where plants, animals and organisms can different habitats
live)
bulb a type of underground stem with one ectothermic relating to animals that have
or more buds that are covered by leaves or a blood temperature that changes if the
scales such as onions and tulips temperature of their surroundings change
ejaculate when a male releases sperm from the
cartilage strong, flexible tissue similar to bone penis
cell the smallest structural unit or building embryo sac structure within the ovule that
block of life that can sustain the seven life contains the egg cell; contains the newly
processes developing plant and endosperm after
cellular respiration the process in living fertilisation
organisms by which oxygen is used to release
energy from food and carbon dioxide is
given off as a by-product
Glossary 89
endothermic relating to animals that have hypothesis/hypotheses a statement that is an
a blood temperature that does not change educated guess about the outcome of the
if the temperature of their surroundings experiment; an idea that is suggested as the
change possible explanation for something that has
environment the external surroundings, not yet been proved to be true or correct
conditions, resources, stimuli, and so on, in
which an organisms lives and interacts independent variables those variables that will
exoskeleton the hard outer covering that be changed one at a time to see what effect
protects the body of certain arthropods they will cause in the dependent variable;
variables that are under the control of the
fair test an experiment where only one investigator
independent variable is changed each time inheritance something that is passed on
the experiment is repeated genetically from one generation to another
fallopian tube (oviduct) a tube lying close to invertebrate an animal without a line of bones
each ovary that receives the mature ovum (backbone) going down its back
(egg) and transports them to the uterus
favourable good, suitable or acceptable jointed (segmented) limbs separate parts
fertilisation the process when a male sex cell of the legs that are covered in a hard
fuses with a female sex cell to make a new, exoskeleton with clear joints between them
unique individual with half the genetic kingdom refers to five major divisions of living
material from the male and half from the organisms: plants, animals, fungi, protists
female parent organisms and bacteria which in turn are composed of
filament the stalk-like structure of the stamen smaller groups called phyla
that holds and supports the anther
fuse to join or blend to form a single entity larva/larvae a stage in the development of
insects and other animals where it has come
genetic information (DNA) the inherited out of the egg and is mainly concerned with
information coded into the cell that consuming food
determines what type of cell it is and what it leaf vein little tubes that branch throughout a
needs to do leaf carrying water and dissolved substances
gill the organ in fish and other water-breathing mammary gland milk producing glands in
animals that allows them to breathe female mammals
underwater marine of or relating to the sea
gravity the force that attracts a body towards mate come together for breeding, copulating
the centre of the Earth or towards any other matter the physical substances from which
physical body having mass all things are made, such as rocks, soil, air,
habitat the natural place where a plant or water, plants and animals
animal lives maturing to become physically mature and
herbaceous a plant that has a non-woody stem fully developed
and which normally dies at the end of the menstruation a recurring monthly event
growing season where the lining of the uterus breaks down
hormone chemical messengers that travel in and is discharged as menstrual blood
the bloodstream to tissues and organs in microorganism an organism that is too small
order to effect many different reactions in the to see without a microscope
body. monocotyledon a plant that has a seed with
hydrosphere the water on the Earth’s surface, one cotyledon, adventitious, generally
including the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and shallow roots and leaves that forms sheaths
dams around the stem; the leaves have a parallel
leaf veins

natural selection a process in which organisms pollen tube a hollow tube that develops from
with more suitable features survive and a pollen grain and grows into the stigma and
reproduce more successfully in a particular down the style to deliver the male sex cells to
environment, resulting in more offspring the ovary of the flower
that carry the same traits pollination the transference of pollen from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of another
order a taxonomic rank below class and flower of the same species
above family that classifies organisms based pollinator(s) an agent that carries pollen from
on specific characteristics, such as diet one flower to another (bees, butterflies, birds
and tooth structure, such as herbivores, or the wind for instance)
carnivores and primates puberty the period between childhood and
organic produced by or formed from living adulthood when the sex organs mature
organisms causing changes in the body that prepare the
organism an individual living thing that can body to be able to reproduce
react to stimuli, reproduce, grow, and so on,
such as a bacterium, protist, fungus, plant or receptacle the place where a flower is attached
animal to the peduncle (stalk or stem)
ovary/ovaries the female reproductive organ requirement something that you need or must
in which the female sex hormones oestrogen have
and progesterone as well as female sex cells respire to breathe
(ova) are produced and stored; in a flower it respiration taking oxygen into the body and
is the thickened part at the base of the flower releasing carbon dioxide; breathing
that contains the ovules rhizome a horizontal stem underground that
ovule the part of the ovary of the flower that has both roots and shoots
contains the female sex cells become the roots the part of a plant that is (mostly)
seeds after fertilisation underground and responsible for anchoring
ovulation when a mature egg (ova) is ready the plant, and for absorbing water and
and gets released (and is in the right place) minerals from the soil
for fertilisation to take place
scientific method a set way of doing /
peduncle the stalk or stem of a flower conducting a scientific investigation allowing
penis the male sex organ for the transfer of you to gain new knowledge by collecting
sperm cells to the female measurable evidence based on observation,
petal(s) each of the modified leaf sections of a measurement and experiment based on the
flower that are typically coloured to attract formulation, testing and changing of the
animals hypotheses
photosynthesis the process by which green scrotum the external sac of skin that encloses
plants (and some bacteria) use energy from the testes in males
light to turn carbon dioxide and water into seeds the reproductive organ formed in
food and oxygen gymnosperms and angiosperms from which
phylum a taxonomic rank in biological a new plant can grow; it is usually covered
classification that is below kingdom and by a protective coat and also contains food
above class, that divides organisms according reserves for the young plant
to major body similarities, such as chordates, sepal(s) small green leaves that protect the
molluscs and arthropods developing bud
pistil (carpel) the female organs of a flower sexual intercourse occurs when the male
containing the stigma, style and ovary sperm is introduced into a woman’s body
pollen a fine powdery substance that is often sexual reproduction the process of producing
yellow and contains the male sex cells new individuals of a species by fusing the
genes of two individuals
Glossay 91
shoot a young branch that sprouts from the tap root the main root of a plant that grows
main stem of a plant deep into the soil of a plant that has a single,
sperm the male sex cell produced by the testes dominant main stem
spore the reproductive cell of mosses and ferns testes sperm producing glands of the male
(and other organisms) that under the right body
conditions can develop into a new individual
fern or moss umbilical cord the cord- or tube-like structure
stamen the male reproductive organ of a flower that connects the foetus from its abdomen
containing the filament and anther with the placenta of the mother; it transports
stem the long thin part of a plant that rises nourishment and oxygen to the foetus and
from the ground and from which smaller removes waste
branches can grow; it supports the leaves, uterus the hollow muscular organ in the
flowers and fruit pelvic area of female mammals in which the
stigma the sticky tip of a flower pistil where the fertilised egg implants and develops (also
pollen is deposited during pollination known as the womb)
style the stalk-like slender part of the pistil vagina an elastic muscular tube or canal that
joining the stigma and the ovary, and connects the neck of the uterus (cervix) with
holding the stigma in a favourable position the external sexual opening
to receive pollen; the pollen tube grows variables any factor that can affect the outcome
through the style to deliver the male sex cells of the investigation and can be measured,
to the ovules controlled or varied in some way
sustain to keep things alive or healthy variation differences between living organisms
symbiotic a type of relationship between of the same species
organisms in which one or both organisms vertebrate an animal that has a backbone
benefit (spine) that holds the nerve or spinal column

STRAND
Matter and Materials

5 Properties of materials
Key questions
Which properties are important when choosing a material for a particular use?
• How can we measure the strength of a material?
• What does it mean when a liquid boils?
• How can we explain the term ‘boiling point’?
• How can we explain the term ‘melting point’?
• Why should we always think about the impact on the environment when we manufacture or
use a particular material?
We learnt in Grade 5 that the properties of a material determine what it can

Keywords be used for. Can you remember what properties are?
• property
• durable 5.1 Physical properties of materials
• ductile
What are properties and why are they important?
• malleable
• flexible Properties are distinctive characteristics that describe an object or material.
• mould The use of a material will be determined by its physical properties, such as
strength, flexibility, boiling and melting points, electrical conductivity and
heat conductivity..
Figure 5.1 The walls and roof of this house are made of Figure 5.2 Can you see some parts of a car hanging up
sheets of corrugated metal. inside a car factory? These are made of sheets of metal.
What other properties of materials do you remember? Discuss this as a class.
94 STRAND Matter and Materials

ACTIVITY Thinking about materials and their properties.
Instructions
Copy the following table in your exercise books and complete it by adding
the names of different materials that have the properties listed.
Property Materials
Strong
Flexible
Conducts electricity
Conducts heat
Questions
1. What does it mean when we say that a material is flexible?

2. Suggest three possible uses of flexible materials.
3. Suggest three possible uses of a material that is a good conductor of
electricity.
4. Suggest three possible uses of a material that is a good conductor of heat.
5. Which of the above properties would be important if you were choosing
a material for making cookware (cooking pots)?
Figure 5.3 A metal pot Figure 5.4 These electrical wires carried by
pylons are made of metal.
6. Which of the above properties

would be important if you were
choosing a material for making
the wires used for distribution of
electricity (shown in the adjacent
photo)?
7. Which of the above properties
would be important if you were
choosing a material to make a
barbed wire fence? Figure 5.5 A barbed wire fence.
Unit 5: Properties of materials 95

Advantages and disadvantages of materials
We have seen that strength and durability
are desirable properties in some materials.
We want things to be strong and to last
long. Let’s think of an example.
Why would plastic shopping bags need to
be strong?
Why would plastic shopping bags need to
be durable?
We call the desirable properties of
materials advantages. Disadvantages are
unfavourable features, as can be seen in
the images of plastic in the environment. Figure 5.6 A black plastic shopping bag.
Figure 5.7 A pelican about to eat a plastic bag Figure 5.8 These plastic rings from soft-
in a river. drink packaging are very dangerous
in the wild as they can entangle an
animal’s neck.
The following activity has another example of advantages versus

disadvantages.
ACTIVITY Advantages and disadvantages of materials

Can you imagine a car made of solid gold? A car like this would be very
valuable!
Instructions
1. Look at the image of a gold car then answer the questions that follow.
2. Discuss some of the questions with your classmates before writing down
your answers.
Questions
What are your feelings about the golden car in the picture?

1. What are the advantages of
having a car made of gold?
2. Do you think a golden car would
be very strong? Would it perhaps
be safer in the event of an
accident?
3. What are the disadvantages of a
car made of gold?
Strength of Materials
How would you test how strong a material
is? Let’s imagine you have different types
of paper. How would you test which paper
is the strongest? Discuss this as a class and
write some notes on the lines provided.
The strength of paper is important because
we use paper for many different things.
In the next activity we are going to
Figure 5.9 All these objects are made from different types of
investigate the tearing strength of different
paper with different properties that suit the function of the
types of paper.
object.
Investigation Which type of paper is the strongest?
Aim
To compare the tearing strengths of different types of paper.
Hypothesis
When you write a hypothesis, you must state what you think will happen
in your investigation.
Materials and apparatus
• strips of different types of paper (20 cm x 5 cm)
• hole puncher
• strong paper clips
• yoghurt tub
• marbles
• string
• hand lens (optional)
Methods
1. Punch a hole at both ends of each paper strip. This is so that you can
test the paper twice on each side. Make sure that the holes are in the
middle, and also at the same distance from the end of each strip. This
will make it a fair test.

2. Form the paper clip into an S-shape and hang it from the hole in the
paper.
3. Make a handle for the yoghurt tub, using the string.
4. Hang the yoghurt tub from the paper clip and hold it in your hand.
5. Add marbles one- by- one to the yoghurt tub until the paper tears.
Count the number of marbles in the tub. (Tip: Place the marbles very
gently into the yoghurt tub or the shock of dropping them in might
tear the paper).
6. Repeat steps 1 – 5 using the other end of the strip and count the
marbles again. Take the average of the number of marbles.
7. Repeat this using the other strips of paper, doing each twice and
taking the averages.
8. If each marble has a mass of 5 grams, work out the mass in grams
that was needed to tear each strip of paper and write the number in
the final column of your table.
9. If you have time, you can also test different kinds of materials, such
as a plastic shopping bag, aluminium foil or plastic wrap.
Tip: To calculate the average of a set of numbers, you add all the
numbers together and then divide by how many numbers there were
in the set.
In this investigation, you will add the number
of marbles together for each time you tested
the paper strength (this was twice for each strip
of paper) and then divide by 2 to calculate the
average number of marbles that each piece of
paper can hold before it tears.
For example, if you had 5 marbles in the first
attempt, and 3 marbles in the second attempt,
the average will be calculated as follows:
5 + 3 = 8 marbles
8 ÷ 2 = 4 marbles on average Therefore, the paper type could hold an
average of 4 marbles.
Results and observations

Copy the table below and record your results in it.
Type of Number of Number of Average Mass of the

paper marbles marbles number of marbles
(Trial 1) (Trial 2) marbles

Now answer the following questions:
1. Look carefully at the surface of one of the paper strips. Now look
carefully at the torn edge. Can you see anything special? Describe
what you think the paper is made of.
2. Which paper is the strongest?
3. Which paper is the weakest?
4. Arrange the different types of paper in order of increasing tearing
strength. (That means from weakest to strongest.)
Analysis and evaluation
Let’s now analyse and think about the results of the investigation.
1. What do you think causes one type of paper to be stronger than
another?
2. How would you modify the investigation to test the strength of
different types of plastic?
3. What did you do to ensure fair testing?
4. How would you modify the investigation to test the flexibility of
different types of materials?
5. Why did you repeat the experiment for the same type of paper?
Conclusion
What can you conclude from this investigation?
Strength, flexibility (the ability to flex or bend), electrical conductivity
Keywords
and heat conductivity are important properties of materials that we learnt
about in Grade 5 and have revised again here. • temperature
• thermometer
Can you think of materials that are both strong and flexible? Most people • heat
will immediately think of plastics! Most plastics can easily be melted and • melting point
moulded into different shapes for different purposes. Why do you think • boiling point
plastics can be ‘melted and moulded’ with ease?
Difference between heat and temperature

First, let’s check if everyone knows that there is a difference between the
words heat and temperature. The two words, heat and temperature, are
connected but they do not mean the same thing:
• Heat is the transfer of energy from one object to another. This happens
because of the difference in temperature between the two objects. The
transfer of energy will be from the hotter object to the cooler object until
they are the same temperature. You cannot measure heat directly, but
you can detect its effect on a substance. Changes in heat can usually be
detected as changes in temperature.
• Temperature is used to describe how hot or cold something is.
Temperature can be measured directly with a thermometer.
Adding heat energy usually results in a temperature rise, so people often
confuse heat and temperature. But they are not the same thing! We will look
more at heating as a transfer of energy next term in Energy and Change.

As you can see in the previous diagram, a liquid can change into a gas by
evaporation. For example if you leave a saucer of water out in the sun, the
water will evaporate. Evaporation can take place at any temperature. But, in
boiling, the liquid needs to be heated to reach its boiling point. Bubbles of
water vapour then form in the liquid and rise up.
Take note ACTIVITY Boiling and melting points
Melting point – Instructions

boiling point is
a temperature Do you remember learning about the state changes in previous grades? We
at which the will be focusing on boiling and melting in this section. Have a look at the
substance following diagram to refresh your memories about the different changes of
changes from state between solids, liquids and gases.
liquid to gas state
when heat is
added.
condensation freezing
evaporation melting
gas liquid solid
Questions
1. Melting occurs when a solid changes into a liquid.

Look at this photo of a candle burning. What is
happening to the wax around the flame?
2. Discuss with your partner why you think this is
happening to the wax. Write your answer below.
3. Can you think of at least three different ways to
boil water? Discuss this with your class and write
your answer down.
4. What would happen if you tried to put the kettle
into the microwave or on the stove? We will soon A burning candle.
find out!

ACTIVITY Boiling and melting
Look carefully at the picture. It looks as if something has gone wrong here!
Questions
1. Write a short story to explain what you think happened to the kettle in
the picture.
2. Why do you think the person made the mistake of heating the kettle on
the stove?
3. Do you think plastic is a good choice of material for making a whole
cooking pot? Why do you say so?
4. Why does a plastic kettle not melt when we boil water in it?
5. Sometimes, just the handles of the cooking pot are made from plastic or
wood. Why do you think this is so?
Instrument for measuring temperature

Since we have to make temperature measurements in the investigation, we
are going to first check if everyone knows how temperature is measured.
Have you ever been so sick that you had a fever? Have you ever had your
temperature taken?
Perhaps you have had your temperature taken with a
thermometer. A thermometer can be used to find out
how hot or cold something is. A thermometer is an
instrument for measuring temperature.
Figure 5.10 This is an example of a thermometer used

to take your temperature when you have a fever.
Investigating boiling point of water.
Investigation What is the boiling point of water? Keywords
Aim • contract
• expand
To observe boiling and to determine the boiling point of water.
• constant
Hypothesis • independent
variable
What is your hypothesis for this investigation?
• dependent
Materials and apparatus variable
• two glass beakers (or small pot) • altitude
• Bunsen burner (or stove plate)
• tripod with gauze
• tap water
• thermometer
• funnel
• ice blocks

Before you start, discuss the following questions in your group:
1. Discuss what you know about gases, liquids and solids: the three
states of matter. Write down your ideas from your discussion.
2. What needs to happen to water to make it freeze?
3. What needs to happen to water to make it boil?
4. How do we measure temperature?
5. Can you remember the boiling point and freezing/melting point of
water? If you can, write them in the space below.
6. Let’s make some predictions. Read the two statements below, and
indicate whether you AGREE, DISAGREE or are NOT SURE, by
drawing a cross in the matching column in your exercise books:
Take note Statement Agree Disagree Not sure

Water can get hotter than 100 °C.
Perhaps you
Water always freezes at 0 °C.
measured the
boiling point Safety precautions
of the water
• Your teacher will demonstrate how to handle the Bunsen burner
as slightly less
safely.
than100 °C.
• Remember that boiling water can cause painful burns.
This does not
• The thermometer is made of very thin glass. Hold it gently, and do
mean that your
not use it to stir the water. Be careful not to drop it or bump it against
measurements
the bottom or sides of the beaker.
were incorrect.
The boiling Methods
point of water 1. Set up your apparatus as shown in the image. Remember that when
depends on the you want to take the temperature, the thermometer must not be
atmospheric touching the sides.
pressure. At 2. Take a measurement of the water temperature before you start
sea level (close heating the water. This will be your measurement at time 0.
to the ocean)
water boils at
thermometer
100°C. Water
boils at a lower
temperature at
higher altitudes water
(for example,
on a mountain)
because the air wire gauze
pressure is less.
tripod
stand
Bunsen
burner

3. Light the burner and heat the water
4. Measure the temperature of the water at regular intervals. Record the
temperature in the table provided.
5. After a while you will notice that the temperature of the water
becomes constant (this is when the temperature stops going up).
Continue to take the temperature three more times (once every three
minutes) after this happens. What do you notice about the water?
Copy and record your results in the table.
Take note
Elapsed time (minutes) Temperature of the water (°C)
The boiling
0 point of water
also depends
on the purity of
the water. Water
which contains
impurities (such
as salt or sugar)
We are now going to draw a graph of the results recorded in the table. boils at a higher
Here are some guidelines for drawing the graph: temperature than
1. The title of your graph should be: Determining the boiling point of pure water. This
water. is why orange
2. The independent variable should be ‘Time’. Label the axis, and use juice or apple
minutes as units. Remember that the independent variable should juice will boil at
always be drawn on the horizontal axis of your graph, or the x-axis. temperatures
3. The dependent variable should be ‘Temperature’. Label the axis, and slightly above
use degrees Celsius (°C) as units. The dependent variable should 100 °C.
always be drawn on the vertical axis of your graph; this is the y-axis.
4. Plot the data on a line graph on a graph paper – each data point must
be marked with a small, neat cross.
Analysis
Take note
1. What did you see when the water started to boil?
2. What do you think happened to the water when it boiled? Different
3. Describe the shape of your graph. Is it a straight line? thermometers
4. How did the temperature of the water change over time? from different
5. How does the shape of the graph show the way the temperature batches might
changed over time? also give slightly
6. What happened to the temperature of the water when it started to different readings.
boil? This is because
7. How long did it take for the water to start boiling? they might have
8. At what temperature did the water boil? been calibrated
9. What do we call the temperature at which the water boils? Indicate differently.
this temperature on your graph.

Take note 10. Suppose we used a Bunsen burner with a bigger flame.
a) Do you think the water would boil at a temperature that is
Ice melts at 0 °C. higher, lower or the same as the boiling point you just measured?
Water freezes Why do you say so?
at 0 °C. b) Do you think the time required for the water to boil would be
Coincidence, longer, shorter or the same? Why do you say so?
or not?
Conclusion
Write a conclusion for this investigation. When writing a conclusion, you
must go back to look at your initial aim.
Melting Point
We will learn more about changes of state in Grade 8 Matter and Materials.
In order to melt ice, we need to add energy to it to raise the temperature to
melting point. However, if we want to freeze water, we need to remove (take
out) energy from it until the temperature decreases to freezing point.
melting
process requires energy
freezing
process releases energy
solid water = ice liquid water
Does boiling have a reverse process? Boiling is when liquid water changes to
water vapour or steam. The reverse process, when steam turns back to water,
is called condensation. In order to boil water, we need to add energy to it.
But if we want to condense the water vapour, we need to cool it down (take
energy out of it).
steam
boiling
process requires energy
condensation
process releases energy
liquid water
hot water vapour = steam

The following diagram summarises what we have learnt so far.
200 ºC 200 ºC
When temperature is above 100 ˚C,

water is a GAS.
100 ºC Boiling point of water 100 ºC
0 ºC Melting point of ice 0 ºC
When temperature is below 0 ˚C,

–100 ºC –100 ºC
water is a SOLID.
Do all liquids boil at 100 °C? No, of course not! Not all substances melt at
0 °C either.
Can you think of a few substances that are solids at low temperatures, but
have low melting points? (Think of things that melt easily when it is hot
outside. Ice cream is an example.)
In the next activity we are going to explore the boiling and melting points of
a few substances other than water.
ACTIVITY Boiling and melting points of other substances.
Instructions
1. Copy the blank template into your exercise books and record the boiling
and melting points of the substances listed below.
Answer the questions that follow.
2. The boiling point of nitrogen is –200 °C. Draw a 200 ºC 200 ºC
green line at this temperature on the diagram and

label it ‘Boiling point of nitrogen’. 100 ºC 100 ºC
3. The boiling point of ethanol is 78 °C. Draw a red

line at this temperature on the diagram and label it 0 ºC 0 ºC
‘Boiling point of ethanol’.

4. Now draw a blue line at the boiling point of water –100 ºC –100 ºC
and also label this line.

5. What is room temperature? Draw a black line at this –200 ºC –200 ºC
temperature and label it.
Questions
1. What state would nitrogen be in at room temperature? Why do you say so?
2. Suppose you mix some water and some ethanol. They are mixed but
they have not changed into something else. The mixture is at room
temperature to begin with. Now suppose you start heating the mixture.
What temperature would be reached first: 78 °C or 100 °C?

3. What do you think will happen when the mixture reaches a temperature
of 78 °C? Do you think the ethanol will start to boil?
4. Will the water boil at the same time?
Keywords 5.2 Impact of materials on the environment

Earlier, we saw how some of the properties of materials may be advantages
• impact
• concern under certain circumstances, but can become disadvantages under a
• environmental different set of circumstances, such as plastics and other materials which,
concerns if they end up in nature, can have serious consequences and cause harm to
other animals. Every process used to produce materials for our benefit has an
impact on the environment. Some processes have a small impact and others
have a large impact.
We have already seen how the use of materials, such as plastics and paper,
has a negative impact on our environment, but what about their production?
ACTIVITY Environmental impact of material production

I
Instructions
1. Look at the pictures and answer the questions that follow about the
production of different materials in South Africa.
2. You will need to do some extra research for this activity. Some information
about each of the processes has been provided, but you will need to
research them in more detail and answer the questions that follow.
Mining:
Mining in South Africa has been one of the main reasons for our
development. South Africas still one of the top gold-mining countries in the
world. We also mine and produce other metals such as chromium and
platinum, as well as coal and iron ore. Although this is hugely beneficial for
the economy, it has devastating effects on the environment.
Figure 5.11 The Kimberly Diamond Mine.

1. This huge hole is actually a diamond mine in Kimberley. What effects do
you think this has had on the environment?
In this photograph, the 2010 World Cup Soccer Stadium can be seen in the
centre. In the top left are huge areas called slag piles. These are huge piles of
crushed rock left over from decades of gold mining. What impact do you
think this has on this area?
Did you
know?
A major
environmental
concern at the
moment is the
Soccer City proposal to
start fracking
in the Karoo.
Fracking is a
process where
Diepkloof
water is injected
at very high
N-12
pressures into
small fractures
Figure 5.12 An aerial view of the Soccer City Stadium and surrounding area. in underground
rock to crack
2. Coal mining in South Africa also has a major impact on the it further and
environment. Not only the mining, but the use of coal in power stations release gas and
has negative impacts. What are some of these? oil which are
Paper making: used as fuels.
Can you imagine your world without paper? Probably not! We use it every
day of our lives. South Africa has a big paper-making industry. Although
paper is important in our lives today, the production has negative impacts on
the environment.
Figure 5.13 A tree plantation with trees used to make paper.

1. Huge areas of land are used to plant the trees that are then harvested to
make pulp and then paper. What impact do you think this has on the
environment? Hint: Also think about what you learnt about in Life and
Living about biodiversity.
Figure 5.14 A paper-making factory.
2. Look at the photo of the paper-making factory. What effects does this
have on the environment?

Summary
Key concepts
• The properties of a material determine the purposes for which it can be used.
• Some of the properties of materials include strength, flexibility, heat and electrical
conductivity, and they have specific boiling and melting points.
• Boiling point is the temperature at which a at which a substance changes from liquid
changes to gas when heat is added.
• Melting point is the temperature at which a a substance changes from solid to liquid when
heated.
• The suitability of a material for a certain use is also influenced by other factors such as its
cost, its colour and its texture.
• The ways we use materials and the processes we use to produce them always have an impact
on the environment.
Concept map
Below is a concept map for what we have learnt about the properties of materials. We discussed
several properties of materials in this unit. Can you see how we can summarise a lot of
information onto one page?
Properties of determine suitability for use production
materials
of
include also influenced
strength heat
conductivity materials
flexibility other
electrical
factors impacts
conductivity
boiling melting
and
point point
such as
environment
is
cost texture
temperature at which liquid boils colour

Revision
1. Below are a number of short sentences. In each case, you must complete the sentence by
filling in the missing words. Write the whole sentences out on the lines provided. Fill in the
missing word.
a) The set of characteristics that describe a material are called the _______________ of that
material.
b) Materials that can be hammered into thin sheets are called _______________ (Metals have
this property.)
c) Materials that can be bent are called. _______________ (Some plastics have this property.)
d) The boiling point of a material is _______________ at which the liquid state of that material
turns into a gas.
e) When we want to measure temperature we use a _______________.
f) The boiling point of water at sea level is _______________.
g) A material that conducts heat well is said to have a high _______________.
h) If you want to create a circuit for a bulb, the material that you use in the circuit to connect
the battery to the bulb must have a high _______________ [8]
2. State whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE. If you think a statement is
FALSE, you have to write a TRUE statement in its place.
a) All liquids boil at 100 °C.
b) Water always boils at 100 °C.
c) Any given material will melt and freeze at the same temperature.
d) When water is boiled over a bigger flame, it will boil at a higher temperature. [8]
3. A scientist wants to determine the boiling point of an unknown liquid. She places the unknown
liquid in a beaker and carefully heats it on a hot plate. The scientist measures the temperature of
the liquid at regular time intervals (every 3 minutes). Afterwards, she draws the following graph:
Determining the boiling point of an unknown liquid

70
60
50
temperature (ºc)
40
30
20
10
0
0 3 6 9 12 18 21 24 27 33 30 39 42 45 48 51
time (minutes)

a) At what temperature does the unknown liquid boil? Show this temperature on
the graph. [2]
b) How long does it take for the unknown liquid to start boiling? [1]
c) The scientist suspects that the unknown liquid is one of the substances on the
following list. Use the list to identify the unknown liquid. Say why you think
it is this substance. [2]
Substance Boiling point ( °C )

Acetone 56
Methanol 65
Ethanol 78
Isopropanol 83
Water 100
d) What was the temperature of the unknown liquid at the start of the experiment? [1]
Total [22 marks]
Unit 5: Revision 111

6 Separating mixtures
Key questions
Which properties are important when choosing a material for a particular use?
• How can we explain the term ‘mixture’?
• What types of materials can be mixed?
• What methods can be used to separate a mixture into its original components?
• Which factors are important when choosing a method for separating a mixture into its
components?
• Which materials can be recycled?
• Who is responsible for the disposal of waste materials?
• What are the negative consequences of poor waste management?
Keywords
6.1 Mixtures
What does it mean to mix something? Can you mime an explanation (that
• mixture means you have to explain without saying a single word)?
• suspension
• opaque Is it possible to mix water? Discuss this with your class.
• solution
• clear One substance alone cannot be a mixture. A mixture is made up of two or
more different substances.
A mixture can contain solids, liquids and/or gases. The components in a
mixture are not chemically joined; they are just mixed. That means we do not
need to use chemical reactions to separate them. Mixtures can be separated
using physical methods alone and that is what this unit is all about: how to
separate mixtures.
There are many different kinds of mixtures. Before we learn how to separate
them, it is worth looking at all the different kinds of mixtures briefly.
Different kinds of mixtures

A mixture of a solid and a solid
Figure 6.1 Soil is a mixture of different solid components.

Soil is an example of a mixture of solids. What are the substances found in
soil? Keywords
• emulsion
A mixture of a solid and a liquid
• abundant
What happens when clay or sand is mixed with water? Would you be able to • condense
see through a mixture of clay and water? • alloy
• pigment
The mixture of clay or sand with water is muddy. The small clay particles
become suspended in the water. This kind of mixture is called a suspension.
Some suspensions are opaque; that means they are cloudy and we cannot see
through them.
What happens when sugar is mixed with water? Does the mixture become
muddy? Why not? The sugar dissolves in the water and the mixture is called
a solution. Solutions are clear; that means we can see through them.
suspension of
sand and clay clear solution
in water of sugar in water
Figure 6.2 Can you see the difference between the suspension of sand and clay in water
and a clear solution of sugar in water?
A mixture of a solid and a gas

Have you ever seen smoke from a fire? What is the smoke made of? Do you
think it is a mixture?
Figure 6.3 The black smoke from a burning building.
Unit 6: Separating mixtures 113

A mixture of a liquid and a liquid
Milk is not a single substance, but actually a mixture of two liquids! The one
liquid component in milk is water, and the other is fatty oil. The reason milk
is opaque is that tiny droplets of the oil are suspended in the water. Can you
remember what a mixture is called when a solid is suspended in liquid?
When some liquids are suspended in liquid, we call the mixture an emulsion.
Like suspensions, emulsions tend to be opaque.
Are all liquid-liquid mixtures emulsions? (One way to recognise an emulsion
is that it is opaque). Are all liquid-liquid mixtures opaque? Can you think of
a liquid-liquid mixture that is not an emulsion? Discuss this with your class
and give an answer.
A mixture of vinegar and water is clear, and that is a clue that the mixture is a
solution.
Solutions are special kinds of mixtures in which the particles are so well
mixed that they are not separated from each other. We cannot make out
separate substances any more – everything looks the same when we look
with the naked eye.
A mixture of a gas and a gas
We learnt in Grade 6 Matter and Materials that the particles of gases are far
apart. This means that gases can mix very easily, because it is easy for their
particles to move in amongst each other. The air we breathe is not a single
gas but actually a mixture of gases! Do you know what the two most
abundant components are?
A mixture of a liquid and a gas
Do you remember that we discussed boiling in
the previous unit (Properties of Materials)? What
happens to a liquid when it boils?
Can you see the water vapour in the picture of a
boiling kettle? Point to it with your finger. Discuss
this with your teacher and classmates and when
you have agreed on an answer, draw an arrow onto
the picture to indicate the water vapour.
Can we see most gases? Why do you think so?
Clouds and fog or mist are all examples of tiny
water droplets suspended in air.
We have learnt that mixtures can be made of substances in the same state
or in different states. The following activity will help us apply our new
knowledge about mixtures to more examples.

ACTIVITY Types of mixtures
Instructions Keywords
1. Look at the list of mixtures. Discuss in your group, or with your partner, • filtration
what each mixture consists of. • filtrate
2. Identify the type of substances (solid, liquid or gas) that are mixed in • magnetic
each of the examples on the list. • grain
• residue
3. Write the name of each example in the appropriate block on the
diagram.
Mixtures:
• air
• smoke
• hair oil (emulsion of oil and water)
• clear fruit juice (for example, apple juice)
• cloudy apple juice
• salty water
• alloys such as brass (used for coins) and stainless steel (used for rust-
resistant metal items)
• foam plastic (like the material used for making mattresses and pillows)
• spray deodorant
• air freshener (aerosol type)
• paint
• dust cloud gas
• soil
gas
liquid
For instance, sugar dissolved in water would
liquid
go in the middle block of the bottom row, to solid
show that it is a solid (sugar) mixed with a sugar dissolved
solid in water
liquid (water).
Why do we make mixtures? Mixtures have many uses: perhaps we are
mixing ingredients to bake a cake, or mixing metals to make a really strong
alloy.
Many things around us occur naturally as
mixtures: salty sea water, moist air, soil, compost,
rocks (mixture of minerals) to name a few. Many
mixtures are man made, for example; Coca Cola,
paint, salad dressing and so on.
Figure 6.4 A cake is a mixture of ingredients, including

flour, eggs and milk.

6.2 Methods of physical separation
Now that we know about the different kinds of mixtures that are possible, we
are going to learn about some ways of separating them.
Mixtures are very useful. However, sometimes we need to separate mixtures
into their components. Remember that the substances in a mixture have not
combined chemically. They have not turned into new substances, but are still
the same substances as before – they have just been physically combined.
That is why we can use physical methods to separate them again.
How do we separate mixtures?

Suppose you were given a basket of apples and oranges. How would you sort
them? You would probably pick out all the oranges from the apples by hand.
The same method may not be suitable for all mixtures. You would probably
not consider sorting sugar and sand grains by hand. Why not?
Let us look at some of the most commonly used methods of physical
separation.
Hand sorting
How would you separate the mixture of beads in the adjacent picture into the
different colours?
Figure 6.5 A mixture of different coloured beads.
ACTIVITY Thinking about hand sorting

1. Would hand sorting also be a practical way
to sort out the mixture of rice and lentil
beans in the picture alongside?
2. Would hand sorting be a practical way to
sort the pebbles out of a large pile of sand?
3. Besides what we discussed in the unit, think
of at least three other examples of mixtures
that could be hand sorted.
4. When is hand sorting a good method for Figure 6.6 A mixture of rice
separating the components in a mixture? and lentils

Sieving
Can you think of a practical way to sort
stones or pebbles from sand? Do you
think picking the pebbles out by hand
would work?
When we have large quantities of
materials to sort and the different
particles have different sizes, we can sift
the mixture through. The smaller particles Figure 6.7 How would you separate the pebbles from the sand
will fall through the openings in the sieve, in this pile?
while the larger particles stay behind.
Filtration
When the particles in a mixture are too small to
be caught by a sieve and when the components of
the mixture are in different states, we can separate
them by filtration using a filter.
What type of mixture is the muddy water in the
glass an example of?
Take note
Muddy water is poured through a funnel lined
with filter paper to remove the small sand and The clear liquid
clay particles. that has passed
through the filter
Have you ever noticed how, when people have to paper is called
work in dusty or smoky environments, they wear the filtrate and
dust masks or smoke masks? Why do you think the particles that
that is necessary? are left behind
on the filter
paper are called
the residue.
Figure 6.8 A firefighter wears a mask to filter out the smoke.

The following diagram shows how a gas mask works. Layers of very fine
Did you filters trap harmful substances and dust or smoke particles, so that only clean
know? air is let through.
In ancient
cultures, grain
and chaff were
separated by a filter layers to
remove harmful
process called substances
winnowing. filtered
They would air
throw the
mixture into
the air and the dirty air
wind would
blow away the
lighter chaff, but
not the heavier Figure 6.9 A smoke mask consists of filter layers which clean the dirty air before it is
grain. breathed into the body.
ACTIVITY Thinking about sieving and filtering

1. Besides what we discussed in the unit, think of at least three other
mixtures that could be sieved, and write them in the space below.
2. When is sieving a good method for separating the components in a
mixture?
3. Nowadays most people use tea bags to make tea, but there was a time
when people brewed tea from leaves and then poured the tea through a
sieve or strainer into the cup. Why do you think they did this?
Figure 6.10 Tea leaves

and other particles
have collected in the
sieve after pouring
the tea into the cup.
4. Sometimes the particles that we want to remove from a mixture are so
small that they will pass easily through a sieve (think of the example of
the muddy water from before). Can you think of a way to overcome this?
5. Besides what we discussed in the unit, think of at least three other
mixtures that could be filtered, and list them.
6. When is filtering a good method for separating the components in a
mixture?

The magnetic properties of the metals allowed them to be separated in
this way.
Magnetic separation
The following diagram shows how magnetic
separation can be used to separate a mixture of
components. In the example, mineral ore that
contains two compounds (one magnetic, and mineral ore
the other non-magnetic) is being separated.
The ore grains are fed onto a revolving belt.
The roller on the end of the belt is magnetic.
This means that all the magnetic grains in the
ore will stick to the belt when it goes around
the roller, while the non-magnetic grains will
fall off the end. As soon as the magnetic grains magnetic moving
move past the magnetic roller, they will also roller belt
fall down.
In the above diagram, what colour are the
non-magnetic grains and into which container
do they fall? Label this on the diagram. What
colour are the magnetic grains and which container do they fall into?
ACTIVITY Thinking about magnetic separation

1. Besides what we discussed in the unit, can you think of two other Keywords
mixtures that could be separated magnetically? Write them in the space • evaporation
provided. • condensation
2. When is magnetic separation suitable for separating the components in a • distillation
mixture? • still
• chromato-
graphy
How can we separate the components in a solution? Let’s find out. • chromato-
gram
Solutions as mixtures • solute
The substances in a solution are mixed on the level of individual particles. • solvent
In a sugar and water solution, the sugar particles and the water particles are
mixed so well that we could not distinguish them with the naked eye. You
may think that mixtures that are so ‘well-mixed’ are impossible to separate!
But as we shall soon see, this is not true.
Evaporation
Do you know where most of the salt that we use in South Africa comes
from? South Africa gets it salt from inland salt pans, coastal salt pans and sea
water. A salt pan is a shallow dam in the ground where salt water evaporates
to leave a layer of dry salt.

Figure 6.11 An aerial view of salt pans in Peru. Figure 6.12 A man is busy collecting the dried salt to be
packaged and sold.
When sea water is allowed to stand in shallow pans, the water gets heated by
sunlight and slowly turns into water vapour, through evaporation. Once the
water has evaporated completely, the solid salt is left behind.
Do you think this is a good method for separating salt from water? Do you
think it would work for a sugar and water solution?
ACTIVITY W
hat if we want to keep both the water and
the salt?
Questions
1. Do you think separation by evaporation would be a good method to

separate a salt-water solution if you wanted to keep both the salt and the
water? Why do you say so?
2. Can you think of a way to modify the method so that the water that
evaporates is not lost? Perhaps the following diagram will help you to
formulate a plan. Write an explanation.

3. What is happening in the kettle?
4. Can you say what change in state is happening inside the kettle? What is
the process called?
5. What change of state is occurring on the cold surface of the metal plate?
What is the process called?
Hint: Th
e change of state from gas to liquid was covered in the
previous unit, under Physical properties of materials.
6. Does the salt evaporate with the water? How would you find out?
7. What can you tell about the purity of the water after it has evaporated
and condensed?
Distillation
Distillation is the separation of one substance from another by evaporation
followed by condensation. The apparatus used in this technique is called a still.
thermometer
clamp stand cooling

water
Liebig
clamp condenser
distillation steam
flask salt water
cold water in
receiving
Bunsen flask
burner
condensed
water
distilled
water
Figure 6.13 Experimental setup for distillation
Suppose we want to separate the water and salt in sea water. We would place
the sea water in the round flask on the left of the picture (in the distillation
flask). We would then boil the sea water to produce water vapour, or
steam. The salt would not evaporate with the water, because only the water
evaporates. The water vapour rises through the top of the flask and passes
into the Liebig condenser.

The Liebig condenser consists of a glass tube within a larger glass tube. The
Did you condenser is designed in such a way that cold water can flow through the
know? space between the tubes. This cools the surface of the inner tube. The water
Crude oil is vapour condenses against this cold surface and flows into the receiving flask.
separated Since the salt has not evaporated, it stays behind in the distillation flask.
into different Distillation is also the best way to separate two liquids that have different
components
boiling points, like water and ethanol for example. Let us have a look.
using
distillation. The
components
are evaporated,
starting with
lighter fuel
(which has the
lowest boiling
point), then
jet fuel, then
petroleum, then
motor car oil,
until only tar
is left. We call
the separated
components
fractions, and
the process is
called, fractional
distillation.
Figure 6.14 Two Liebig condensers which are used in the distillation process
ACTIVITY H
ow can we separate two liquids with different
boiling points?
Questions
1. Can you remember the temperature at which water boils? Write it down
below.
2. What is this temperature called?
3. Ethanol boils at a temperature lower than the boiling point of water,
namely 78 °C. Suppose you mix some water and some ethanol. The
mixture is at room temperature to begin with. Now suppose you start
heating the mixture. What temperature would be reached first: 78 °C or
100 °C?
4. What do you think will happen when the mixture reaches a temperature
of 78 °C? Do you think the ethanol will start to boil?
5. Will the water boil at the same time?
Most inks are a mixture of different pigments, blended to give them just
the right colour. A pigment is a chemical that gives colour to materials.

When a mixture contains colourful compounds, it is often possible to
separate the different components using a separating method called Take note
chromatography. Let’s have a look at this next. Chromatography
comes from
Chromatography the Greek
Chromatography is a method for separating coloured substances into words ‘chroma’
individual pigments. We are going to explore this in the next investigation. (meaning
Suppose it contains a third substance that we want to separate. How would ‘colour’) and
you do this? ‘graphé’ (meaning
‘to write’).
There is one more separation technique for us to explore. Have you noticed
how ink on paper will sometimes ‘run’ when it gets wet?
In paper chromatography, liquid is drawn through the paper fibres. But, why
do the pigments in the ink separate into bands of different colours?
The pigments in the ink are carried along by the liquid, but because they
are different compounds, they get carried upwards at different speeds. This
causes them to appear as bands of different colours on the chromatogram.
Pigments migrate at different speeds because of differences in their properties:
large pigment particles tend to move more slowly. Furthermore, particles that
dissolve well in the liquid will tend to stay in the liquid and be carried to the top
quickly, while particles that bind well to the paper will tend to move more slowly.
Now that we have learnt about some of the different ways in which mixtures
can be separated, we are going to apply what we know to separate a mixture
made of many components.
Investigation Is black ink really black?
Aim
To separate the pigment components in ink using different liquids.
Hypothesis Take note
What do you propose the answer to our investigative question is? This is
your hypothesis. A solvent is
a substance
Materials and apparatus that dissolves a
• absorbent paper cut into strips approximately 3 cm wide and 12 cm solute, resulting
long in a solution. A
• clear drinking glass or beaker solvent is usually
• assorted black pens and markers a liquid, but can
• tap water also be a solid or
• pencil a gas.
• paper clip or clothes peg
• filter paper
• dropper
• variety of liquid solvents (ammonia, surgical spirits, methylated
spirits, and nail polish remover)

Methods
To make a strip chromatogram:
1. Use a black pen or marker to draw a line across one end of the paper
strip, 2 cm from the end.
2. Pour tap water into the beaker to a depth of approximately 1 cm.
3. Wrap the unmarked end of the paper strip around the pencil and
secure it in place with a paper clip.
4. Before putting it into the glass, adjust the strip of paper so that the
height of the inked line is approximately 1 cm above the surface of
the liquid by holding it against the outside of the beaker.
5. Lower the strip into the glass and rest the pencil across the top of the
glass as shown in the diagram. The end of the strip should be in the
water, but the inked line should be above the surface of the water.
6. Allow the liquid to soak up into the paper, rising through the inked
line.
pencil
paper clip
2-cm-wide
strip of paper
inked line 1 cm
direction above surface
of migration of solvent
1 to 2 cm
of solvent
7. When the migrating pigments approach the top of the strip, near the
paper clip, remove the paper strip and allow it to dry on a flat, non-
porous surface.
8. Make a similar strip chromatogram for each of the black pens you
have collected.
9. Compare the chromatograms. Are they the same or are they
different?
10. When you have finished comparing your chromatogram with those
of the rest of the class, you can either stick your chromatogram in the
following space, or draw a picture of it in the space.
To make a circular chromatogram

1. Lay a large round piece of filter paper on a smooth non-absorbent
surface, like the surface of your desk, for instance.
2. Use one of the coloured pens to make a 0,5 to 1 cm ink spot in the
centre of the disk.
3. Lay the paper disk flat over the top of a beaker.
4. Place a drop of water in the centre of the ink spot.

5. Add another drop of water every minute or so to make the
chromatogram spread toward the edges of the paper disk.
drop solvent
in centre
0,5 to 1 cm
ink spot
filter paper
6. Repeat the experiment with one of the other solvents (ammonia,

alcohol or nail polish remover).
Observations
1. Do the two chromatograms look the same or different? If they look
different, and you have used the same pen, why do you think that is?
2. Which colour pigments were you able to observe?
3. Draw pictures of your chromatograms in the space in your books.
Conclusion
1. What can you conclude about the pigments that make up black ink?
ACTIVITY Chromatography
Instructions
Look at the picture of the chromatogram below.
Figure 6.15 An example of a strip chromatogram

1. Which colour pigment is moving up the paper at the fastest speed?
Why do you say so?
2. Which colour pigment is moving up the paper at the slowest speed?
3. Why are the different pigments carried at different speeds?
ACTIVITY Separating a complex mixture

Imagine you are a member of a team of scientists working together in a
laboratory. Your team has been given an important job. You have been given
a beaker that contains a mixture of substances to separate.
The mixture contains the following components:
• sand
• iron filings
• salt
• ethanol
• water.
Your job is to design a procedure for separating the mixture into its
individual components. How would you do that? Your procedure should be
summarised in the form of a flow chart.
Before you start, imagine what the mixture would look like. Draw a picture
of a clear container and the different contents in the mixture.
To help you design your procedure, here are a few guiding questions and a
template for your flow chart:
1. What is the physical state (solid, liquid or gas) of each of the components
in the mixture? Copy and complete the table below in your books.
Component State (solid liquid or Dissolved or

(substance) gas) undissolved?
2. Name the solids that will not dissolve in the mixture. These are the
undissolved solids.
3. Name the dissolved solids in the mixture.
4. What would be the best method for separating the undissolved solids
from the liquids in the mixture? Write the name of this method in the
block numbered 1 of the flowchart below.
5. Write the names of the undissolved solids in block 2 of the flowchart.
6. What remains after the undissolved solids have been removed from the
mixture? Write the names of these compounds in block 3.
7. How could we separate the undissolved solids?
Hint: Look at the flow chart for some ideas.
Write the name of this process in block 4.
8. Write the names of the two undissolved solids in blocks 6 and 7.

9. How could we separate the liquids from the dissolved solid? We could
evaporate them, but then they would be lost. What other option is
available if we want to separate the components in a solution? Write the
name of this process in block 5.
10. Which liquid would be distilled first?
Hint: W
hich liquid has the lowest boiling point?
Write the name of this liquid in block 8.
11. What remains in the solution when the first liquid is removed? Write the
names of these components in block 9.
12. How can we separate the liquid from the dissolved solid?
Hint: This process is the same as the one in block 7.
Write the name of the process in block 10.
13. Write the names of the final two components in blocks 11 and 12.
START
Undissolved 1 Liquids and

solids dissolved solids
2 3
4 5
Magnetic Non-magnetic Liquids and

solids solids Liquid dissolved solid
7 8 9 10
11
Dissolved
Liquids solid
12 13
6.3 Sorting and recycling materials

Over time, some of our things get old and break and we need to throw them
away. When we buy food or other items, the packaging used for wrapping
these items is also thrown away. But what does ‘away’ mean? Does it mean
these waste items just disappear? Where do you think our rubbish goes once
we ‘throw it away’?

ACTIVITY What happens when we throw things away?
Instructions
1. Work in groups of three to four.

2. In your group, spend 5 minutes discussing the posters and what you
think they mean.
3. Get the posters.
Questions
1. Write a paragraph to explain the messages on the posters. What do you

think they mean?
2. Do you think it is possible to stop throwing things away altogether?
3. Can you suggest ways to reduce the amount of trash that is thrown away
in your home?
ACTIVITY Conducting a survey on waste management
How is household waste managed by local authorities?

In some suburbs, recycling is actively encouraged and special transparent
recycling bags are provided for this purpose.
• Do you have recycling in your community?
• Is the recyclable waste collected from your home, or do you have to drop
it off at a container or a depot?
• Did you know that some people even make money selling recyclable
waste that they collect?
• Do you know which materials from household waste can be recycled?
• What are the four main categories?
Figure 6.16 Have you seen colourful bins similar to these Figure 6.17 If you ever need to dispose of objects such as
around your school or in shopping areas? They are for batteries and fluorescent light bulbs that contain harmful
recycling. substances, be sure to use the correct recycling bin.

Careers in chemistry
Do you know what chemists do? Let’s discover the possibilities of chemistry!
Chemists study various chemical elements and compounds, their properties
and how they react with each other. We will learn about elements and
compounds in the next unit. Chemists are also responsible for developing
new materials with specific properties; such as new medicines; innovative
materials for building buildings and other structures; materials that could be
used for making fuels from renewable sources and many others.
If you study chemistry after you have finished school, you can work as
a researcher, a laboratory technician, a science teacher and many other
important and stimulating jobs! Be curious and discover the possibilities!
Science can help us solve problems in the world around us.
ACTIVITY Careers research task
Instructions
1. Below is a list of different careers that all use chemistry in some way.
Have a look through the list and then select one that you find most
interesting.
Some careers involving chemistry:
−− Chemical education/teaching
−− Chemistry researcher
−− Environmental chemistry
−− Mining industry
−− Oil and petroleum industry
−− Pharmaceuticals and drug discovery
−− Space exploration
−− Waste management
Write down your descriptions of the career you are interested in.
2. Do an internet search to find out what the career involves.
3. Write a short description of this career. Find out what level of chemistry
you will need for this particular career.
4. There are many other careers besides the ones listed here which use
chemistry in some way, so if you know of something else which is not
listed here and it interests you, follow your curiosity and discover the
possibilities!

Summary
Key concepts
• A mixture consists of two or more components that have different physical properties.
• The components in a mixture are not chemically joined; they do not change their chemical
identities and they retain their physical properties as well.
• When we want to separate a mixture, we can use the differences in the physical properties
of the components of the mixture to separate the components from each other.
• Hand sorting is a suitable separation method for a mixture that contains a relatively small
number of large items.
• Sieving is a suitable separation method when the pieces to be separated are sized differently.
• Filtration is a good method for separating an undissolved solid from a liquid.
• Components with different magnetic properties can be separated using magnetic
separation.
• Evaporation is a suitable separation method for removing a liquid from a solid.
• Distillation is a suitable method for separating two liquids with different boiling points.
• Chromatography is a good method for separating coloured pigments from each other.
• Waste disposal should be managed in a responsible way so that the negative impact on the
environment is as small as possible.
• Metals, plastics, paper and glass can be recycled.
• Organic waste can be turned into compost.
• Responsible waste disposal is everyone’s responsibility, but it is usually managed by the
local authorities, who have systems for sorting and recycling waste.
• Poor waste management leads to negative consequences for humans, animals and the
environment. Some of these are:
−− pollution of the soil, water resources and the environment;
−− health hazards and the spread of disease;
−− blockage of sewers and drainage systems;
−− land wasted when it is used to dump or bury garbage (landfills); and
−− materials and other resources wasted when they could have been recycled.

Concept map
We looked at physical methods to separate mixtures and these are shown in the concept map.
Give an example of the types of mixtures you could separate using three of these methods.
What negative consequences does human waste have on the environment? Fill these in the
concept map.
base or chemicals
acid neutral many
of foods
in in household
chemicals
important group can be
classified
turns/remains
litmus such indicator tested Acids, bases distinguished human can
paper as using and neutrals by tongue taste
have
properties soaps
fruit juice in in
such bases such bicarbonate
vinegar
vinegar acids as of soda
as
tartaric include include
are neither bleach
acid
sour corrosive bitter corrosive
taste rough slippery
taste
feeling feeling
neutrals
Unit 6: Summary 131

Revision
1. Two important words have been left out of the following paragraph. The missing words are
chemical and physical. Rewrite the sentences and fill in the missing words in the paragraph by
placing each one in the correct position: The components in a mixture have not undergone any
changes. They still have the same properties they had before they were mixed. That is
why mixtures can be separated using methods. [1]
2. In the diagram below, iron filings and sulfur have been mixed. Write a short paragraph
(2 sentences) to explain how the mixture can be separated using magnetic separation. [2]
sulphur iron filings
magnet
iron + sulphur
3. A vacuum cleaner creates a suspension of dust in air as it sucks up the dust on the floor.
Clean air comes out of the vacuum cleaner. How does the vacuum cleaner separate the
dust from the air? [2]
4. Write a short paragraph (3 sentences) to explain how salt is produced from sea water. [3]
5. Choose the correct word to complete the sentence from the following list: colours; boiling
points; tastes. Write the word below. Suppose we want to separate two liquids using distillation
as the separation method. This will only be possible if the two liquids have different... [1]
6. The diagram below shows a strip chromatogram that is being prepared from a spot of black
ink. The strip on the left shows the chromatogram at the start of the experiment, the strip in
the middle shows the chromatogram halfway through the experiment, and the strip on the
right shows the chromatogram at the end of the experiment.
start intermediate finish
water
level
paper
strip
water
level
ink
spot
water
level
1 2 3

a) How many different pigments does the black ink consist of? Explain your answer. [1]
b) Which pigment is moving up the paper at the fastest speed? Arrange the pigments in
order of increasing speed of movement. [2]
7. The table below contains a list of mixtures. In the right hand column, next to each mixture,
write the best method for separating the mixture into its components in your exercise books. [8]
Mixture Separation method

Salt and water
Sand and iron filings
Sand and water
Colour pigments in ink
Stones and sand
Ethanol and water
Oranges and apples
Sugar and iron filings
8. Name the four classes of materials that can be recycled. [4]

9. Write a sentence to say how you would dispose of each of the following non-recyclable
materials: vegetable peels; old running shoes; expired medicine. [3]
Total [27 marks]

Acids, bases and neutral
7 substances
Key questions
• Which tastes can we sense with our tongues?
• How does our sense of taste ensure our survival?
• What are the unique properties of:
−− acids
−− bases?
−− neutral substances?
• Which household substances are (or contain):
−− acids
−− bases?
−− neutral substances?
How can we tell if something is an acid, a base or a neutral substance?

Keywords
What do you know about acids? Would you touch an acid? Have you ever
• flavour tasted an acid? Do you think it is possible to taste an acid without burning
• sense your tongue? What do you think it would feel like when an acid burned your
• taste buds
tongue?
• chemoreceptor
• savoury Before we talk more about acids, let us first examine the human tongue. It is
• instinct a most fascinating organ, and plays an important role in our sense of taste.
• tongue map
7.1 Tastes of substances
What is your favourite food? What do you like most about your favourite
food? You will probably say that you just LOVE the taste of it! The taste of
our favourite foods make us feel good. How do we taste our food?
Did you Look in the mirror, and stick out your tongue. Look for small, round bumps.
know? These are called papillae. Most of them contain taste buds. The taste buds are
very small structures which have sensitive hairs.
Insects have
the most highly
developed
sense of taste.
They have taste
organs on their
feet, antennae,
and mouth
parts.
Figure 6.1 We taste food with tiny structures on our tongues!

ACTIVITY Have a look at your own tongue
Did you
know?
Materials
We have more
• mirror than10 000
• pencil taste buds in
• sugar water our mouth.
• lemon juice You even have
taste buds on
Instructions Figure 6.2 Have you tasted a lemon before? the roof of your
mouth.
1. Look in the mirror at your tongue.
2. Stick it out as far you can and try to see the papillae. Are they larger in
some areas?
Take note
Close your eyes and imagine biting into
A flavour is a
a slice of lemon.
combination of
1. Can you describe the experience? tastes and smells.
2. What does the lemon taste like?
Sweet, sour, salty or bitter?
If you have sugar solution and lemon
bitter bitter
juice available in the class, taste these
different substances. See if you can
identify where on your tongue you taste sour sour
the two different tastes.
You can sense only four different tastes
salt salt
with your tongue.
sweet sweet
Figure 6.3 The tongue map
The four main tastes that are most common, are sweet, sour, salt and bitter.
These tastes combine to make up the different flavours of our foods.
Figure 6.4 How would you classify the taste Figure 6.5 Many people really enjoy the
of apples? Sweet or sour? Bitter? Perhaps a sour-salty taste of salt and vinegar chips!
combination?
There is a good reason for why we like certain tastes, but not others.
Unit 7: Acids, bases and neutral substances 135

Our sense of taste protects us
Take note Just as we like and seek out foods that taste good, our bodies have also been
When we programmed to avoid food with strong bitter or sour tastes. This helps to
want to say protect us against poisons, which often have a strong bitter taste. ‘Bitter’ is
something has also the basic taste that our tongues are most sensitive to. Spoiled food often
the properties tastes sour and it may also have a bad smell. Our instinct will be to avoid it,
of an acid, we which will protect us from becoming ill from ingesting the organisms that
use the adjective have spoiled the food.
‘acidic’. When
we want to say
something has
the properties of
a base, we use
the adjective
‘basic’.
Did you
know?
Almond nuts Figure 6.6 Sweet almonds, such as these, Figure 6.7 Cocoa beans come from cocoa
can be sweet are edible as they do not contain toxic pods. Chocolate is made from cocoa, but
or bitter, chemicals, unlike the wild bitter almonds. cocoa is very bitter. Lots of sugar is added to
chocolate to make it sweet.
depending
on the type
of tree they Soon the link between the tongue and chemical substances will become clear.
come from. The
sweet almonds 7.2 Properties of acids, bases and neutral
(which we eat) substances
do not contain
In the previous section you had to imagine what it would feel like if an acid
poisonous
burned your tongue. In the next section we are going to learn more about
chemicals. Bitter
acids. We will learn that they taste sour (and also why it is not a good idea to
almonds from
taste them!).
another tree
species contain We will also learn about other substances that have a special relationship
chemicals with acids. They are called bases. Finally, we will also learn about substances
which are toxic that are neither acids nor bases, but neutral substances.
to humans.
Acids
Do you know the names of any acids? Think about this as a class and make a
Did you list of all the acid names you have heard.
know?
There are many different acids. You may have already tasted an acid in class.
The word Was it the sugar water or the lemon juice?
acid comes
from the Latin
word ‘acidus’,
meaning ‘sour’.

Figure 6.8 Do you like sour sweets, such as sour worms? Figure 69 The juice of lemons is rich in ascorbic acid
The sour taste comes from fumaric acid. Fumaric acid is (vitamin C) and citric acid, which makes it taste sour.
a natural acid with a sour taste, that is often added to
foods.
Keywords
All acids taste sour. Does this mean that all acids
are safe to taste? Definitely NOT! Next, we will • corrosive
learn which acids should not be tasted under any • acid
circumstances. • chemical
formula
Laboratory acids • essential
• immune
Some acids are very dangerous and must be
system
handled carefully. These acids are corrosive. They
• ascorbic acid
can cause serious burns on your skin. Scientists • citric acid
always wear protective clothing when handling • formic acid
these acids. It would be very dangerous to taste
them. These acids are most often found and used
in laboratories and certain industrial processes. We
will refer to them as laboratory acids.
Figure 6.10 Concentrated
hydrochloric acid is very
corrosive and dangerous.
Figure 6.11 This scientist is handling an acid. Can you Figure 6.12 Look out for this label on bottles
see he is wearing protective clothing, gloves, and safety which contain corrosive substances, such as
glasses? strong acids.

Name of the acid Formula of the acid
Take note
Hydrochloric acid HCl
The chemical
Nitric acid HNO3
formula of a
substance tells us Sulfuric acid H2SO4
which elements
The above table contains the names and chemical formulae of the three most
it contains.
common laboratory acids. Even though you have not learnt how to write
chemical formulae yet, we have included them here. You should handle
containers with these formulae printed on them with care.
Did you There are many other laboratory acids that we have not listed. These are only
know? the most common ones.
You have a Other acids in the foods we eat are not dangerous. In fact, some are even
laboratory vital for our health and well-being. Let’s now have a look at acids that are safe
acid inside to handle.
your body?!
Your stomach Natural and household acids
contains Not all acids are dangerous. One such acid is called ascorbic acid, or
hydrochloric vitamin C. Vitamin C helps our immune system. Which foods contain
acid (HCl). vitamin C? Have a look at the pictures.
HCl helps
breakdown
the food for
digestion. Your
stomach has a
very mucous
lining which
helps protect it
from the strong
acid.
Figure 6.13 Kiwi fruit. Figure 6.14 Strawberries.
Did you
know?
Insects have
the most highly
developed
sense of taste.
They have taste
organs on their Figure 6.15 Broccoli. Figure 6.16 Bell peppers.
feet, antennae,
and mouth
parts.

We will call the acids that we find
in food natural acids. Many of these
natural acids are found in the kitchen.
For this reason they are also sometimes
called household acids.
One very well-known household acid
is acetic acid. Vinegar is a mixture of a
Figure 6.17 Spirit
small amount of acetic acid dissolved
vinegar and
in water. balsamic vinegar.
ACTIVITY Acids (True or false?)

Did you
Instructions know?
1. Let’s briefly revise some of the concepts we have learnt so far. Formic acid
2. Below are some statements. You need to state whether they are true or is what gives
false. If they are false, explain why. ants their sting
when they bite.
True or false? ‘Formic’ comes
from the Latin
1. We can sense three tastes with our tongues. word for ant,
2. Acids taste sour. ‘formica’.
3. If we want to know if something is an acid, we can just taste it.
4. All acids are dangerous.
5. Vinegar is a mixture of a small amount of acetic acid dissolved in water.
6. Laboratory acids must be Did you
handled with care and using know?
protective clothing.
Many fizzy
7. The symbol in the illustration
drinks contain
means you can wash your hands
carbonic acid.
using this substance.
8. Formic acid is commonly
referred to as Vitamin C.
9. Oranges are the food which
contain the highest amount of
ascorbic acid.
Do you think that it would be possible for acids to lose their strength? There
is one class of compounds that can make acids lose their strength. These
compounds are called bases.
Bases
Bases can neutralise acids and vice versa. What does it mean to neutralise
something?
Bases and acids have chemical properties that are the opposite of each other.
We can think of bases as the chemical opposite of acids.

As with acids, there are some bases that
Keywords
are extremely dangerous. The same hazard
• base symbol that is used to warn people of the
• neutral dangers of acids, is also used for these
substance bases. Strong bases react corrosively with
• neutralise other materials and can burn your skin.
• alkali They must be handled carefully and always
while wearing appropriate protective
clothing, such as lab coats, gloves and
safety glasses.
Take note Other bases are mild enough to be used
When an acid as cleaning materials in and around
and a base are the home. This does not mean that
mixed together they are completely harmless. It just
in the correct means that they have been mixed with
Figure 6.18 Sodium hydroxide
ratio, they will other substances so that they are not so is a strong base used in
neutralise each corrosive. laboratories.
other. This means
that the solution ACTIVITY Acids and bases in our homes
made up of the
acid and the 1. Bring samples of household cleaning substances (specify) page 24 CAPS.
base becomes Write their names and what they are used for.
something that 2. Next, your teacher will let you come up to feel different substances which
is neither an acid are either bases or acids. All of these substances are safe to touch. Take
nor a base, but note of how they feel between your fingers. Copy the table below in your
neutral. In the exercise books and fill in your observations.
process, both
the acid and the
base will lose
their unique
characteristics.
Figure 6.19 Some household products which are bases.
Substance How did it feel between Is it an acid or a base?

the fingers?

Questions
1. What can you conclude about how bases feel?

2. What can you conclude about how acids feel?
3. What did your teacher have to do to the dry washing powder before you
could feel it in the bowl? Do you know what we call the solution which
forms? If so, write it down; otherwise your teacher will help you.
4. Although we have spoken about acids and bases as being chemical
opposites, what property do many of them have in common?
Finally, there is a class of substances that are neither acids nor bases. They are Take note
called neutral substances. We will explore them next.
Bases that can
dissolve in water
Neutral substances are called alkalis.
We have learnt that when an acid and a base are mixed (in the right amounts), For this reason,
they will neutralise each other. That means that, together, they will change into the terms ‘base’
something that is neither an acid nor a base. So the acid will lose its properties and ‘alkali’ are
and so will the base, and the new substance that forms from the two substances sometimes
will be neither an acid nor a base. We call it a neutral substance. considered to
Some neutral substances are formed have the same
when an acid is mixed with a base and meaning. (Words
a neutralisation reaction occurs. Other that have the
substances are neutral to begin with. They same meaning
are not the product of a neutralisation are called
reaction. The neutral substances that are synonyms.)
the best known are: water, table salt, sugar
solution, and cooking oil.
We have learnt about three classes of
substances: acids, bases and neutral
substances. But, we cannot tell whether a
substance is an acid, a base, or a neutral
substance, just by looking at it. We know
that acids taste sour, but we have also
learnt that it is never a good idea to taste
chemicals. Figure 6.20 Cooking oil is a neutral substance.
Let’s imagine we have an unknown substance. It is colourless and looks just

like water. It is also odourless (that means it has no smell). There are no
physical signs to show whether it is acidic, basic, or neutral. How can we tell
what it is?
7.3 Acid-base indicators

Take note
What do the indicators on a car do?
To indicate
Acids and bases can change the colour of some substances. In the next
means to show.
activity, we are going to investigate a substance that changes colour when we
mix it with an acid or a base.

Some other substances also change colour when an acid or a base is added to
Keywords
them. By changing their colour, they show that they have reacted with an
• indicator acid or a base. That is why we call them acid-base indicators. The best known
• litmus acid-base indicator is a substance called litmus.
Figure 6.22 Blue and red litmus paper. Figure 6.1 Litmus comes from pigments in
the lichen which are found growing in many
different places, mostly on rocks.
Litmus solution is most commonly soaked into paper. The paper is then
dried and cut into strips we then call “litmus paper”. Litmus paper is available
in two colours: blue and red.
How does litmus paper indicate whether a substance is an acid or a base? In
the next activity, we will investigate how litmus responds to some household
acids and bases.
Investigation Classifying substances as acids or bases using

a litmus paper.
1. Test how litmus paper responds to acids and bases (given known
acids and bases).
2. Classifying household substances as acids or bases.
Aim
To determine how litmus responds to some household acids and bases.
Hypothesis
What is your hypothesis for this investigation?
• small containers (test tubes or yoghurt tubs) filled with the following
substances:
−− water
−− soda water
−− vinegar
−− lemon juice
−− sugar water (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of water)
−− baking soda (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of water)

−− Handy Andy (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of water)
−− aspirin (Disprin) (1 tablet in 2 tablespoons of water)
−− dishwashing liquid (1 teaspoon dissolved in a cup of water)
−− any other substances commonly used at home that are not
dangerous
• litmus paper (blue and red)
• glass or plastic rods (plastic teaspoons will also work well).
Method
1. Cut a small piece (1 cm long) of blue and red litmus for each
substance that you will be testing.
2. Use the plastic teaspoon or rod to place just 1 drop of water on the
blue litmus. Do the same with a piece of red litmus.
3. Did the blue litmus change colour? Did the red litmus change colour?
Write the new colours in your table, in the appropriate places.
4. Repeat the procedure to test all the substances you have been Did you
given. You must rinse the teaspoon or rod with water in between know?
substances. Litmus is a
5. Save all your test substances, because you will need them for another coloured
investigation later. substance that
Results and observations comes from the
pigments of a
Copy the table below in your exercise books and record your
living organism
observations. If you did not use some of these substances, cross them out
called lichen.
and write headings for your substances in the empty rows.
Pigments
are coloured
Substance Colour with blue litmus Colour with red litmus
substances
Water found in nature.
Soda water
Vinegar
Lemon juice
Sugar water
Baking soda
Handy Andy
Aspirin
Dishwashing liquid
Analysis
Let us now have a look at our observations to see what we can conclude.
1. How does the litmus paper indicate when a substance is an acid?
2. Which of the substances you tested are acids?
3. How does the litmus paper indicate when a substance is a base?

4. Which of the substances you tested are bases?
5. How would you describe a neutral substance?
6. How does the litmus paper indicate when a substance is neutral?
7. Which of the substances you tested were neutral?
8. Why do you think you had to rinse the glass rod or teaspoon in
between testing each substance?
Conclusion
Write a conclusion based on your results in response to the initial aim for
this investigation.
Extension: If you have time in class with your teacher, use your
knowledge of how litmus responds to acids and bases to test some of the
beverages that you drink every day. You can use litmus paper to indicate
whether beverages such as Ceylon tea, rooibos tea, orange juice, milk,
coffee, and fizzy drinks are acids, bases or neutrals. If you do so, record
your findings.

Summary
Key concepts
• Our tongues can sense four different flavours, namely, sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.
• Our sense of taste protects us from eating foods that are harmful and stimulates us to eat
foods that are nutritious and energy-rich.
• Acids and bases have different chemical properties.
• Though it is not a good idea to taste chemicals, acids have a sour taste and bases taste bitter.
• When they are in solution with water, acids feel rough and bases feel slippery.
• Some acids and bases are present in foods and in household items. These are relatively
safe to handle. Others are often very corrosive and should only be handled when you are
wearing protective clothing.
• Substances which are neither acidic nor basic, are called neutral substances.
• When an acid is mixed with a base in the right quantities, they neutralise each other. That
means they lose their power.
• Some substances change colour when they react with an acid or a base. These substances
are called acid-base indicators.
• Litmus is the best known of all acid-base indicators. It does not change colour in the
presence of a neutral substance, but responds to acids and bases in the following way:
−− litmus is red in the presence of an acid; and
−− litmus is blue in the presence of a base.
Unit 7: Summary 145

Concept map
The human tongue can taste four different main tastes. What are these? Copy and complete the
concept map below. Can you work out how to do this? You need to fill in the colour that litmus
turns (or remains) in each case, indicating either an acid or a base (or a neutral substance).
base or chemicals
acid neutral many
of foods
in in household
chemicals
important group can be
classified
turns/remains
litmus such indicator tested Acids, bases distinguished human can
paper as using and neutrals by tongue taste
have
properties soaps
fruit juice in in
such bases such bicarbonate
vinegar
vinegar acids as of soda
as
tartaric include include
are neither bleach
acid
sour corrosive bitter corrosive
taste rough slippery
taste
feeling feeling
neutrals

Revision
1. The box below is filled with ideas relating to acids and bases.
Words
• Sour taste • Feels rough • Formic acid
• Bitter taste • Vinegar • Bleach
• Tartaric acid • Soaps • Turns red litmus blue
• Bicarbonate of soda • Lemon juice • Turns blue litmus red
• Feels slippery • Citric acid • Corrosive
You must sort the words into two columns in a table. One column is labelled ‘Acids’ and
the other is labelled ‘Bases’. Write each idea inside the correct column. If an idea fits into
both columns, you must write it in both. [16]
2.
Words
• Indicator
• Sour
• Bitter
• Poisonous
• Corrosive
• Neutralise
• Sweet
• Neutral
• Litmus
• Salty
3. You must use the words to complete the sentences that follow. Write out the sentences
in full. Each word can be used only once. [11]
a) The best known of all acid-base indicators is called. ________
b) A substance that can eat away at other substances is called _________
c) Foods that are ___________ often taste bitter.
d) Some scientists believe the human tongue can taste 4 flavours. These flavours are ______,
_______, _______, and__________
e) An acid-base ___________ is a substance that changes colour when it reacts with an
acid or a base.
f) ___________ substances are neither acids nor bases.
g) An acid will ___________ a base (and vice versa).
4. Give an example of a strong acid and a strong base, commonly used in the laboratory. [2]
5. Write one or two sentences to explain what is meant by the term ’neutralise’. [2]
6. Write a short paragraph to explain how laboratory acids should be handled. Your paragraph
should contain the following words: corrosive; taste; clothes. [3]
7. How does our sense of taste warn us when food is not good to eat? [2]
Total [36 marks]

The Periodic Table of
8 Elements
Key questions
• What is an element?
• How can we classify the elements?
• Which table helps us to make sense of the patterns we observe in the properties of the
elements?
• How are elements arranged on the Periodic Table?
• What does the position of an element on the Periodic Table tell us about its expected
properties?
• What information can we use to represent the identity of an element?
• What are the typical properties of the
−− metals
−− non-metals
−− semi-metals?
People have been interested in science from the earliest times. Early man
discovered how to process natural ores into metals for ornaments, weapons
and tools. At least 3 000 years ago, ancient people were already using
embalming fluids (chemicals) obtained from plants to preserve the bodies of
dead people and animals!
Mankind has been studying and experimenting with materials to try to
understand matter for thousands of years. Scientists, especially, wanted
some understanding of all the different substances with which they were
working with.
Figure 8.1 An ancient Egyptian mummy that has been embalmed to preserve it.

Over time, many different elements were discovered by scientists all over
the world. These elements make up all the materials around us. But what
do we mean by the word ‘element’? An element is a pure substance which
cannot be broken down any further. We will find out more about elements
in this unit.
Over time, our knowledge about the

elements and their behaviour increased,
and scientists recognised the need to
organise this information. They began to
observe patterns and similarities in the
way some groups of elements behaved and
recorded these observations. Scientists
wanted some way to classify the elements
according to the properties that they were
observing.
Figure 8.2 Dmitri Mendeleev
The version of the Periodic Table that
we use today was first proposed by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev in 1872.
Mendeleev was a brilliant Russian scientist. While other scientists made
many contributions to the design of the Periodic Table, Mendeleev was
the one who first showed that the table could predict the existence and
properties of elements that were still undiscovered at the time.
Gruppo I. Gruppo II. Gruppo III. Gruppo IV. Gruppo VI. Gruppo VI. Gruppo VII. Gruppo VIII.
Reiben
__ __ __ RH4 RH³ RH³ RH __

R¹0 H¹0 R²0³ R0² R¹0³ R0³ R²07 R04
1 II = 1
2 Li = 7 Bo = 9,5 B = 11 C = 12 N = 14 O = 16 F = 19
3 Na = 23 Mg = 24 Al = 27,3 Si = 28 P = 31 S = 32 Cl = 35
4 K = 39 Ca = 40 __ = 44 Ti = 48 V = 51 S = 32 Cl = 35,5
5 (Cu = 63) Zn = 65 __= 68 __= 72 V = 51 Cr = 52 Mn = 55 F0 = 56, Co = 59

Ni = 59, Cu = 63
6 Rb = 85 Sr = 87 ?Yt = 88 Zr = 90 Nb = 94 Mo = 96 __= 100 Ru = 104, Rh = 104
Pd = 106, Ag = 108
7 (Ag = 108) Cd = 112 In = 113 Sn = 118 Sb = 122 Tc = 125 J= 127
8 Ca = 133 Ba = 137 ?Di = 138 ?Cc = 140 __ __ __
9 ( __ ) __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
10 __ __ ?Er = 178 ?Ln =180 Ta = 182 W = 184 __ Os = 195, Ir = 197
Pt = 198, Au = 199
11 (Au = 199) Hg = 200 T = 204 Pb = 207 Bi = 208 __ __
12 __ __ __ Th = 231 __ U = 240 __ __ __ __ __
Figure 8.3 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table from 1872.

Keywords
• element
8.1 Arrangement of elements on the Periodic Table • Periodic Table
• symbol (or
The Periodic Table is a classification system for the elements that make element
up the matter and materials in our world. Today, there are more than 100 symbol)
different elements known! Each element has its own name, symbol, atomic • atomic number
number and position on the Periodic Table.
Unit 8: The Periodic Table of Elements 149

Element names
What is your name? Perhaps it is Thando. Or David. Or Megan. Perhaps you
are lucky enough to be the only person in your class with that name. Perhaps
you are lucky enough to be the only person in the world with that name!
That would make your name unique.
Each element has a unique name. We can think of each name as a unique
‘label’ we can use to identify the element. There are two other unique labels
that we can use to identify elements. They are the chemical symbol and the
atomic number. We will learn more about these in the next section. Each
element has some of its own unique properties and later on we will see that
those with some similar properties can be grouped together.
GROUP
1
Periodic Table Of The Elements
18 0
1 2
PERIOD
1 H transition metal noble gas He

HYDROGEN 2 IIA number 13 IIIA 14 IVA 15 Va 16 VIA 17 VIIA HELIUM
3 4 metal lanthanide 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be metalloid actinide Element B C N O F Ne
LITHIUM BERYLLIUM name BORON CARBON NITROGEN OXYGEN FLYORINE NEON
11 12 non-metal 13 14 15 16 17 18
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
SODIUM MAGNESIUM 3 IIIB 4 IVB 5 VB 6 VIB 7 VIIB 8 VIII 9 VII 10 VII 11 IB 12 IIB ALUMINIUM SILICON PHOSPHORUS SULPHUR CHLORINE ARGON
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
POTASSIUM CALCIUM SCANDIUM TITANIUM VANADIUM CHROMIUM MANGANESE IRON COBOLT NICKEL COPPER ZINC GALLIUM GERMANIUM ARSENIC SELENIUM BROMINE KRYPTON
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
RUBIDIUM STRONTIUM YITRIUM ZIRCONIUM NIOBIUM MOLYBDENUM TECHNETIUM RUTHENIUM RHODIUM PALLADIUM SILVER CADMIUM INDIUM TIN ANTIMONY TELLURIUM IODINE XENON
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6
Cs Ba La-lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
CAESIUM BARIUM LANTHANIDE HAFNIUM TANTALUM TUNGSTEN RHENIUM OSMIUM IRIDIUM PLATINUM GOLD MERCURY THALLIUM LEAD BISMUTH POLONIUM ASTATINE RADON
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
FRANCIUM RADIUM ACTINIDE RUTHERFORDNIUM DUBNIUM SEABORGIUM BOHRIUM HASSIUM MEITNERIUM UNUNNILIUM UNUNUNIUM UNUNIUM UNUNTRIUM FLEROVIUM UNUNPENTIUM LIVERMORIUM UNUNSEPTIUM UNUNOCTIUM
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
LANTHANIUM CERIUM PRASEODYMIUM NEODYMIUM PROMETHIUM SAMARRIUM EUROPIUM GADOLINIUM TERBIUM DYSPROSIUM HOLMIUM ERBIUM THULIUM YTTERBIUM LUTETIUM
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
ACTINIUM THORIUM PROTACTINUM URANIUM NEPTUNIUM PLUTONIUM AMERICUM CURIUM BERKELIUM CALIFORNIUM EINSTEINIUM FERNIUM MENDELEVIUM NOBELIUM LAWRENCIUM
Figure 8.4 The Periodic Table of Elements as it is today.
Take note Chemical symbols

If you are a scientist and you work with elements every day, writing out the
There is a names can become very tedious. To make writing about elements easier,
bigger version scientists have given each element a short symbol. To make sure we do not
of the modern become confused with different elements when we write about them, the
Periodic Table of symbol for each element must be unique, just like its name is.
Elements on the
inside cover of
your workbook.
You can use it for
easy reference.

The names and symbols for some common elements are shown in the
following table. Did you
know?
Element Symbol Element Symbol
The symbol for
Aluminium Al Magnesium Mg lead (Pb) comes
Bromine Br Nitrogen N from ‘plumbum’,
the Latin word
Calcium Ca Oxygen O
for lead. For
Carbon C Phosphorus P many years,
Chlorine Cl Potassium K lead was used
Copper Cu Silicon Si to make water
pipes. This is
Gold Au Silver Ag
also where the
Hydrogen H Sodium Na word ‘plumber’
Iodine I Sulfur S comes from.
Iron Fe Tin Sn
Lead Pb Zinc Zn
Take note
The symbol for carbon is C, the symbol for sulfur is S, and the symbol for
nitrogen is N. It is easy to see why these symbols were chosen: they simply You do not need
represent the first letter of each name. This letter is always capitalised (upper to know about
case). the atom in
detail for now.
What happens when the different elements all start with the same letter? For We will learn
example: calcium, carbon, chlorine and copper all start with the letter ‘C’! To more about this
ensure that they all have a unique symbol, a second letter was added to their in Grade 8!
symbol. This letter is always a small letter (lower case).
Some chemical symbols are more difficult to understand. Na, for example,
is the symbol for sodium. The Na comes from the Latin name for sodium,
which is ‘natrium’. These symbols were chosen very long ago, when many
subjects were studied in Latin. Can you imagine how difficult that must have
been?!
Some simple rules to remember when using chemical symbols:
1. Every element has its own, unique symbol.
2. The symbol is usually (but not always) the first one or two letters of the
name of the element.
3. The first letter of the symbol is always a capital letter.
4. If the symbol has two letters, the second letter is always a small letter.
5. Some elements have symbols that come from their Latin names.
Atomic numbers
If you look at the Periodic Table, you will see that each element also has a
unique number. This is called the atomic number. To properly understand
what the atomic number is, we need to know what an atom is. We will learn
more about atoms in Grade 8, but for now, let’s briefly go back to our history
lesson!

The atomic number of an element refers to how many protons that element
Take note has in its atoms. Since each element has a different number of protons in its
atoms, each element also has a unique atomic number.
When things
show a regular, Have a look at the Periodic Table.
repeating • What is the atomic number of hydrogen?
pattern, we say • How many protons are there in its atoms?
they are periodic.
When the The spaces marked with blank lines represent elements that Mendeleev
elements were thought existed, but they were not yet discovered at the time, so he left places
arranged in order for them.
of increasing Can you see how the elements are arranged so that their atomic numbers
mass, Mendeleev increase from left to right across the Periodic Table? This is not a coincidence!
observed a
pattern in their When Mendeleev first created the Periodic Table, he arranged the 60
properties, elements that he knew of at the time in order of increasing mass. He
which allowed then saw that there was a regular pattern in other characteristics of these
him to arrange elements. Mendeleev then grouped them into columns and rows according
the elements to their properties. These were physical and chemical properties which the
into rows and scientists had observed from doing many different experiments. This resulted
columns in in the arrangement of the elements on the Periodic Table.
a table, the
The Periodic Table that we use today looks a lot more modern than
Periodic Table.
Mendeleev’s original version. You will notice that there are no empty blocks
Elements in
in the modern version of the table. That tells us that all the elements that
the same rows
were still undiscovered in Mendeleev’s lifetime, are now known.
and columns in
the table, have In the next activity, we will compare Mendeleev’s original Periodic Table
similar properties with the version that we use today. This will help to show us how scientific
to each other. discovery is sometimes a slow process.
ACTIVITY Periodic Table treasure hunt

Your job is to follow the clues, in order to find the treasure. The instructions
will help you to spell out the name of the treasure in the blocks below.
1. Clue 1: What is the symbol for carbon (atomic number 6)? Write this
symbol in the first block above.
2. Clue 2: Hydrogen is the lightest element. Can you find it on the Periodic
Table? Write its symbol in the second block.
3. Clue 3: Which element represents the gas that we breathe to stay alive?
Here is a hint: It is represented by atomic number 8. Write its symbol in
the third block and give the name of the element below.
4. Clue 4: This element is in the fourth row and the ninth column of the
Periodic Table. It is a metal that is used in magnets. Write its symbol in
the fourth block. Do you know its name? Write its name below.

5. Clue 5: This element is represented by atomic number 57. Write its
symbol in the fifth block. See if you can find out the name of this Take note
element and write it down below.
In Life and Living,
6. Clue 6: This element is represented by atomic number 52. It is a semi-
we looked at the
metal that is used in the manufacture of solar panels. Write its symbol
classification of
in the last (sixth) block. See if you can find out the name of this element
living organisms
and write it down below.
in our world.
7. What is the ‘treasure’ that you have found?
Now in Matter
Complete the following table to see how many of the names and symbols and Materials, we
of the elements you remember. Try to do this without referring to the are looking at
Periodic Table. the classification
system for
Element Symbol Element l Symbol elements!
Al Mg
Bromine N
Calcium Oxygen
C Phosphorus
Cl K
Copper Si
Au Silver
H Na
Iodine Sulfur
Fe Tin
Lead Zn
8.2 Properties of metals, semi-metals and

non-metals
The Periodic Table is an amazing tool! Did you know that the position of an
element on the Periodic Table can tell a scientist what properties the element
can be expected to have? This is because the elements have not just been
arranged randomly! Rather, they are grouped and arranged according to
similar properties. Let’s find out what this means.
ACTIVITY What do some of the elements look like?

1. Your teacher will guide you through this activity. You will either look at Keywords
real samples of some of the elements, or else refer to the photos below of
• semi-metal
some of the elements. • semi-
2. Identify the different elements and find their place on the Periodic Table. conductor
Copy the blank Periodic Table from the next page into your exercise
books. Either stick the real samples or their photos onto their correct
spaces on the Periodic Table.

3. Look at what the different elements look like and see if you can identify
Did you any similar properties. The questions at the end will help guide you
know? through this.
The Periodic Here are some photos of the different elements:
Table is made
up of more than
100 elements,
but only 90 of
the elements
occur in nature.
The rest have
been made by
man. Figure 8.5 Aluminium foil Figure 8.6 Carbon (graphite) Figure 8.7 Iron
Figure 8.8 Copper Figure 8.9 Magnesium Figure 8.10 Sulfur
Figure 8.11 Bromine in tube Figure 8.12 Chlorine gas Figure 8.13 Calcium crystal
Figure 8.14 Phosphorus Figure 8.15 Potassium Figure 8.16 Nitrogen gas

Blank Periodic Table:
After completing this activity, answer these questions.
Questions
1. How would you describe the elements that are mostly on the left side of Did you
the Periodic Table? know?
2. How would you describe the elements that are mostly on the right side
of the Periodic Table? Francium (Fr)
is the rarest
element on
You probably saw from the previous activity that there is a difference in the Earth. Only 20
elements on the left and right of the Periodic Table. Were you able to identify to 30 g exists at
what these elements are classified as? You have learnt about them before in any one time on
previous grades. They are metals and non-metals. Earth in nature!
Let’s do a quick revision of what we have already learnt about metals and
non-metals in previous grades.
The properties of metals and non-metals

Metals and non-metals have distinct properties. That means their properties
are unique and different from each other. Can you remember what the
unique properties of metals and non-metals are? The next activity will
refresh your memory.
ACTIVITY B
litz revision of the properties of metals and
non-metals
Here is a block with different properties of metals and non-metals in it. They
have been jumbled and are not sorted. You need to decide whether these
properties describe metals or non-metals and sort them into the columns
in a table. Make sure that all the properties in the block are in your table. If
you can think of properties that are not listed in the block, you may also add
them to the table.

Do the activity as quickly (but also as neatly) as you can, and time yourself!
Properties
• shiny • conducts heat
• lustrous • usually a solid
• dull • can be solid/liquid/gas
• brittle • electrical insulator
• malleable • thermal insulator
• ductile • (other)
• conducts electricity
Most elements fall into one of these two categories: metals and non-metals.
We use the properties of an element to categorise it as a metal or a non-
metal.
Think of chromium, for example, which is shiny (lustrous), bends easily
(malleable) and conducts heat and electricity well.
1. What are the properties of chromium?
2. Based on these properties, would you categorise chromium as a metal or
a non-metal?
3. Can you find chromium on the Periodic Table?
Hint: It may help to find its symbol first. What is its atomic number?
A piece of chromium.
Now think of sulfur.

Sulfur is usually a dull, yellow powder.
It does not conduct electricity or heat well, and large crystals of sulfur break
easily when they are dropped.
1. What are the properties of sulfur?
2. Based on these properties, would you categorise sulfur as a metal or a
non-metal?
3. Can you find sulfur on the Periodic Table?
Hint: It may help to find its symbol first. What is its atomic number?

Figure 8.5 Sulfur crystals forming on a rock wall inside a volcano.
We have now looked at the properties of metals and non-metals. But, when
scientists were doing their experiments to observe the properties of the
elements, they sometimes found some elements which were difficult to
classify as either a metal or a non-metal.
The properties of semi-metals

Some elements are not quite metals, but they are not quite non-metals either.
They just don’t fit into either category! Does this sound strange to you? Let us
explore.
ACTIVITY Classifying element X

Pretend that you are a member of a team of scientists that has just discovered
a new element. The element has not been named yet, so it is simply referred
to as ‘element X’.
The team has a sufficient amount of element X to make several disks of
the material. They create a file about element X. In the file, they place the
following picture of one of the disks.
Figure 8.6 A disk of
Look carefully at the picture. How would you describe the appearance of element X.
element X?
The team performs experiments on element X and adds the following data to
the file:
1. In an attempt to bend a disk of element X, the disk shattered, like glass.
The same result was observed when a second disk was dropped from
a height.
2. The material is found to be a poor conductor of heat and electricity
at room temperature. Element X was then cooled down significantly
by placing it in a freezer. At very low temperatures, it becomes a good
conductor of electricity.

Fill out the following checklist for element X by placing crosses next to each
property that was observed.
Metallic properties YES NO

Is the material shiny (lustrous)?
Is the material malleable and ductile?
Does the material conduct electricity at room

temperature?
Does the material conduct heat?
Non-metallic properties YES NO
Is the material brittle?
Does the material have a dull appearance?
Is the material an insulator?
Additional comments (what else did you observe?):
Questions
1. Which of the properties of element X are typical of metals?
2. Which of the properties of element X are typical of non-metals?
3. Would you classify element X as a metal or a non-metal?
Names and symbols of the semi-metals

Take note
Name Chemical symbol Atomic number
Room
Boron B 5
temperature is
25 ˚C. Silicon Si 14
Germanium Ge 32
Arsenic As 33
Antimony Sb 51
Tellurium Te 52
Polonium Po 84
Now that we have looked at some of the elements and where they are found
on the Periodic Table, you might have already recognised that there is a
trend in where the metals, semi-metals and non-metals are positioned on the
Periodic Table. We are now going to do a colouring activity to see where on
the Periodic Table we will find each of the categories of elements.

ACTIVITY The regions of the Periodic Table
We are going to colour areas on the following version of the Periodic Table.
This will help us identify the regions on the table where the metals, non-
metals and semi-metals are located.
Questions
For this activity you will need coloured pencils or kokis or crayons in the
following colours:
• Blue
• Yellow
• Red
Instructions Take note

1. Semi-metals: Find all the semi-metals on the Periodic Table. You will The semi-
need to consult the table (names and symbols of the semi-metals) to metals are also
help you remember which elements are semi-metals. Colour the block sometimes
representing each of the semi-metals yellow. referred to as
2. Metals: Colour all the blocks to the left of the semi-metals blue. Do not metalloids.
colour hydrogen (H), as it is not strictly a metal. All these elements are
metals.
3. Non-metals: Colour all the blocks to the right of the semi-metals red.
All these elements are non-metals. Now you can also colour hydrogen
(H) red. On most versions of the Periodic Table hydrogen is placed with
the metals, even though it has physical properties similar to those of
the non-metals (it is a gas at room temperature). Hydrogen is placed
with the metals, because it tends to behave like the other members of its
column in chemical reactions.
Now answer the following questions, using your colourful Periodic Table.

Did you Questions
know? 1. Which category contains the most (biggest number of) elements: metals,
Stainless steel non-metals or semi-metals?
is an alloy, 2. Which category contains the least (smallest number of) elements:
meaning it metals, non-metals or semi-metals?
is made up 3. State which category of material (metal, non-metal or semi-metal) each
of a mixture of the following elements belongs to:
of elements, Element Chemical symbol Category: (Metal, non-
including metal or semi-metal?)
iron, carbon,
Iron Fe
chromium, and
nickel. Silicon Si
Fluorine F
Titanium Ti
Nitrogen N
We have learnt that the Periodic Table can be divided into regions where
metals, non-metals and semi-metals can be found. This is useful information
because the elements in different regions share similar properties. Their
properties help us to decide what we can use them for. For example, metals
are durable, malleable and shiny so they are suitable for making jewellery,
pots and pans and motor car parts.
Let’s look at some more examples. Where can we find all these elements in
the real world? Where do they occur, and what are they used for?
We all know that oxygen (O) is one of the elements in the air we breathe. Rings
and other jewellery are often made of gold (Au), silver (Ag) or platinum (Pt).
But what do we know about calcium (Ca)? And what is nickel (N) used for?
ACTIVITY Uses of the elements

1. How are properties of metals useful to us when making coins?
Figure 8.7 Our South African coins

are made from various metals and
mixtures of metals, such as copper,
nickel, and stainless steel.

2. Why do you think we make jewellery out of the metals gold, silver and
platinum, and not, for example, out of a non-metal such as sulfur?
Figure 8.8 What are the properties of these metals?
Jewellery is made from metals such as gold, silver and platinum.

3. Why do you think these electrical wires are made out of copper? What
property of copper is useful in this situation?
Figure 8.9 These electrical wires are made out of copper.
4. Do you think you could make electrical wires out of a non-metal such as
bromine or phosphorus? Why or why not?

Uses of non-metals in everyday life
What do we use some of the non-metals for? We use carbon (coal) as a
fuel, we use chlorine as a disinfectant to purify water, iodine is used as an
antiseptic for wounds, and helium is used to fill balloons. Arsenic, a semi-
metal, is poisonous and is therefore used as a pesticide for insects, bacteria
and fungi. Another semi-metal, antimony, is used to make an alloy with lead
which is very hard and has many applications. As you can see, the elements
have many uses all around us!
In the final activity of this unit, we will explore some of the uses of the
elements in more detail.
ACTIVITY Uses of the elements

Your teacher will divide the class into small groups. Your group must choose
one element from the Periodic Table (if you are unsure, your teacher will
help you choose) and research the following questions about this element:
1. Where is this element found?
2. What do we use this element for?
3. What are some of the properties of the element?
Your group must make a poster to present all the information you found
about your element.

Summary
Key concepts
• All the elements that are known, can be arranged in a table called the Periodic Table.
• The discoveries of many scientists over many years contributed to the information in the
Periodic Table, but the version of the table that we use today was originally proposed by
Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1800s.
• Each element has a fixed position on the Periodic Table. The elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number, with the lightest element (hydrogen: H) in the top left-hand corner.
• An element’s position on the Periodic Table tells us whether it is a metal, a non-metal or a
semi-metal:
−− metals are found on the left hand side of the table;
−− non-metals are found on the far right hand side of the table; and
−− semi-metals are found in the region between the metals and non-metals.
• An element can be identified in 3 different ways:
−− each element has a unique name;
−− each element has a unique chemical symbol; and
−− each element has a unique atomic number.
• Metals are usually shiny, ductile and malleable. Most are solids at room temperature, and
have high melting and boiling points.
• Non-metals can be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature. They have a great variety of
properties that usually depend on the state they are in.
• The semi-metals are all solids at room temperature. They usually have a combination of
metallic and non-metallic properties.
Concept map
We learnt that the elements in the Periodic Table fall into three main categories. What are
these? Copy and complete the concept map by looking at the concepts that come after each
category.
in 1860s in Dmitri Mendeleev properties
devised by according to of
Periodic Table is
classification
for elements in the world
of Elements system
three main categories are
pure substances
properties in in on
solids, shiny, ductile,

malleable, high melting region solid or gas,
left between right variety of properties
and boiling points
Unit 8: Summary 163

Revision
1. What information can we tell from an element’s position in the Periodic Table?
In other words: [2]
a) What does it tell us when an element occurs on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table?
b) What does it tell us when an atom occurs on the right-hand side of the Periodic Table?
2. There are 3 unique ‘labels’ that can be used to identify an element. The first is its name.
What are the other two? [2]
3. What is the relationship between the atomic number of an element and its place on the
Periodic Table? [1]
4. Which element has the lowest atomic number? Write both its name and its symbol. [2]
5. Extension question: What does the atomic number of hydrogen tell us about it? [1]
6. Write the chemical symbols of all the elements that are in the same column as the
element with the atomic number 9. (Note: The columns on the Periodic Table are
called Groups.) [2]
7. The following table contains some names of elements. There is also a box of chemical
symbols. You should place the chemical symbols in the right hand column of the table
so that they match the names in the left hand column. [8]
Names of elements Chemical symbols Chemical symbols•

Sulfur C
Carbon Na
Nitrogen Si
Sodium N
Oxygen He
Silicon Cl
Chlorine S
Helium O
8. Write a short paragraph to explain what a semi-metal is. Also give an example of one
semi-metal and say where in the Periodic Table the semi-metals can be found. [3]
9. Name two properties of metals and two properties of non-metals. [4]
Total [25 marks]

Glossary 2
abundant when something exists, or is constant a variable, or physical quantity, that is
available, in large quantities; plentiful constant or does not change over time
acid a substance which is corrosive, has a sour contract (verb) the physical size of an object
taste and feels rough (grippy) between your gets smaller
fingers corrosive a corrosive substance damages (‘eats
alkali a base that is dissolved in water away’) other materials by chemical action
alloy a mixture of two or more metals (stainless (the related verb is corrode)
steel is an example of an alloy)
altitude the height of a place above sea level; dependent variable a dependent variable is one
places that are inland, or on mountains, are that we do not directly choose values for, but
said to be at a higher altitude than places on can measure only as we go along
the coast disperse to spread evenly throughout
ascorbic acid a natural acid that occurs in distillation a technique for separating the
some fruits and vegetables; also known as components of a liquid solution through
Vitamin C evaporation and condensation
atomic number a unique number that ductile the property of a material that allows it
represents a given element and shows its to be pulled and stretched out into thin wires
position on the Periodic Table durable a material that is durable can last for a
long time without breaking down
base a substance that can also be corrosive, has
a bitter taste, and feels slippery between your element a pure substance which cannot be
fingers broken down further
boiling point the temperature at which a emulsion a mixture of two or more liquids that
particular material changes from the liquid to usually do not mix, such as tiny oil droplets
the gas state (boils) in water
environmental concerns worries about the
chemical formula a representation of chemicals negative effects on habitats and ecosystems
using symbols that tell us which elements a in our environment, caused by humans and
compound contains and in what ratio their activities
chemoreceptor a sensory nerve cell or sense essential necessary and important; required
organ that detects chemical signals evaporation the process of changing a liquid to
chromatogram the pattern formed on the a gas
paper by the components separated by expand (verb) the physical size of an object
chromatography gets bigger
chromatography a process in which a
mixture carried by a liquid is separated into filtrate the liquid that has passed through a
components filter is called the filtrate
citric acid a natural acid that occurs in citrus filtration the process of passing something
fruit through a filter
clear transparent; see-through flavour the taste and smell of food in the mouth
concern (noun) something that you are flexible a material that is flexible will change
worried about shape easily without breaking when it is bent,
condensation the process of changing a gas to and will return to its original shape when it is
a liquid released
condense when particles come together; to formic acid a natural acid found inside the
change from the gaseous state to the liquid bodies of some ant species
state grain a very small piece of something
Glossary: The Periodic Table of Elements 165

heat is the transfer of energy, from a hotter property a distinctive attribute, characteristic
object to a colder object or quality (of a certain material)
immune system the biological system inside residue the substances that are left behind in
our bodies that protects us from disease and the filter after filtering
infection
impact to have an effect on something else savoury refers to salty or spicy food (not sweet)
independent variable an independent semi-conductor a material that conducts
variable is one whose values we can choose electricity only under special conditions, for
(manipulate); we still have to be able to instance at very low temperatures
measure it semi-metal an element that has properties of
indicator a substance that changes colour in both metals and non-metals
the presence of another substance, showing sense to become aware of something
that that substance is present (specifically through our sense organs, for
instinct a natural or inborn way of responding example, by smelling tasting, feeling, hearing
to something or seeing something)
sieve a device with small holes through which
litmus a well known acid-base indicator that finer particles of a mixture may be passed to
turns red when mixed with an acid and blue separate them from coarser ones
when mixed with a base solute the substance that is dissolved in a
solvent to make a solution, for example sugar
magnetic a property of some materials that (solute) dissolved in water (solvent)
allows them to be attracted to a magnet solution when a solid, liquid or gas dissolves
malleable the property of a material that allows in a liquid, we call the resulting mixture a
it to be shaped by flattening with a hammer solution; a mixture that has no cloudiness
or squeezing it between rollers solvent the substance that the solute is
melting point the temperature beyond which a dissolved in to make a solution
particular material changes from the solid to soot and ash small particles of burnt material
the liquid state (melts) that are the solid components in smoke
mixture matter consisting of two or more still the apparatus used for distillation
components (substances) that retain their suspension a mixture in which the tiny clumps
own properties and pieces are mixed in a liquid but they are
moulding a process that involves melting a undissolved; all suspensions are milky/cloudy
substance and then pouring it into a specially in appearance
shaped hollow container (mould) that will symbol (or element symbol) a unique letter (or
give it that particular shape when it cools letters) that represents a given element
down and returns to the solid state; clay can
also be moulded taste buds taste buds are very small structures
contained within papillae on the surface of
neutral substance a substance that is neither the tongue responsible for taste
acidic nor basic temperature a measurement of how hot or cold
neutralise to make something chemically something is
neutral thermometer a device for measuring the
opaque something that we cannot see temperature of an object or a material
through is opaque; opaque is the opposite of tongue map a map of the human tongue,
transparent showing which areas on the tongue are
sensitive to which flavours; some scientists
Periodic Table a table in which the chemical do not believe that the ‘tongue map’ is
elements are arranged in order of increasing accurate
atomic number
pigment a substance that gives colour to other
materials

STRAND
Energy and Change

Renewable and non-
9 renewable energy
Key questions
• Why do we need energy?
• What do we mean by renewable and non-renewable energy sources?
• Why should we use non-renewable energy sources?
• What are fossil fuels?
Keywords
9.1 Renewable and non-renewable energy
All living things need energy. We learnt in Life and Living that energy is
• decompose one of the requirements for life. However, it is not only living things which
• renewable need energy to move and carry out various processes. The machines and
• non-renewable appliances in our world around us also need energy to do work. Where does
the energy come from?
Many substances and organisms store energy which can then be used. We
call them energy sources. Energy sources have energy that is stored within
them and can be used to make something happen, for example, energy
stored in petrol can be used to make a car go. In Grade 6 you learnt about the
two main sources of energy: renewable and non-renewable sources. Do you
remember what these terms mean?
Renewable sources are ones which can be recycled or reused. Non-renewable
sources cannot be reused, so there is a limited amount available. When that
Take note runs out there will be none left. Let’s do a quick revision to see how much
Uranium is the you remember from Grade 6.
source of energy
for nuclear Activity Classify sources of energy
power stations
1. Study the following images which show different sources of energy.
2. Use the images to answer the questions that follow.
Figure 9.1 Natural gas – gas burning Figure 9.2 Oil – An oil rig sinks a drill Figure 9.3 Sunlight – The Sun is a
on a stove top. into the ocean floor to reach the oil source of energy.
deposits.
168 STRAND Energy and Change

Figure 9.4 Biofuel – Manure Figure 9.5 Wood Figure 9.6 Coal – A coal mine.
decomposes to produce methane gas.
Figure 9.7 Wind – Wind turns this Figure 9.8 Uranium – Mining for Figure 9.9 Hydropower – A large
windmill. uranium underground. hydroelectric power station.
Questions
1. Draw a table in your books to classify the energy sources in the images Keywords
as either renewable or non-renewable. Give your table a heading.
• consistent
2. What do we mean when we say that something is renewable or non- reservoir
•
renewable? Explain this in your own words • nuclear
3. Why do you think we mostly use non-renewable energy sources? • hydropower
• hydrocarbon
• biofuel
Let’s now have a closer look at some of the most common sources of energy.
• methane
• fossil lfuel
Non-renewable sources • greenhouse
The non-renewable energy sources most commonly used in our world today gases
are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are the non-renewable sources, oil, coal and
natural gas. Why do you think they are called fossil fuels?
Fossil fuels
Where do we most often see fossil fuels in our everyday lives? Look at the
following images for a clue.
Figure 9.10 Putting
petrol into a car
at a petrol station.
Petrol is made from
crude oil.
Figure 9.11 Coal is used in most of our

power stations in South Africa.
Unit 9: Renewable and non-renewable energy 169

Petrol and diesel are used mainly as fuel for cars, trucks and motorbikes.
They are produced from crude oil, which is a fossil fuel formed from the
remains of dead prehistoric animals. Crude oil contains a lot of energy which
can be used. Crude oil is a non-renewable energy source because it takes
millions of years to produce crude oil and so we cannot produce more when
the existing reserves are finished.
Coal is most commonly used as a source of energy by power stations to
generate electricity. We will learn more about this later in the term. Coal can
also be burned in fires to keep warm or in coal
stoves to cook our food.
Natural gas is the common name used to
describe a mixture of gases. Natural gas is found
in deep underground rock formations and
usually with other fossil fuels, such as oil and
coal. The biggest part of the gas mixture is a gas
called methane. Methane is a gas which burns
easily and releases a lot of energy when it is
Figure 9.12 Natural gas has to be reached in underground burnt. Natural gas is used for cooking, heating
reservoirs by drilling down wells such as these. and producing electricity.
When talking about the methane component of natural gas, we are talking
Did you about non-renewable resources. Gas formed over thousands of years as
know? organic matter decayed and the gas became trapped in wells which we
now mine. However, as we will see later, methane can also be considered
Coal comes a renewable resource. This is when methane is produced from degrading
from the Old organic matter, such as animal waste, with the help of microorganisms.
English term
’col’, from the Non-renewable energy sources play a huge role in our lives and the way
13th century our world works today. However, there are some major concerns about our
which meant reliance on non-renewable energy sources. Firstly, there is only a limited
‘mineral supply, so these energy sources will run out one day. We will then need to
consisting find alternative energy sources. Currently alternative energy sources are
of fossilised being explored, and used in a small scale in some places.
carbon’.
For Enrichment
Another major disadvantage of burning of fossil fuels is that it releases
greenhouse gases into our atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are present
in our atmosphere and help to control the Earth’s temperature. The Sun’s
radiation enters Earth’s atmosphere. Some of the radiation is reflected by
the atmosphere and Earth’s surface. Most of the solar radiation is absorbed
by the Earth’s surface and converted to heat to warm the Earth. The Earth’s
surface emits heat. Some heat escapes into space, but most is absorbed and
re-emitted by the greenhouse gases to warm the atmosphere and Earth’s
surface further. This natural process is called the greenhouse effect.
Do you know what an actual greenhouse is? It is normally a house made
of glass, used to grow plants in. The glass also traps the Sun’s energy and
keeps the internal environment warm enough for the plants to grow. This
has the same effect as the gases in the atmosphere.

Sun
Incoming solar Some heat passes

radiation out into Space.
Reflection
(Some of the incoming radiation
is reflected by Earth's surface and the Most heat is absorbed
atmosphere back out to Space.) and re-emitted by
Absorption
greenhouse gas molecules,
causing further warming.
(Most radiation is absorbed
by the Earth's surface and
warms it.)
Earth
But, our use of fossil fuels has released even more greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide. There is now an excess of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. This reduces the amount of heat which escapes into Space and
traps more heat within the Earth’s atmosphere than before. This is causing
the temperature of the atmosphere to rise, known as global warming.
Figure 9.13 A glass greenhouse traps the Sun’s energy and provides a warm
environment for the plants, just as the greenhouse gases in our atmosphere do.
Find out what else, besides burning fossil fuels, is contributing to an Take note
increase in greenhouse gases, and write it in your exercise book.
When nuclei are
Nuclear fuels broken apart, it
Energy can be produced by nuclear reactions. Do you remember that we spoke is called nuclear
about the atom last term in Matter and Materials? Within the atom, the nucleus fission. When
is held together by very strong forces. When the nucleus is broken apart, a huge two nuclei
amount of energy is released. This energy can be used in nuclear power plants combine to form
to generate electricity. Two different nuclei can also collide at very high speeds one nucleus, it
to form a new atomic nucleus. The energy released is also used in nuclear is called nuclear
power plants, but on a smaller scale than when nuclei are broken apart. fusion.

Did you Some materials are better to use than others as nuclear fuels. One such
know? substance is uranium. Uranium is an element. Find it on the Periodic
Table and write its symbol and atomic number below.
5% of South
Africa’s There is limited supply of uranium in the world, which is why we classify
electricity is it as a non-renewable source. But there is enough uranium for nuclear
generated using energy to be used for a very long time because you need only small
nuclear fuels. amounts to produce lots of electricity. Therefore, many people see nuclear
fuels as an alternative to fossil fuels. But there is a huge debate about this,
and many people also disagree about the use of nuclear fuels. Let’s find
out why.
ACTIVITY Nuclear fuels - a debate
Figure 9.14 This is the Instructions

international symbol
for radioactivity. 1. You will need to do some research and extra reading to answer these
questions.
2. Then you will have a class discussion about the topic.
Did you
Questions
know?
1. What are some of the advantages of using nuclear fuels instead of fossil
There is only
fuels? Write down your findings below and then add to them when you
one nuclear
have a class discussion.
power station in
2. Find out why many people, especially environmental activists, are
South Africa. It
opposed to nuclear power. In other words, what are the disadvantages?
is the Koeberg
3. Although there are many disadvantages to nuclear fuels and power
power station
plants, many environmentalists and other people are now starting
near Cape Town.
to change their minds and think that the advantages outweigh the
The majority
disadvantages. This is happening as concern about climate change
of the power
is increasing. Some people think that nuclear fuel is a more realistic
stations in South
alternative to fossil fuels than renewable energy sources, such as solar
Africa are coal-
and wind power, which will not provide us with the energy to replace
powered and
coal and oil. What do you think? Which side of the debate do you
some others use
support? Discuss this with your class and then write down your thoughts
hydropower,
below.
for example
the Gariep
Hydroelectric Renewable sources
Plant on the Let’s now take a closer look at some of the renewable energy sources that we
Orange River have mentioned so far. Wind is moving air and it can be used as a source of
near the Gariep energy. The energy from moving air particles is used to turn large turbines.
Dam. The turbines are connected to a generator which produces electrical energy.

Figure 9.15 Wind turbines use wind to generate electricity.
You need a steady, strong wind blowing in order to produce a large,

consistent amount of electricity. This means that wind farms cannot be put
up in areas where there is not a lot of wind. Wind farms are noisy and many
people do not like the look of them.
Water can also be used as an energy source. This is called hydropower. The
energy from falling water is used to drive turbines in a power station. Unlike
coal power stations, the water does not need to be heated and the water can
be reused. These power stations must be at waterfalls or dams because there
needs to be a strong flow of water to harness the energy.
Figure 9.16 Hydropower – A large hydroelectric power station.
Explain why you think we can classify wind and hydropower as renewable
energy sources.
There is a lot of energy in sunlight. Solar panels are used to absorb the
radiant energy from the Sun and to transform the energy from the Sun
into stored potential energy. The Sun is a star, and the lifetime of a star is
measured in billions of years. This means that our Sun can provide energy to
the Earth for millions of years to come. Sunlight is considered a renewable
energy source because it will not run out in the foreseeable future.
Take note
You will learn
more about
the Sun and its
relationship to
the Earth later in
the year.
Figure 9.17 Solar panels on a rooftop.
A biofuel is any fuel which is produced from plant or animal waste. Methane
can be produced by decomposing plants and animal waste. This is useful
for farms as they can produce enough methane gas to help run their farms.
The most common biofuels are made from maize, sugarcane and sorghum.
The biofuels that are made can be used in vehicles or heating and cooling
systems.
ACTIVITY A case study on biofuels
Instructions
Read the following article about biofuels and answer the questions that
follow.
Dairy finds a way to let cows power trucks

27 March 2013
A large dairy farm, Fair Oaks Farms, in the United States of America has found a way to use the
endless supply of manure from the cows to generate electricity. This electricity is in turn used to
run the equipment that milks about 30 000 cows, three times a day.
For several years, the farm has been using the waste from the cows to create natural gas.
The cow manure is swept up from the barn floors each day. The manure is then allowed to
decompose in a digester and as it does so, it releases methane gas. The gas is collected and
stored and used to power their buildings and barns. This gas is enough to power 10 barns,
a cheese factory, a small restaurant, a gift shop, and even a 4D-movie theatre in the kids
entertainment area.
Fair Oaks Farms has been doing all of this, but using only about half of the manure they
swept up from the cows each day. But, they have now become even more energy efficient.

Fair Oaks Farms is now using the rest of the manure and turning it into fuel to power its
delivery trucks and tractors. This is the largest group of vehicles on the roads in the US using
livestock waste to power them. This is a huge saving in the amount of diesel which would
otherwise be used. Gary Corbett at Fair Oaks said: “We are taking about half a million litres of
diesel off the roads each year.” Another advantage is that natural gas is about half the price of
diesel fuel for the same amount of power.
Mike McCloskey, a co-owner of Fair Oaks, said he had first started looking into renewable
energy options for the farm more than a decade ago. This was a way to become more energy
efficient, and save money. He also said the smell of the manure, used as fertiliser on the fields,
had started to make some neighbours complain! The leftover by-products from producing the
natural gas is still spread over the
fields as fertiliser, but it has much
less of a smell. This shows that
nothing goes to waste.
Other farmers, landfill
management companies and other
large industries that produce large
amounts of methane-rich material
are now also starting to take
interest. If used, this could provide
an endless supply of ‘biogas’, a
cleaner, safer, more sustainable
alternative, which also reduces Figure 9.18 A digester used to decompose manure to produce
greenhouse gas emissions. methane gas.
This has been adapted from an article which appeared in the New York Times on 27 March 2013.
Did you
Questions
know?
1. What is the name of the farm in the article, and in which country is it
Biofuels have
based?
been around as
2. What made the owners of Fair Oaks Farms decide to use manure as a
long as cars have.
form of energy?
At the beginning
3. In the article, the renewable energy source referred to is an example of
of the 20th
a biofuel. What is this renewable energy source, and why can we call it a
century, Henry
biofuel?
Ford planned to
4. How does the farm harvest methane from manure?
fuel his cars with
5. Why is it a good thing that the farm is taking ‘about half a million litres
ethanol. But then
of diesel off the roads each year’?
the discoveries
6. What is another advantage of using biogas to power the delivery trucks
of huge oil
and tractors?
deposits kept
7. Do you think that South Africa could benefit from a setup such as the
fossil fuels cheap
one at Fair Oaks Farms? Explain your answer.
for decades, and
biofuels were
mostly forgotten.

Now that we have looked at non-renewable and renewable energy sources,
let’s summarise the disadvantages and advantages of each.
ACTIVITY What are the advantages and disadvantages?
Instructions
1. Sit in groups of 3 or 4. Discuss, in your groups, the advantages and
disadvantages of using non-renewable energy sources.
2. Discuss, in your groups, the advantages and disadvantages of using
renewable energy sources.
3. Why do you believe that fossil fuels are still burnt as a source of energy?
Write your own answer in your books.
4. Choose a spokesperson for your group and share your ideas with the rest
of the class. Choose two of the sources of energy discussed so far in this
unit. Use your school library or the internet to find more information
about how they are used to generate electricity in South Africa.

Summary
Key concepts
• Energy is one of the requirements for life on Earth.
• Energy is needed to make things move.
• Sources of energy have energy stored within them that is used to make something happen.
• Non-renewable energy sources cannot be recycled or reused. There is a limited supply.
• Examples of non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) and
nuclear fuels.
• Burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases into our atmosphere.
• Renewable energy sources can be recycled or reused. There is an unlimited supply.
• Examples of renewable energy sources are wind, hydropower, solar power, and biofuels.
Concept map
This is our first concept map for Energy and Change. Complete it by filling in the three types of
fossil fuels, and give an example of a nuclear fuel which was discussed in this unit.
make things to have Sources of energy

move, live stored energy
are
non-renewable renewable
such as such as
cannot be can be wind
fossil fuels
nuclear fuels biofuels hydro power
e.g. replenished
e.g. sunlight
Unit 9: Summary 177

Revision
1. What do we need to make things move? [1]
2. What does it mean when we say something is ‘a source of energy’? [1]
3. Which of the following are sources of energy? [1]
a) Sun
b) waves
c) wind
d) coal
e) all of them
4. What does it mean if something is a non-renewable source of energy? [2]
5. Which of these are renewable energy sources. [1]
a) coal
b) natural gas
c) sunlight
d) wind
e) crude oil
6. Which type of renewable energy uses the movement of air to generate electricity? [1]
7. Complete the following sentences. Write them out in full on the lines provided
and underline your answers. [5]
8. Coal, natural gas and oil are all examples of ________________ (renewable/non-renewable)
energy resources. When they are burned, they release ________________ (energy/electricity).
Coal, natural gas and oil are also known as _______________ (nuclear fuels/fossil fuels).
Wind and solar energy are examples of ______________ (renewable/non-renewable) energy
sources because they ______________ (can/cannot) be replaced.
9. How does the burning of fossil fuels contribute to global warming? [2]
10. Copy and complete the following table in your exercise books. [18]
Energy source Renewable or Disadvantage Advantage

non-renewable
Wind
Coal
Uranium
Water (Hydroelectric)
Sunshine
Biofuels
TOTAL: [32 marks]
178 Topic 3 Energy and change

10 Potential and kinetic energy
Key questions
• What is potential energy?
• What is kinetic energy?
• Where do we get energy from?
• How much energy do I need?
• Can energy be created or destroyed?
• What is a system?
Renewable and non-renewable sources are where we get our energy from,
but what forms of energy do we find in the world?
All energy can be placed into two main groups:
1. Potential energy
2. Kinetic energy
So what are these different forms of energy, and what does it mean if an
object has potential energy or kinetic energy? Let’s investigate!
10.1 Potential energy Keywords

Throughout our investigation and learning about the concepts surrounding
energy, we will be talking about systems and how energy is transferred • joule
within a system. A system is a set of parts that work together as a whole. A • potential
energy
change in one part of the system will affect the other parts. This will become
• system
clearer as we see some examples throughout this term.
We are going to find the difference between potential and kinetic energy.
Look at the following illustration which shows a ramp with a marble rolling
down into a foam cup. The marble will knock the cup and make it move.
Figure 10.1 A marble rolling down a ramp.
When the marble is released, it rolls down the ramp and transfers some of its
energy to the cup. This transfer of energy is what makes the cup move. But
where did the marble get energy from? Do you think you can make the cup
move more or less depending on how far up the ramp you start the marble?
Let’s do an investigation to find out.
Unit 10: Potential and kinetic energy 179

Investigation How can we make the foam cup move
further?
Investigative question
If we roll a marble down a ramp and into a cup, how does the starting
position of the marble affect how far the cup moves?
Variables
1. What will we change when performing this investigation?
2. What will we be measuring in this investigation?
3. Which things must stay the same?
Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis for this investigation. When you do this, you need
to write what you expect to observe. It does not have to be the correct
answer to the investigative question.
• a styrofoam cup
• a marble
• a pair of scissors
• a ramp (this can be a wooden plank or stiff card)
• books or wooden blocks to prop up the ramp
• rulers
Method
1. Work in groups of 3 or 4.
2. Cut a hole in the lip of the cup so that when you turn it over on a
table, there is a hole which a marble can now fit through, as shown in
the previous diagram.
3. Build the setup as shown in the following diagram. Place the cup
upside down on the table surface. Place the ramp so that it ends at
the hole in the cup. Prop up the ramp with blocks or books. You will
adjust the height of the ramp using different books or wooden
blocks. Otherwise you can just hold the top of the ramp at the
specified height.
15
0
14
fold in ramp for

13
hole
12
foam marble to roll down

11
in cup
4
10
cup
5
9
6
8
7
7
8
6
9
10
5
11
4
5 cm
12
3
5 cm
13
2
14
1
15
0
cardboard ramp

4. Practise rolling the marble down the ramp and into the cup. You can
use two rulers to create a path down the ramp to guide the marble
into the hole so that it does not roll off the side of the ramp, or you
can bend the cardboard so that the marble rolls down the middle
on the fold. You can also try a cardboard tube, such as a roller towel
inner. You will need to practise to see what works best with the
materials that you have available.
5. Once you have found the best way to do this, you can start the
measurements.
6. First set up the ramp so that the top of the ramp is at a height of 5cm.
Roll the marble from a height of 5 cm and then measure how far the
styrofoam cup moves.
15
0
14
1
13
2
12
3
11
4
10
5
9
6
8
7
7
8
6
9
10 cm
10
5
11
4
12
3
5 cm
13
2
14
1
15
0
7. Next adjust the height of the ramp by increasing it by 5 cm each time.
Each time place the marble at the top of the ramp and roll it down,
measuring how far the cup moves.
8. Repeat the measurements until you have at least six recordings.
9. Record your measurements in your books under the headings in the
table below and draw a graph with a line of best fit.
Record your results in a table like the one below.
Height of marble up the ramp (cm) Distance the cup moves (cm)
Use the information in your table to draw a graph of the height of the
marble up the ramp versus the distance the cup moves. Before you draw
the graph, answer the following:
1. Which is the independent variable? This is the value which you
changed in the investigation. The independent variable is written on
the x-axis (horizontal axis).
2. Which is the dependent variable? This is the variable you measured.
The dependent variable is written on the y-axis (vertical axis).
Conclusion
1. Write a conclusion for this investigation. Remember to refer to your
graph and hypothesis when writing your conclusion.
2. Was your hypothesis shown to be true or false?

When you hold the marble at a distance
up the ramp, you are preventing it from
rolling down the ramp. This means that
the marble has the potential to roll down
and knock the cup. So, YOU gave the
marble potential energy by picking it
up and holding it at the top of the ramp.
When the marble hits the cup, the marble
This brick has the
potential energy to fall. transfers energy to the cup which then
It has potential energy. moves. The cup then comes to a stop after
This brick does not a while. Do you have any guesses about
have potential energy. why the cup stops after a while?
Your investigation will have shown you
that the greater the vertical height of the
marble, the further the cup moved. This
tells us that lifting the marble to a higher
position means that it has more potential energy than if it was released from
a lower position.
So the higher an object is above a surface, the more potential energy it has.
Think of another example of picking up a brick, as shown in the diagram.
Here we are looking at a system consisting of: the arm, the brick, and the
Earth that pulls on the brick.
When the brick was on the floor, it had no potential energy. But when it is
lifted up, it has potential energy. Where did the potential energy come from?
The boy now let’s go of the brick and it falls down to the ground and makes a
hole in the sand. What received the energy of the falling brick?
Do you think the hole in the sand pit will be deeper if we drop the brick
from a higher point? Why?
So what we have seen is that the energy is all still there within this system,
but it is not easy to use any more. The sand is warmer but we cannot actually
use that energy for anything because the temperature increase was so small.
So the energy in the system has not been destroyed, but it is less available for
us to use.
Let’s look at another example of stored energy and energy transfers within a
system.
ACTIVITY Elastic bands

1. We are going to be shooting matchboxes with elastic bands by stretching
the bands and releasing them to hit the matchbox. What are the parts
making up this system?
2. What is the energy input into this system?
Do you think there is a relationship between how far the matchbox travels
and the energy that the hand puts in at each try? Let’s find out.

Materials
• empty matchbox
• elastic band
• ruler
Instructions
1. Place the empty matchbox on a desk, and mark the spot with a piece of
paper.
2. First, practise shooting the matchbox with the elastic band. Each time,
place the elastic band and matchbox in the same starting position and
distance from each other.
3. Once you feel comfortable doing this, stretch the elastic band by a
different amount each time and measure how far the matchbox moves
with each try.
4. Place a ruler next to your elastic band and first stretch it by a small
amount. For example, if your elastic band is 5 cm long when held pulled
tight, but not stretched, between your fingers, then stretch it to 8 cm.
5. Release the elastic band so that it hits the matchbox across the desk.
6. Measure the distance that the match box moves across the desk.
7. Record the distance in the table below.
8. Put the empty match box back in its original position on the desk.
9. Repeat the experiment several times but stretch the elastic band a bit
more than before each time.
Copy the table below into your exercise books and record your measurements.
Elastic stretched (cm) Distance moved (cm)
Questions
1. Does the distance moved by the matchbox increase or decrease as you
stretch the elastic band more? State the relationship between these two
measurements.
2. What did you have to do in order to stretch the elastic band and keep it
stretched?
Energy is transferred from the elastic band to the matchbox and the
matchbox moves. But it comes to a stop after a while. Where did the
matchbox transfer its energy to?

When the elastic band was stretched it gained potential energy. We know
this because your hand had to do some work to stretch the elastic band, and
now the elastic band can snap back and move the matchbox. The elastic band
needs energy to make the matchbox move, and it got that energy from your
hand.
The further we stretched the elastic, the further it could push the matchbox.
This tells us that the more we stretch the elastic band, the more energy is
transferred from the elastic band to the matchbox.
Energy transfers have taken place within this system: Energy is transferred
from the hand, to the elastic band, to the matchbox, to the air and the table
surface. The table ends up a little warmer than it was as it now has most of
the energy and the air has the rest. The energy has not gone, but again it’s not
available to use.
Figure 10.2 A stretched elastic band has potential energy.
So did you notice that both the marble and the elastic band had potential
Did you energy? But we didn’t do the same thing to give them that energy. We lifted
know? the marble but we stretched the elastic. This means that there is more than
The joule was one way to give something potential energy. Potential energy is energy that
named after is stored within a system.
an English Now that you understand a bit more about potential energy, can you think
physicist, James of some more examples of things which contain potential energy? Think in
Prescott Joule terms of things which have the potential or the ability to change something
(1818-1889). or make something move.
What about some of the fossil fuels that we discussed in the last unit, such as
coal and oil? Do you think these have potential energy? Yes, they do. For
example, coal is burned in power stations to generate electricity (you will
learn more about this later on in the term). So, we can say the coal has stored
energy which is used to generate electricity. Coal has potential energy. This is
the same for other fuels as well.
Do you remember making electric circuits in
Grade 6 last year? Do you remember using
batteries? The batteries are the source of energy
for the circuit. The batteries store energy. In
other words, they have potential energy.
Figure 10.3 Batteries are a source of potential energy

for electric circuits.

Where do we get our energy from? As we learnt in Life and Living, nutrition is one
of the seven life processes. We have to eat food. Food is the fuel for our bodies.
Have you ever had a look at all the small writing on food packaging? The
information gives us nutritional information about the food. It also gives us
the amount of energy stored in the food. Have you noticed that this is often
given in joules?
So what is a joule? How do we measure energy?
There is no specific measuring instrument that can be used to directly
measure energy. Instead we can measure certain variables and use a formula
to calculate the amount of energy that an object has.
For example, the heat transfered depends upon the change in temperature of
the object. We can use a thermometer to measure the change in temperature
of an object, then use a formula to calculate the heat transfered to or from the
object.
The measuring unit of energy (in science) is a joule, denoted by capital letter
J. For example, the heat transfered from the hot water to the air is 100 J.
Take note
Let’s have a look at the energy content for some of the cereals that we eat for
breakfast. Sedentary means
that you lead an
inactive lifestyle
ACTIVITY Reading a cereal box and do not do
any exercise.
Materials
• cereal box
• pair of scissors
• calculator
Instructions
1. Read the nutritional information on your cereal box.
Questions
1. What is the amount of energy per 100 g for your cereal? Write your
answer in kilojoules and in joules
2. The cereal boxes often indicate an amount per 100 g and then an amount
per serving, which is normally less. What is the amount of energy per
serving on your cereal box? Remember to include how many grams the
serving is.
3. Look at the following table which gives the recommended daily amount
of energy for an individual depending on your age and level of activity.
This is a guideline as to how much energy you should consume in food in
one day.

Gender Age (years) Sedentary (kJ) Moderately Active (kJ)
Take note Active (kJ)
The joule is 9–13 8 000 8 000–9 000 8 500–9 500
Female
a measure of 14–18 8 500 8 500–10 000 9 500–10 500
energy. A food 9–13 8 500 8 500–10 000 9 500–11 000
Male
joule is not 14–18 10 000 10 000–11 500 11 000–13 000
different from an
electrical joule, According to the table, what is the recommended daily amount of energy for
nor is it different your age and level of activity?
from a joule that 1. What percentage of your recommended daily energy is being supplied
heats water, nor a by one serving of your cereal? Show your calculations.
joule that comes 2. The following photograph shows the nutritional information on a box of
from the Sun. cracker biscuits. Study it and then answer the questions that follow.
TYPICAL NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION

Keywords PER SERVING
PER 100 g (2 biscuits = 15 g)
• kinetic energy Energy 1 492 kJ 224 kJ
• transfer
356 kcal 53 kcal
Protein 8,4 g 1,3 g
Glycaemic Carbohydrate 72 g 11 g
of which Total Sugar 2,8 g 0,4 g
Total Fat 2,0 g 0,3 g
of which:
Saturated Fat 0,4 g 0,1 g
Trans Fat 0,5 g 0,1 g
Mono-unsaturated Fat 1,1 g 0,2 g
Cholesterol 0 mg 0 mg
Dietary Fibre # 6,1 g 0,9 g
Total Sodium 589 mg 88 mg
Nutritional information above refers to the ready-to-eat product.
# AOAC 991,43
a) What is the energy content per 100 g in joules?

b) What is the mass of one biscuit?
c) The nutritional information gives the serving size of two biscuits,
but you want to know what the energy content will be if you eat only
one biscuit. Write down the answer below.
d) You now decide that you want to eat five biscuits. What is the energy
content for this serving of five biscuits?
Do you now see why we can say that food has potential energy? We need
energy to make our bodies function. We get our energy from the food we
eat. The molecules which make up our food have energy stored inside them.
We eat the food and use the stored energy to move our muscles and perform
all our bodily functions. This stored energy is potential energy.

10.2 Kinetic energy
Think back to the last activity where we used elastic bands to move
matchboxes. The stretched elastic band had potential energy. When the
elastic band was released, it moved and snapped back and then hit the
matchbox and caused it to move. So what do we call this energy that the
moving elastic band and moving matchbox have? We call it kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy is the energy that an object or system has because it is moving.
ACTIVITY Which objects have kinetic energy?
Instructions
1. Think about the definition of kinetic energy
2. Decide which of the objects (a to g) in the following table have kinetic
energy.
3. Give a reason for your answer.
Object Does it have kinetic Give a reason for your

energy? answer.
(Yes or no)
a) A lady running.
b) A bird in flight.
c) A stop street sign
d) A roller coaster.

Object Does it have kinetic Give a reason for your
energy? answer.
(Yes or no)
e) Two chairs.
f ) An apple.
Keywords
• law
• theory
• conservation g) A helicopter.
Questions
1. Which bucket has more potential energy, the one sitting on the bottom
step of a ladder, or the one sitting on the top step of the ladder?
2. Does a car travelling at 100 km/h or at 200 km/h have more kinetic energy?
3. When the wind blows, it is actually the air particles moving. What type
of energy do the air particles have? Why?
4. You have a bucket full of water and you are about to tip the water out.
What type of energy does the water have at this point? Explain why.
5. When you tip the water out and it falls to the ground, what type of
energy does it have now?
What have we learnt so far?

• Potential energy is the energy stored in the system. In the brick activity,
the brick had potential energy when it was lifted away from the surface of
the Earth. The brick and the Earth attract each other so they are a system.
The higher you lift the brick, the more potential energy you give it.
• We know that moving objects also have energy. We call the energy of
moving objects kinetic energy.
• But, we have also seen something else. Think again of the marble activity:
−− The marble at the top of the ramp has potential energy.
−− When the marble was released, it rolled down the ramp and knocked
the cup, causing it to move.

−− The marble therefore transferred energy to the cup.
• We also saw this in the matchbox activity: Take note
−− The stretched elastic band had potential energy.
Scientific laws
−− When the elastic band was released, it moved and snapped back and
and theories
then hit the matchbox and caused it to move. This means that the
are not set in
matchbox now had energy.
stone; they are
• Energy was therefore transferred from the stretched elastic band to the
just the best
matchbox.
explanation for
So, the potential energy in the elastic band is not lost. It is transferred to the how the world
matchbox. This brings us to our next section. works based on
the information
we have now.
10.3 Law of conservation of energy
Scientific
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or knowledge
destroyed, it can only be transferred from one part of the system to other parts. is constantly
This means that we keep recycling all the energy in the universe all the time! growing and
Why are we talking about laws in science? Did you think laws were just for changing as new
lawyers? Well, you would be wrong. In science we talk about laws and theories. discoveries are
made.
Scientific laws predict what will happen in a particular situation. The law has
been tested repeatedly (often) and the results do not change. A law does not
explain why something happens, it just says what should happen. Theories
explain how or why things happen. Theories are also tested over and over
again to make sure that they are valid.
Now that we know about the Law of Conservation of Energy, this matches
our own observation that the energy in the elastic and matchbox example
was not lost. Rather it was transferred from the elastic to the matchbox.
We can say that the elastic band and matchbox form a system. This is also
true for the marble-and-cup example. Remember, a system is made up of
different parts that work together or affect each other. Let’s now look at some
more examples of how energy is transferred within systems.
10.4 Potential and kinetic energy in systems

Remember, energy cannot be created or destroyed. It is transferred from one
part of the system to other parts. When it is transferred it can be stored or
used to make something move, and so potential energy can be transferred to
kinetic energy in a system.
We can look at how energy is transferred within different systems to show
that energy is conserved. There are many different types of systems that we
can look at to see how energy is transferred through the systems.
Mechanical systems
A mechanical system is one which is based on mechanical principles and
the different parts interact in a mechanism. A mechanical system usually
involves movement of some kind. It is often a group of simple machines
working together.

Do you remember the elastic bands pushing the matchboxes? Do you
think that was a system? You are right. It is a mechanical system. The hand,
elastic band and matchbox all form part of a mechanical system. Your hand
transfers potential energy to the elastic band; this is the input energy. The
potential energy of the elastic band is transferred to the matchbox as kinetic
energy. No energy has been created or destroyed. We experienced the Law of
Conservation of Energy without even realising it.
Another simple example is a pulley and rope system, such as at a
construction site, where the builders want to lift heavy objects up to a higher
floor. The construction worker will pull on the rope which goes up over a
pulley in order to lift the heavy object higher.
Figure 10.4 A pulley system is an example of a mechanical system.
• What is the input energy in this system?

• What are the different parts making up this mechanical system?
• What is the input energy transferred to within this system?
A swing or a seesaw are examples of mechanical systems.
Did you realise when
you were swinging on
the park swings that
you were a part of a
mechanical system?
When you are at the
top of the swing’s arc,
you and the swing
have potential energy
because the Earth is
pulling you and you are
going to start moving
down. The potential
energy becomes
kinetic energy as you
swing through the arc.
Figure 10.5 A swing is a simple mechanical system.

What about when you throw a ball up into the air? Do you think this is a
mechanical system?
When you throw a ball upward it slows down as it moves
upwards, stops for an instant and then speeds up as it falls
back down to your hand. Your hand moves to throw the
ball and transfers energy to the ball, which allows it to move
upwards. Does this also follow the Law of Conservation of
Energy? Yes, it does. No energy was created or destroyed. The
kinetic energy was transferred from your hand to the ball,
which then starts to move. As the ball moves upwards, kinetic
energy is transferred to potential energy as it moves further
away from the ground.
As the ball moves back down again, the potential energy is transferred to
kinetic energy.
1. What are the parts involved in this mechanical system?
2. What is the input energy in this mechanical system?
3. When does the ball have the most potential energy?
4. When does the ball have kinetic energy?
Let’s have a look at some more examples.
ACTIVITY I dentifying energy transfers in mechanical

systems.
Mterials
• a piece of wire
We are first going to perform a simple demonstration to identify the energy
transfers within mechanical systems. Take a length of wire and touch it to
your lips. How does it feel?
Then, bend the wire into a U-shape and quickly bend it back and forth 10
times. Now, feel the temperature again at the bend. How does it feel?
This is an example of a mechanical system. We can describe the transfer
of energy as the potential energy within your arms, which is transferred
to kinetic energy as you move them back and forth. This is transferred to
kinetic energy in the wire, which is then transferred to the lips as heat.
Instructions
1. Look at the following pictures of different mechanical systems.
2. Identify the different parts in the system and then how energy is
transferred from one part to another. Discuss this with your partner.
3. Then write a few sentences to describe the energy transfers within
each system.

Questions
1. The girl uses the energy in her muscles and pulls her leg back. When her
leg is at its highest point, what energy does it have?
2. As she swings her leg back down towards the ball, describe the transfer
of energy.
3. When her foot hits the ball, and the ball moves off, describe the transfer
of energy in the system.
4. The muscles in the cricketer’s arm pull the cricket bat upward. Describe
the transfer of energy.
5. Describe the transfer of energy as the bat swings down and then hits the
moving ball.
6. Now that you have had practice with the other examples, use the
following space to describe the transfer of energy within the above
system as a ruler is pulled back and then flicks a pellet across the room.
Thermal systems
Did you know that the particles that make up a substance or object, such
as atoms or molecules, also have kinetic energy? Particles which have more
kinetic energy will move faster than particles which have less kinetic energy.
When the particles are moving very fast, we feel the substance and say ‘That’s
hot!’. This is because the temperature of a substance depends on the kinetic
energy of the particles.

The thermal energy can be transferred from one object to another in a
thermal system. When thermal energy is transferred, this is called heat. We
will look more at this in the next unit, but for now let’s look at some simple
examples of energy transfers within thermal systems (heating).
Investigation The energy transfers when boiling water.
What happens to the temperature of water when it is heated over a flame?
Variables
We will be measuring the change in the water temperature over time.
1. Which quantity/variable are you in control of? This is the
independent variable.
2. Which variable are you measuring in response to the independent
variable? This is the dependent variable.
3. Which variable are you keeping constant?
Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis for this investigation. (Hint: What do you think will
happen to the temperature of the water. Will it go up or down?)
• 150 ml or 250 ml beaker
• tripod
• gauze
• Bunsen burner
• matches
• thermometer
• stopwatch
• retort stand
• clamp
Safety Precautions
• Do not touch the heated beaker with bare hands.
• Do not play with the matches.
• The person working with the matches should wear safety coat.
• Handle the thermometer with care
Method
1. Pour 200 ml of water into a beaker.
2. Place the beaker onto the wire gauze on the tripod.
3. Carefully place the thermometer into the water. When you take
the readings, the thermometer should not be touching the sides of
the beaker. Alternatively, if you have a retort stand and clamp, the
thermometer can be clamped in the stand with the bulb in the water.

4. Light the Bunsen burner.
5. Measure the temperature of the water every 30 seconds until the
water starts to boil.
6. Once the water starts to boil, take 3 to 5 more readings.
7. Write down your observations in the table.
8. Once finished, turn off the Bunsen burner and leave the beaker of
water to stand.
9. Plot a graph showing the relationship between the time and the
temperature.

Copy the table below into your exercise books and record your
observations:
Time (seconds) Temperature (oC)

30
60
90
120
150
180
10. Draw a line graph for your results.

a) First, think about what will go on your horizontal x-axis? This is
what you changed.
b) What will go on the vertical y-axis? This is what you measured.
c) The temperature of the water kept increasing, until it started to
boil. At what temperature did the water boil?
4. What did you observe about the temperature when the water started
to boil?
Conclusion
1. What can you conclude from your results?
2. Can you accept or reject your hypothesis?
Questions
1. In order for the water to boil, the thermal energy of the water must
increase. Where do you think the energy came from to make the
water boil?
2. Describe the transfer of energy within this thermal system as the
water was heated.
3. After the water had boiled, and you turned off the Bunsen burner,
what happened to the water in the beaker?

4. What do you think happened to the thermal energy of the water?
Describe the transfer of energy.
5. A Grade 7 learner is conducting the investigation and read the
temperature off the thermometer as it is set up in the diagram below.
What is wrong with this set-up? What is your advice to the learner?
thermometer
stand
Bunsen
burner
So, what have we discovered? The temperature of the water increased. This
means that the water particles must have been given more kinetic energy.
The energy must have come from the Bunsen burner flame. The flame is
there because we are burning gas so the energy must have been stored in the
gas. If it is stored energy then it is potential energy.
So, we have discovered that the potential energy stored in the gas has been
transferred to the water particles as kinetic energy. No energy has been
created it has been transferred from the gas to the water. The energy of the
system has been conserved.
Electrical systems
Do you think an electric circuit is a system? Look at the following image and
discuss this with your partner. Write down whether you think it is a system
or not, and why.
_ +
What is the source of energy in this electric circuit? In other words, what is
the input energy in this system?
What is the result of the energy transfer in the system? In other words, what
is the energy output?
Let’s look at another example of an electric circuit, which makes a motor
turn, to see the different energy transfers within the system.
ACTIVITY An electric fan system
Materials
• small electric fan or motor
• conducting wires
• battery
• switch
Instructions
1. If possible, make the following circuit in class. However, if you do not
make the actual circuit, study the image and answer the questions.
2. To make the circuit, attach a small fan or motor to a battery using the
conducting wires.
3. Attach a switch in the circuit as shown in the image. You can make your
own switch using a piece of board and pressing two metal pins into it.
Then, bend a metal paper clip and attach it to one of the drawing pins as
shown below.
4. Close the switch and observe what happens to the fan.
_ +
Questions
1. What are the parts making up this electrical system?
2. Which part of the system provides the input energy to the system?
3. What happens to the fan or motor when you close the switch?
4. What type of energy does the fan now have?
5. Using your answers to the previous questions, copy and complete the
following flow diagram, which describes the energy transfers within this
electrical system. You need to fill in the type of energy at each step.
Input energy in transferred electrons in transferred fan and
the battery is to the wires as to output is

Biological systems
Do you know that we also get biological systems? You have come across
these types of systems before in Life and Living, but now we are going to talk
about them in terms of how the energy is transferred within these systems,
and conserved.
Do you remember learning about photosynthesis and food chains in Life and
Living? This is an example of a biological system. Let’s find out why.
A plant uses the radiant energy from the Sun to make its own food through
the process of photosynthesis. The energy from the Sun is stored as potential
energy in plants, mainly as starch. Have a look at the following image to
remind you.
light energy
oxygen
carbon dioxide
water
Figure 10.6 What process is being shown in the diagram? Write a sentence to describe the
requirements for this process.
When an animal eats the plant it uses the potential energy in the food which
is released during respiration. This is then used by the animal to move and
for all its life processes. So the potential energy in the food which the animal
eats is transferred to kinetic energy. Energy has been transferred from the
Sun to the plant to the animal.

Figure 10.7 An impala eats the grass and stores Figure 10.8 Our food provides the input energy for our bodies to
the energy in its muscles. When the impala runs, work and move. The food contains potential energy.
the stored energy becomes kinetic energy.
When we eat plants or animals we are able to use the stored potential energy
to make our bodies function.
Is the energy conserved in a biological system? Yes, it is! The plants change
the Sun’s energy into potential energy, which it stores inside itself. Animals
then eat the plants and the stored potential energy is transferred to them.
The animals use the stored energy to enable them to move. This means that
the potential energy within the animal has been transferred kinetic energy.
As the animal moves and performs its functions, this kinetic energy is
transferred to the surroundings. No energy has been created or destroyed; it
has just been transferred from the Sun to the plant to the animal.
Let’s revise the energy transfers within some systems by studying and
drawing flow diagrams.
ACTIVITY Flow diagrams for energy transfers
Instructions
1. Study each of the following diagrams which show different systems.
2. Draw a flow diagram, similar to the one you did for the electric fan in
your exercise book.
3. Then write a few sentences in
your exercise books to describe
how energy is transferred
between the different parts in
each of these systems.
4. The first one has been
done for you.

This flow diagram describes the transfers of energy.
potential energy kinetic energy

in raised arm transferred in girls arm transferred kinetic energy transferred kinetic energy
and raquet to as she swings to in tennis raquet to in ball
The tennis player’s arm and raquet have potential energy as they are raised.
As the girl swings her arm, this potential energy is transferred to the tennis
raquet as kinetic energy. The tennis raquet transfers energy to the ball as
kinetic energy which enables the ball to move through the air.
Questions
1. This drawing shows a food chain.
Draw a diagram showing the energy transfers in this biological system.

2. Write a description of the energy transfers below. Take note
_ + We will learn
more about
food chains and
the interactions
between
organisms next
year in Grade 8
Life and Living.
Draw a diagram showing the energy transfers in this electrical system.
3. Write a description of the energy transfers below.
4. In the previous example showing the berries, the bird and the cat, we
saw an example of a food chain. Do you remember learning about
food chains in Grade 6? A food chain only shows the transfer of energy
between organisms, and does not include the Sun. So, it always starts
with a producer. Is the image below an example of a food chain?
Why or why not?

a) We can rather call this an energy transfer sequence. Draw a flow
diagram to explain the energy transfers in this biological and
mechanical system.
b) Write a description of the energy transfers below.
5. Let’s now look at a more complex system which involves many different
parts working together. Do you remember learning about hydropower as
a source? Is it renewable or non-renewable?
6. Study the following diagram which shows a hydropower plant at the
edge of a dam. Then answer the questions that follow.
power lines
city
dam powerhouse
generator
river
turbine
a) The water in the dam on the left is high up. It has the ability to fall
down. What kind of energy does the water have?
b) As the water flows down the outlet from the dam, describe the
transfer of energy.
Take note c) The flowing water then turns the turbine. This is a mechanical
We will study system. What energy does the turbine have?
the national d) The generator then transfers the energy between two systems. The
electricity grid kinetic energy in the mechanical system is transferred to kinetic
in more detail at energy in the electrical system as it generates electricity. What parts
the end of the make up the electrical system in the diagram?
term. e) What is the output from this whole system? In other words, what
does the city get?

Summary
Key concepts
• Potential energy is energy which is stored in a system.
• Kinetic energy is energy which an object has because it is moving.
• Energy is measured in joules (J).
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be transferred from one part of a system
to another. This is the Law of Conservation of Energy.
• Energy is transferred within systems. The input energy is transferred through the system
and energy is conserved.
• There are various energy systems, such as:
−− mechanical systems
−− thermal systems
−− electrical systems
−− biological systems
• Energy is also transferred between different systems.
Concept map
Complete the concept map below by filling in some examples of objects with either potential
energy or kinetic energy that you have learnt about in this unit.
energy cannot be Law of Conservation described conserved

created or destroyed states by
of Energy
is in mechanical
but can be
potential and thermal
transferred kinetic energy in systems such
as
electrical
from
are a biological
one object 2 main groups
to potential kinetic
energy energy set of parts
working together
another
examples is examples
is
energy a body has energy a body has
that is due to
stored movement
Unit 10: Summary 201

Revision
1. What is potential energy? Give two examples of systems which have potential energy [3]
2. What is kinetic energy? Give two examples of systems which have kinetic energy? [3]
3. What does the Law of Conservation of Energy state? [1]
4. Look at the picture below.
a) Which ball has the most potential energy? [1]

b) Explain your choice. [1]
5. Complete the sentences by filling in the missing words. Write the sentence out in full and
underline your answers.
a) A plant receives energy from _____________ and uses the energy to make _____________.
The plant then changes some of the sugar into _____________ and stores it in leaves,
fruit and other parts. The plant has _____________ energy, which you can get when
you eat the plant. [4]
b) When a plane carries skydivers high into the sky, it is giving them _____________
energy. When they jump out and free-fall, they have _____________ energy. [2]
Figure 10.9 These skydivers have just jumped out of the back of a plane.

6. Draw an energy transfer flow diagram to show how energy gets from the Sun into your
food and then to you. [3]
7. A high jumper starts running. As she approaches the bar, she pushes off the ground
and lifts her body off the ground and flies over the bar. She then falls down into a large
pad like a mattress on the ground.
Figure 10.10 A high jumper going over the bar.
Think about her jumping, from the moment her feet leave the ground. She goes up in the
air, she almost stops as she goes over the bar, and then she comes down again.
a) Where does she have the most potential energy? [1]
b) Where does she have the most kinetic energy? [1]
c) Does she have some potential energy and some kinetic energy at any point in
her jump? If you say yes, name one point where it is true. [2]
8. Which type of energy does each of the following systems contain (kinetic or potential or
both types)? [6]
a) A mountain biker at the top of the mountain.

b) Petrol in a storage tank.
c) A racing car travelling at its maximum speed.
d) Water flowing down a waterfall before it hits the pond below.
e) A spring in a pinball machine before it is released.
f) A running refrigerator motor.
9. Study the following illustration and answer the questions.
a) There are two systems involved in this image of heating water in a kettle that is
plugged in. What are they? [2]
b) Describe the energy transfers within and between these two systems. [2]
Total [32 marks]

11 Heat: Energy transfer
Key questions
• What is the difference between heat and temperature?
• How does a heater warm up a cold room?
• Why can the Sun make us warm?
• Why does my cold drink become warm?
Keywords
11.1 Heating as a transfer of energy
In the last chapter we looked at thermal systems. The thermal energy of an
• thermal object is the amount of energy it has inside of it, in other words, its internal
• heat energy. In a thermal system, thermal energy is transferred from one object
• temperature to another. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from a system to its
surroundings or from one object to another. This transfer of energy is from
the object at a higher temperature to the object at a lower temperature.
It is very important to know that, in science, heat and temperature are not
the same thing.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from a system to its surroundings or
from one object to another as a result of a difference in temperature. Heat is
measured in joules (J). This is because heat is a transfer of energy.
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold a substance feels and it is
measured in degrees Celsius (oC). Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles in an object or system. We use a thermometer
to measure the temperature of an object or substance.
Complete the following table to summarise the differences between heat and
temperature
Heat Temperature
Definition
Unit of measurement
Symbol for unit
Heat is the transfer of energy. During energy transfer, the energy moves
from the hotter object to the colder object. This means that the hotter object
will cool down and the colder object will warm up. The energy transfer will
continue until both objects are at the same temperature.
There are 3 ways in which thermal energy can be transferred from one
object/substance to another, or from a system to its surroundings:
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
Let’s have a look at these in more detail.

11.2 Conduction Keywords
Have you noticed that when you put a cold, metal teaspoon into your hot
cup of tea, the teaspoon handle also warms up after a while? Have you ever • conduction
wondered how this warmth “moved” from the hot tea to the cold teaspoon • conductor
and warmed it up? This is one way in which energy is transferred, and it is • insulator
called conduction. Let’s find out how it works.
Figure 11.1 How does the handle of the metal teaspoon become hot when in a cup of tea?
When energy is transferred to an object, the energy of the particles increases.

This means that the particles have more kinetic energy and they start to
move and vibrate faster. As the particles are moving faster they “bump” into
other particles and transfer some of their energy to those neighbouring
particles. In this way, the energy is transferred
through the substance to the other end. This
process is called conduction. The particles
conduct the energy through the substance, as
shown in the diagram.
heat heat heat
Let’s demonstrate this practically.
ACTIVITY Conduction through a wire
Instructions
1. Your teacher will set up the demonstration as in the diagram below.
2. Observe what happens to the pins or paper clips as the Bunsen burner is
lit and heat is applied to one end of the metal rod.
metal rod covered paper clip

in petroleum jelly (Vaseline)
peg
wooden
stand
Unit 11: Heat: Energy transfer 205

Questions
1. When the Bunsen burner is lit, what happens to the rod just above it?
2. Which pin or paperclip dropped off the metal rod first? The one closest
to or furthest from the Bunsen burner?
3. What does this tell us about the way in which heat is conducted along
the wire?
Let’s think about the teaspoon in the tea again. The tea is hot and the metal
spoon is cold. When you put the metal teaspoon into the hot tea, some of the
thermal energy from the tea is transferred to the metal particles. The metal
particles start to vibrate more quickly and collide with their neighbouring
particles. These collisions spread the thermal energy up through the
teaspoon. This makes the handle of the teaspoon feel hot.
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between objects that are
touching. In the teaspoon example, the particles of the tea are touching the
particles of the metal spoon, which in turn are touching each other, and this
is how heat is conducted from one object to the other.
Do all materials conduct heat in the same way? Let’s find out.
Investigation Do all materials conduct heat in the

same way?
In this investigation, we will be placing an ice cube on a plastic block and
on an aluminium block and observing which ice cube melts the most
quickly.
Aim
To investigate which materials are the best conductors of heat.
Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis for this investigation. Which block do you think will
melt the ice cube the most quickly?
• a plastic block
• an aluminium block
• ice cubes
• a plastic ring to keep the ice cube in place on the block
Method
1. First feel the plastic block and the aluminium block. Describe how
they feel.
2. Place an ice cube onto each block and observe what happens.
Observations
3. Which ice cube starts to melt first and the fastest?
4. Is this what you thought would happen? Refer back to your hypothesis.

Conclusion
What can you conclude about which material (the plastic or the metal) is
the best conductor of heat?
So how does this work? This is to do with thermal conductivity, the rate at
which heat is conducted from one object to another.
When you originally felt the blocks, you felt that the plastic block was
warmer. But, what we observed is that the aluminium or metal block melted
the ice cube more quickly. This is because the metal block is conducting the
heat faster to the ice cube more quickly. The plastic block is a worse thermal
conductor, so less heat is being transferred to the ice cube, so it does not melt
as quickly.
Why, then, does the aluminium block feel colder than the plastic block?
This is because the aluminium conducts heat more quickly away from your
hand than the plastic does. Therefore, the aluminium block feels colder
and the plastic block feels warmer. When you touch something, you do not
actually feel the temperature. Rather, you feel the rate at which heat is either
conducted away from or towards you.
Let’s think of another example. Imagine you have just finished baking a cake
in the oven at 180 ˚C.
Take note
Remember,
just because a
material feels
colder, does
not mean it
Figure 11.2 A cake baking in the oven in a metal tin.
has a lower
temperature. It
When you remove the cake from the oven, which is more likely to burn you more, may just be that
the metal cake tin, or the cake?
it is conducting
Do you think the cake and the tin are at the same temperature when you heat away from
remove them from the oven? Why? your hand more
quickly.
What we have seen here is another example of thermal conductivity. The tin
will conduct heat to your hand much more quickly than the cake, so the tin
will burn you, but the cake will not, even though the tin and the cake are at
the same temperature.
So what have we learnt? Metals conduct heat better than non-metals.

There are substances that allow thermal energy to be conducted through
them and so they are called conductors.
There are substances that do not allow thermal energy to be conducted
through them and so they are called insulators.
Now that we know that metals are good conductors of heat, do you think all
metals conduct heat equally well? Let’s investigate which metals are better
conductors.
Investigation Which metals are the best conductors of

heat?
We are going to see which metal is the better conductor of thermal
energy. To do this we will see which metal becomes hot first.
Aim
To identify whether some metals are better conductors of heat than other
metals.
Identify variables
Read through the method and look carefully at the diagram for the
investigation to identify the different variables required.
1. Which variable are you going to change?
2. What do we call the variable that you are going to change?
3. Which variable are you going to measure?
4. What do we call the variable that you are going to measure?
5. Which variables must be kept the same?
6. What do we call the variables which must be kept the same?
Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis for this investigation.

• Bunsen burner
• Vaseline
• copper, iron, brass and aluminium rod
• stopwatch
• drawing pins
• tripod
• cardboard or paper
• matches
Safety Precautions
• Do direct touch the heated metals
• Do not play with fire or the matches
• Ask for the teacher's assistance to adjust the Bunsen burner
• Leave the apparatus for at least 5 minutes to cool off after using them
before removing them

Method
1. Stick the flat end of a drawing pin to the end of each of the metal
rods using the Vaseline. Try to use the same amount of Vaseline for
each drawing pin.
2. Place the cardboard on the tripod.
3. Balance the metal rods on the cardboard so that one end of each is
over the Bunsen burner.
4. Light the Bunsen burner.

5. Using a stopwatch, measure how long it takes for each of the pins to
drop off.
6. Record your results in the table.
7. Draw a bar graph to illustrate your results.
petroleum drawing
jelly pin
rod ends
touching iron rod
copper rod
brass rod
Bunsen
burner aluminium
rod
tripod
stand

Copy the following table into your exercise books and record your results.
Type of metal Time taken for pin to drop off (seconds)

Iron
Copper
Brass
Aluminium
Now draw a bar graph to show your results. Do not forget to give your
graph a heading to describe what it represents.
1. Which variable should be on the horizontal x-axis?
2. Which variable should be on the vertical y-axis?
3. Why do you think that a bar graph is suitable for this investigation?
Analysis
1. Which bar on your graph is the longest?
2. Which bar is the shortest?
3. Write down the materials in order of how fast they conducted heat,
from the quickest to the slowest.

Keywords 4. Why does the Vaseline melt?
• convection 5. Why do you think it was necessary to place the piece of cardboard
• convection or paper on the tripod stand underneath the metal rods? Hint: The
current tripod stand is also made of metal.
6. Why do you think it is necessary to use the same amount of Vaseline
on the ends of each rod?
7. Do you think we could have performed this investigation if our rods
had been of different lengths? Why?
Evaluation
It is always important to evaluate our investigations to see if there is
anything we would change or improve on.
1. Is there anything that went wrong in your investigation that you
could have prevented?
2. If you were to repeat this investigation, what would you change?
Conclusion
Write a conclusion for this investigation about which metal is the best
conductor of heat.
In this section we looked at how heat is conducted through metal rods and
other objects. These were all solid objects. How is energy transferred through
liquids or gases? Let’s find out in the next section.
11.3 Convection
Think of a pot of water on a stove. Only the bottom of the pot touches the
stove plate, but all of the water inside the pot, even the water not touching
the sides, becomes warmer. How does the energy transfer throughout the
water in the pot? The transfer of energy is because of convection.
Let’s do an activity that will help us to visualise how convection occurs.
ACTIVITY Convection in water
Materials
• 200 ml glass beaker
• potassium permanganate
• Bunsen or spirit burner, tripod stand, wire gauze
Safety precautions
• Use a spatula to add potassium permanganate
• Do not use a Bunsen burner without a teacher's supervision
• o nor play with fire
• Do not touch heated beaker

Instructions
1. Half fill the beaker with cold tap water.
2. Carefully put a small amount of potassium
permanganate on one side of the beaker. potassium
permanganate
DO NOT STIR.
3. Heat the water directly under the side of the
beaker with potassium permanganate with a stand
Bunsen/spirit burner and observe what happens.
4. Set up a control experiment and place a few
grains of potassium permanganate into the Bunsen
bottom of a beaker filled with water. Do not heat burner
this beaker, and observe what happens.
Instructions
1. What did you see as the water started to warm up in the beaker that was
heated? Draw a picture to show what you saw. Take note
2. What is happening to the potassium permanganate in this beaker? We then say
3. Can you explain the pattern you saw? that the heated
4. Compare this to the beaker which was not heated. What did you observe liquid or gas is
in this beaker? less dense as the
same particles
Let’s now explain what we observed in the last activity. Convection is the are now taking
transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by the movement of gas up a larger space.
or liquid particles. How does this happen? We will learn
more about
As a gas or liquid is heated, the substance expands. This is because the density next year
particles in liquids and gases gain kinetic energy when they are heated and in Grade 8.
start to move quickly. They therefore take up more space as the particles
move further apart. This causes the heated liquid or gas to move upwards
and the colder liquid or gas moves downwards. When the
warm liquid or gas reaches the top it cools down again and
therefore moves back down again.
In the last activity, the water particles gained kinetic energy
and moved apart from each other, therefore taking up more
space. This water then moves upwards as it is less dense than
the cold water, meaning it is lighter than the cold water. We
were able to observe this as the potassium permanganate
dissolved in the water and moved with the water particles, and
then moved downwards again as the water cooled.
This movement of liquid or gas, is called a convection
current, and energy is transferred from one area in the liquid
or gas to another. Have a look at the illustration which shows a
convection current.
Figure 11.3 Illustration of a
convection current.

ACTIVITY Does smoke move up or down?
Did you
know?
Materials
The blobs in a
lava lamp move • T-shaped piece of cardboard
up and down • candle
in the lamp as • twist of paper or splint
they first heat • beaker
and expand, • box of matches
and then reach
the surface and Instructions
cool, at which 1. Light the candle and place it
time they move inside the beaker, to the side
back down of the beaker.
again. 2. Put the T-shaped piece of
cardboard into the beaker
so that there is a small gap
between the bottom of the
beaker and the cardboard.
3. Light the twisted roll of paper
and hold it in the beaker on
the opposite side to the candle, as shown in the diagram.
4. Observe what happens to the smoke.
Questions
1. What happens to the smoke from the paper?
2. Why do you think the smoke moves in this way?
In the last two activities, we have observed convection currents in a liquid

and in a gas. Convection currents can form only in gases and liquids as these
particles are free to move around. They are not held in fixed positions as they
are in a solid. Solid particles are held together too tightly for them to move
when heated. Solid particles will vibrate
more quickly only when heated, but will
not move from their positions.
Now that we have learned about convection,
how can we apply this in the world around
us? It is interesting to learn about concepts
and theories in science, but it is even more
interesting when we discover how this has
an influence in our daily lives.
Figure 11.4 The blobs in a lava lamp move up and

down, showing us the convection currents as the
lamp provides the source of heat at the bottom.

ACTIVITY: Installation of air heating and cooling systems.
Imagine that your teacher has been given
a heater and an air-conditioning unit for
your classroom. The heater will warm your
classroom in winter and the air-conditioner
will keep you cool in summer. You need
to help your teacher to decide where each
item should go in the classroom. Should
they go on the wall near the ceiling or near
the floor? Should they go next to a window? Figure 11.5 This is a photo of an air-conditioner.
Instructions
Keywords
1. Get into groups of 2 or 3.
• radiation
2. Discuss where in your classroom you would place a heater so that it can matt
•
effectively heat up the room. Draw a diagram to explain your choice. • reflect
3. Discuss where in your classroom you would install the air-conditioner • absorb
so that it can effectively cool the room. Draw a diagram to explain your
choice.
Try to find an air-conditioner or heating specialist whom you can interview.

Ask them to explain the best way to install the air-conditioner and a heater. Take note
We have now looked at how energy is transferred through different Radiation comes
materials, whether they are solids (conduction) or liquids and gases from the Greek
(convection). But, what about if there are no particles to transfer the thermal word radius,
energy? Is there still a way for energy to be transferred? meaning, a beam
of light.
11.4 Radiation
Have you ever wondered how the Sun is able to warm us even though it is
so far away? The energy is transferred from the Sun to everything on the
Earth. The Sun does not need to be touching the Earth for the energy to
be transferred. Also, there is space in between the Earth and the Sun. The
energy from the Sun is able to warm us
without the Sun ever touching us. space
This transfer of energy is called radiation.
It is different from conduction or
convection as it does not require objects to
be touching each other, or the movement Sun radiation
of particles.
We can also see how heat is transferred Earth
by radiation here on Earth, and not just
between the Sun and the Earth. Let’s
demonstrate the difference between
radiation and convection using a candle. Figure 11.6 The Sun radiates heat in all directions. Energy is
transferred through space to Earth.

ACTIVITY Radiation from a candle
Materials
• candle in a holder
• metal spoon or metal rod
• matches
Safety precautions
• Do not touch the fire
• Do not bring hand too close to the candle flame, it may burn you.
• Do not play with fire or the matches
Instructions
1. Light a candle and place it in a holder. Your teacher may do this and get
groups of you to come up at a time to the demonstration.
2. First hold your hand above the candle.
3. Then hold your hand on the side of the candle.
Questions
1. We know now that heat from a candle will be transferred to the air
around it. These will warm up. Where will this air move to?
2. What is this called?
3. So, when you hold your hand above the candle, what do you feel,
and why?
4. But, what about when you hold your hand on the side of the candle?
Could you also feel warmth from the candle?
5. This is not convection, as the air particles do
not travel sideways when they warm up from
the flame. So, how is energy transferred to
your hand when you feel the warmth on the
side of the candle?
6. Lastly, if your teacher placed a metal spoon
in the candle flame and you felt the end, how
would it feel after a little while?
7. How was the energy transferred from the
flame to the end of the spoon?
8. The photo shows different forms of how heat
is transferred.
As we saw in the last activity, energy is transferred through convection,

conduction and radiation. Have you ever stood next to a huge fire? You will
feel the radiating heat even though the air may be very cold. This is because
the energy is transferred to you by radiation through the spaces between the
particles in air.

What about if you touch a black wall or a white wall? Do you think there is
a difference in how different surfaces absorb and reflect radiation? Let’s find
out by doing an investigation.
Investigation Which surfaces absorb the most radiation?

We are going to investigate which surfaces absorb the most heat, using
dark-coloured paper, light-coloured paper and shiny paper, such as
aluminium foil. We will use the temperature inside an envelope made
from each kind of paper as a measure of the amount of heat the paper
absorbed. Why do you think we can do this?
Which surfaces will absorb the most radiation from the Sun and
therefore increase in temperature most quickly?
Variables
1. Which variable are you going to measure?
2. What do we call the variable you have measured?
3. Which variable are you going to change?
4. What do we call this variable?
5. What must be kept the same for all the different materials?
Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis for this investigation.
• matt black paper
• white paper
• aluminium foil
• three alcohol thermometers
• stopwatch or timer
• glue or adhesive tape
Method
1. Fold each piece of paper and aluminium foil into the shape of an
envelope.
2. Put a thermometer into each of the envelopes and record the starting
temperature.
3. Put all the envelopes outside in the Sun.
4. Check the temperature on the thermometers every 2 minutes for
16 minutes.
5. Record your results in the table.
6. Draw a line graph for each envelope on the same set of axes.
Record your results in the following table.

Draw a line graph for each of the envelopes. Do not forget to give your
graph a heading.
Time Temperature Temperature Temperature in

(minutes) in black paper in white paper aluminium foil
envelope (˚C) envelope (˚C) envelope (˚C)
0
2
Did you 6
know? 8
It takes light 10
about 8 minutes 12
to travel from
the Sun to Earth. 14
16
Analysis
1. What do you notice about the shapes of the graphs you drew? Are
the graphs straight lines or curves?
2. Which line on your graph is the steepest? What does this tell us?
3. Compare your results for the white paper and the shiny surface.
What does this tell you?
Evaluation
1. Did the investigation run smoothly? Or is there anything you would
change?
2. Did you get any results which did not seem to fit the overall pattern?
Take note Conclusion

Write a conclusion for your investigation. Remember to refer back to the
Radiation investigative question that we wanted to answer.
from the Sun
is essential to
The investigation showed that the dark envelope showed the biggest increase
life on Earth,
in temperature. The lighter-coloured envelope showed a smaller increase in
but ultraviolet
temperature. The envelope made out of a shiny material showed the smallest
radiation from
increase in temperature.
the Sun can
also be very So what have we learnt? Dark colours seem to absorb more of the Sun’s
damaging to our radiation than light or reflective colours. So, if you want to stay warm on a
skin. Remember cold day, dark clothing will absorb more of the available warmth from the
to wear sun Sun’s radiation than light colours.
cream and a hat
when outside, The average summer temperature in Hotazel, a town in the Northern Cape,
and avoid being is about 34 oC. If you lived in Hotazel and needed to buy a new car, would
in direct sunlight you buy a light- or dark-coloured car? Explain why.
between11 am You have the option of getting the car sprayed to make the surface shinier.
and 2 pm. Do you think this will help keep the car cool in hot, summer months?
Explain why.

Summary
Key concept
• Heat is energy that is transferred from a hotter to a cooler object.
• Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold a substance feels.
• Heat (energy transfer) occurs in three ways: conduction, convection or radiation.
• During conduction, the objects must be touching each other for energy transfer to take
place.
• Some materials, such as metals, conduct heat well. They are called conductors of heat.
• Some materials, such as plastics and wood, slow down or prevent conduction. They are
called insulators.
• Convection is the transfer of energy within liquids or gases.
• A convection current refers to the movement of a liquid or gas during energy transfer. The
liquid or gas moves upwards from the heat source (as it expands) and then downwards
when the liquid or gas cools (as it contracts).
• Radiation is the transfer of energy where objects do not have to be physically touching.
Radiation does not require a medium and can take place through empty space.
• The Sun’s energy is transferred to Earth by radiation.
• Dark, matt surfaces are good absorbers of radiant heat
• Light and shiny surfaces are poor absorbers of radiant heat. Light, shiny surfaces reflect
more radiant heat than they absorb.
Concept map
Below is a concept map showing how the different topics about heat link together. You need to
fill in the three different ways that energy can be transferred, as discussed in this chapter, but
you cannot just put any one into any box. You need to study the concepts which come after each
box and explain each way of transferring energy during heating.
Heat: is energy hotter cooler

Energy transfer when transferred from body to body
3 ways
prevented
insulators by reflected shiny surfaces
by
is is is is
absorbed dark surfaces
better in some by
materials transfer of energy transfer of energy transfer of energy
between by across
such as called
solid liquid or such sun's
objects gas particles space
good as energy
metals conductors
in that does not require to
direct contact movement of physical earth

move
particles contact

Revision
1. How is energy being transferred in the following photos showing different heating
processes? Write down conduction, convection or radiation. Some illustrations may
show more than one form. [4]
a) The heat from the Sun travels to Earth. b) Cooking food on a braai or fire.
c) Boiling water in a metal pot. d) A heater in a room.
2. In each of the following situations, identify the method of energy transfer taking place
(conduction, convection, radiation).
a) A fireplace has a glass screen in front of it. The person sitting in a chair next to the
fireplace chair feels hot due to ___________________. [1]
b) When you stir your tea with a metal spoon the handle gets hot because of ____________ [1]
c) When you are lying on the beach your skin feels hot because of _________________. [1]
3. Draw energy transfer flow charts for the following: You buy a cup of hot chocolate and
hold it in your hands on a cold winter day. [2]
4. Your parents have a metal hot-water cylinder (geyser) and they are complaining about the
amount of energy needed to keep the water hot. What can you recommend your parents
could do to prevent energy loss from the geyser? Explain your answer. [4]

5. Explain why the heating element for a kettle is at the bottom and not at the top. [3]
6. Explain why you think the water boils throughout the kettle pot and not just at the bottom? [2]
7. Explain why you think take-away coffee is sold in styrofoam cups rather than ceramic cups. [2]
8. Explain why you think two thin blankets can sometimes be warmer than one thick blanket. [2]
9. Explain why birds fluff up their feathers to stay warm, especially in winter. [2]
10. Why should you place an air conditioner at the top of a room, near the ceiling, rather than
at the bottom near the floor? [2]
11. Imagine you want to build a small enclosure for some chickens on your property. You
have an outside area for them that is made from barbed wire, and you have made a small
covered enclosure for them inside out of bricks and cement which you would like to paint.
You know that it can get quite cold in winter in your area so you want the house to be as
warm as possible for the chickens. What colour paint are you going to choose to paint the
outside of chicken house? Will it be a dark-coloured paint, such as brown or black, or a
light-coloured paint, such as white or yellow? Explain your choice. [4]
Total [30 marks]

Heat insulation and
12 energy saving
Key questions
• How can you keep your tea warm?
• Can you use the same materials to keep your house warm in winter and cool in summer?
• How do insulating materials assist with saving energy?
12.1 Why do we need insulating materials?

Keywords
Heat is the transfer of energy by conduction, convection or radiation, as we
• insulator learnt in the previous chapter. Often, we want this energy to be transferred
• conductor for heating. For example, when you place a heater in a room, you want the
energy to be transferred through convection and radiation to the room so
that the room becomes warmer.
In other situations, you want to prevent energy transfer. For example, on a
cold winter’s day, we need to minimise heat loss from the house, so that it
stays warm. Other objects, such as electric geysers, need to prevent energy
transfer to the surroundings so that the water inside stays warm. Materials
which are insulators can slow down or prevent energy transfer.
An example of where we want the transfer of energy to take place in some
parts of the system, but prevent it in other parts, is in a solar water heater.
The use of a solar water heater helps to save energy. This is not only because
the system is efficient at warming water, but we also use solar power which is
free, whereas we pay for electricity from the national grid and it puts further
demands on top of the national demand for electricity.
We use different materials in different situations depending on whether or
not we want energy transfer to take place. Let’s find out why, and discover
how a solar water heater works.
ACTIVITY How do solar water heaters work?
Instructions
1. Study the following diagrams, which show how a solar water system
works.
2. Answer the questions which follow.
There are several different types of solar water heaters. We will be looking at
the most efficient heater, which uses evacuated tubes.


Figure 12.1 A solar water heater on top of Figure 12.2 A close up photo of a solar water
a corrugated iron house. heater.
The following diagram shows the different parts of the solar water heater to
which we will be referring. Cold water flows into the cold water intake pipe
and then down the long tubes, called evacuated tubes. The water warms up
due to energy transfer from the Sun and it then flows into the storage tank at
the top. When someone wants hot water in the house, the hot water flows out
of the hot water output and down into the house.
insulation
inner outer case

tank of tank
cold water
intake
hot water
reflector
output
frame
evacuated inner
tube tube
Questions
1. Is solar power an example of a renewable or non-renewable energy
source?
2. When the cold water flows down the tubes, energy is transferred to the
water from the Sun. What type of heating is this?
3. In the tubes part of the system, we want energy transfer to take place,
so specific materials are used to make energy transfer as efficient as
possible. There is a shiny surface underneath the tubes called a reflector.
How does this help to increase the amount of energy that the water in
the tubes receive?
4. Do you see that there is a tank at the top to store the hot water? In this
part of the system we want to prevent energy transfer to the outside. This
tank consists of an inner tank and an outer case. If there were just these
two layers, made of metal, how could heat loss from the hot water to the
external environment occur?
Unit 12: Heat insulation and energy saving 221

5. However, something has been done to help prevent this transfer of
energy. What have they done to help keep the water warm while it is
stored?
6. Let’s now take a closer look at the evacuated tubes in a solar water heater.
Study the following diagram. The water runs down the central heat pipe.
There is an absorber plate below each pipe and this is enclosed within
two layers of tube.
radiation
vacuum
heat absorber
pipe plate
Can you see that there is an inner and an outer tube? Between these
tubes there is a vacuum. This means that the Sun’s energy can still pass
through to warm the water. However, when the energy is transferred
to the water, and it warms up, the vacuum prevents energy from
transferring back out by conduction or convection. Why is this so?
7. Underneath the heat pipe there is a plate which helps to absorb radiant
energy from the Sun and transfer it to the heat pipe. Why is it made of a
dark material and not a light material?
8. Do you see that the water at the bottom is cooler, indicated by the blue
colour, and the water at the top of the tube is warmer, indicated by the
red colour? When the cooler water moves to the bottom and the warmer
water moves to the top, what is this called?
9. This movement of water helps to move the hot water out of the tubes and
into the tank so that cold water can replace it.
10. Do you think the solar water heater is an energy efficient system? Why?
Now that we have looked at how different materials are used in different
situations depending on whether we want to prevent energy transfer or
allow it to take place, we are going to take a closer look at how we use those
materials that prevent energy transfer.
12.2 Using insulating materials

Before we start, write down your own definition for an insulator of heat.
Which materials work well as insulators of heat? Let’s first do a fun activity.

ACTIVITY Keep your coffee hot and your cold drink cold
Materials
• kettle
• two identical mugs, metal or ceramic
• tea or coffee
• alcohol thermometer
• various insulating materials
• timer or stopwatch
Instructions
1. Get into groups of three or four.
2. Design a method to keep a cup of tea warm for as long as possible.
You may use any materials that you have at home or provided by your
teacher.
3. Make your design.
4. Write a hypothesis for your planned design.
5. Fill your insulated cup with boiling hot tea.
6. Measure the temperature with a thermometer.
7. Keep the thermometer in the cup and time how long it takes to reach
room temperature (approximately 25 °C)
8. Fill the uninsulated cup with boiling hot tea and time how long it takes
to reach room temperature.
9. Repeat this activity using a cold drink in the cups.
Qusetions
1. What materials did you use to keep your tea warm?
2. Why did you choose those particular materials?
3. How did you attach the materials to the mug?
4. Draw a labelled diagram of your design to keep your tea warm.
5. How long did it take your tea to reach room temperature (25 °C)?
6. What materials did you use to keep your cold drink cold?
7. Why did you choose those particular materials?
8. How did you attach the materials to the mug?
9. Draw a labelled diagram of your design to keep your cold drink cold.
10. How long did it take your cold drink to warm up to room temperature
(25 °C))?
11. Why did you also time the uninsulated cups?
12. Was your hypothesis shown to be true or false?
What have you learnt from your attempts at keeping your hot drink warm
and your cold drink cool? Some materials trap heat really well and others
do not. Let’s now do a more formal investigation of some of the different
materials to find out which is the best insulating material.

Investigation Which is the best insulating material?
Aim
Write down an aim for this investigation.
• four beakers or tins
• four alcohol thermometers
• aluminium foil
• fabric
• newspaper
• plastic
• kettle
Method
1. Wrap one beaker with newspaper, one beaker with plastic, one
beaker with aluminium foil, and the fourth beaker with fabric.
2. Boil water in a kettle.
3. Pour 250 ml of boiling water into each beaker.
4. Put a thermometer in each beaker.
5. Measure the starting temperature of the water and then measure the
temperature of the water every 5 minutes for half an hour.
6. Write the measurements in the table in the results section.
7. Draw a graph representing the data you have collected.
Record your results in the following table.
Time Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
(minutes) of aluminium of newspaper of plastic (oC) of fabric (oC)
foil beaker (oC) (oC)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Draw a line graph for each type of material. You must plot each graph on
the same set of axes.
First, we need to think about which data is put on each axis.
1. What will you plot on the horizontal x-axis? This is the independent
variable.
2. What will you plot on the vertical y-axis? This is the dependent variable.
3. How are you going to show a difference between the lines for each
type of material on one graph?

Analysis
1. Which of your graphs has the steepest curve?
2. What does the steepness of the curve tell you about how quickly the
material allows heat to leave the water?
3. Arrange the materials in order from very good insulator to poor
insulators of heat.
4. Which material was the best conductor of heat? Explain your choice.
5. Which material was the best insulator of heat? Explain your choice.
6. If you had to keep a bottle of water cold for as long as possible, which
of the 4 materials would you choose? Explain your choice.
Figure 12.3 Here are some different Figure 12.4 And here is a close up of the
fabrics. fibres making up the fabric
Fabric is not generally used to keep our

hot drinks warm. In fact, most take-
away cups are made from Styrofoam.
Styrofoam is a good insulator of heat.
It is made from polystyrene which has
had air pumped through it. This makes
Styrofoam extremely light and the air
pockets make it a very good insulator.
Very useful applications of the use of
insulating materials are the cooler box
and the hot box.
Look at the following photo of a cooler
box. Cooler boxes are used to keep food
cold. You need to put ice blocks in with Figure 12.5 A cooler box.
the food to do so. The cooler box is made from
a thick layer of plastic. How does this help to keep the contents cool inside?
A hot box works in a similar way, but can be used to keep food warm for
long periods of time. There are many ways to construct a hot box.

ACTIVITY Building a hot box
Instructions
1. Depending on your teacher, he or she will either make a hot box as a
demonstration in class, or else you are required to design and make your
own hot box.
2. The hot box needs to keep a pot of rice and water brought to boiling
point hot enough so it finishes cooking.
3. If you are designing and making the hot box yourself or in a group, you
need to think about which materials will be the best insulators for the
hot box.
Questions
1. Draw a labelled diagram of the hot box design that either you, your
group, or your teacher made.
2. Why did you or your teacher use the specific materials to make the hot
box?
3. Why did you put rice with the water boiling, instead of cold water, into
the hotbox?
4. If you had something cold and you wanted to keep it cold, could you use
your hotbox? Explain your answer.
Keeping our homes warm in winter is also very important, and there are
different ways to do this. Let’s look at how our homes are insulated.
ACTIVITY Keeping our homes warm

The following image shows how heat is lost from a house, using a colour
scale to represent how much heat is lost. Red represents areas of high energy
transfer, yellow is
medium, and green
and blue are areas of
low energy transfer.
1. Which parts of
the house lose the
most heat?
2. How is heat lost
through these
places?
Convection also cools
down a house. Cold air
is drawn in through
gaps in doors and windows and is circulated through the house. Some of the
heat is lost by radiation through the walls, roof and windows. Let’s now make
our own model houses to see how we can prevent heat loss.

Materials
• model house template
• paper and cardboard
• glue
• sellotape
• pieces of fabric or cotton wool
• punch for making holes
• thermometer
• lamp (to simulate sunlight)
Instructions
1. Your teacher may provide you with a large model house template for
you to cut out. If not, copy the following template onto a large piece of
cardboard or design your own template for making a house.
2. Cut a small hole in the roof using the punch. This is for the thermometer.
3. Choose the number of windows you would like your house to have.
4. Cut out the windows. Use sellotape across the hole to act as glass.
5. Cut out a piece of fabric for the floor.
6. Glue the fabric to the floor of your model house.
7. Fold along the dotted lines and then glue the shaded flaps together to
make the house. Place the roof on top.
8. Insert the thermometer through the roof.
9. Set up the lamp so that it is shining directly onto your model house.
An alternative is to put the houses in a sunny place. This will depend on
the weather.
10. Take temperature readings every 5 minutes for half an hour.
11. Switch off the lamp, or bring your model out of the Sun, and measure the
temperature as the house cools down. Measure every 5 minutes for half
an hour.

Time (minutes) Temperature (˚C)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Draw a line graph of temperature versus time. Do not forget to include a

heading for your graph.
Questions
1. Why did your model house warm up when the lamp was shining on
it, or when it was placed in the Sun? Use your knowledge of radiation,
conduction and convection in your explanation.
2. Why did your model house cool down when the lamp was switched
off, or you brought your model back inside out of the Sun? Use your
knowledge of radiation, conduction and convection in your explanation.
3. What could you have changed in your model house in order to slow down
the energy transfer so that the house would not be too hot or too cold?
4. Think about your own home. What do you think you could do to
improve the insulation of your home in winter?
5. Will the suggestions you made in the previous question also work for
summer? Explain your answer.
In the previous unit you learnt that dark, matt surfaces are good absorbers of
radiation. Light, shiny surfaces are poor absorbers and they can reflect some
radiation. These properties are very important when choosing an insulating
material. In extremely hot climates, such as Greece, the local people paint
their houses white because the walls do not absorb as much heat during the
day and therefore stay cooler inside. The position of the house in relation
to the rising and setting of the Sun is also considered. For example, people
will build their houses facing away from direct sunlight if they live in very
hot areas.

Figure 12.6 Houses are painted white in Greece to keep them cool in the hot summers.
Let’s look at how some of the indigenous houses in Southern Africa make
use of insulating materials in the house structure.
Indigenous homes
The indigenous people of South Africa have many different ways of
insulating their homes. Here are some pictures of different homes from
different indigenous groups.
Figure 12.7 A thatched Zulu house. Figure 12.8 An Ndebele house.
Did you notice that the houses do not have windows, or the windows are
very small? Windows allow a lot of heat to escape a building and so these
designs rather leave those out. The roofs are made from thatch, which is
a poor conductor of heat. We know that most of the heat of a home is lost
through the roof and so by using an insulating material in the roof it helps to
minimise the heat loss in cold weather and heat gain in hot weather.
The roofs also extend further over the walls creating an overhang. The
overhang helps to shade the walls in summer but the winter sun can still
reach under the overhang. The walls are also very thick. How do you think
this helps?
We have now seen how our knowledge of insulating materials can be applied
in the world around us to come up with solutions for preventing heat loss.
Remember, be curious to discover the possibilities.

Summary
Key concept
• Heat is transferred by conduction, convection and radiation
• In some cases, heat transfer is advantageous, for example from a heater to the air in a room.
• In other systems, heat transfer needs to be minimised or prevented.
• Insulating materials are used to minimise heat loss or gain from systems.
• Metals are good conductors of heat. Non-metal materials are good insulators of heat. Non-
metals are used as insulating materials.
• We use insulators to keep our homes warm in winter and cool in summer. This helps to
conserve energy and electricity.
• Indigenous homes in Southern Africa make use of insulating materials to be energy
efficient in our climate.
Concept map
Complete the following concept map by identifying the three ways in which energy is
transferred.
Heat insulation
and energy saving
heat
useful when is
insulating slowed energy transfer through

materials down by
must be
improve
minimised
energy
efficiency
to reduce
in
heat loss heat gain
indigenous homes buildings
and technologies such as in such as in
appliances
electrical geysers cool boxes

Revision
1. What is an insulator? [1]
2. Are the following statements true or false? If they are false, explain why:
a) A tea cosy keeps the cold out. [2]
b) Space is empty and so it is impossible for energy to transfer between the Earth
and the Sun. [2]
c) On a cold day, insulating clothing reduces the energy transfer from your body to the
surroundings. [2]
3. A man is building a wooden house. He lives in a very cold area, especially in winter.
He has space for one window. He has two choices. He can put in a large window with a
single pane of glass or he can put in a smaller window which has 2 panes of glass separated
by a small air space trapped in between them. Which window do you think he should use?
Why did you choose that window? [3]
4. Take-away coffee is often served in paper cups with a corrugated cardboard layer on the
outside. Why are these materials used? [4]
5. You have designed a new material for insulating coffee cups. You’re hoping to make money
from this new material but you have to test that it works better than other materials. You
arrange a blind test to convince a group of people who might invest in your new company
so you can develop it.
6. The scientist who is performing the test is given 4 different materials, labelled A, B, C
and D. One of the 4 materials is your new material you have developed, but she does not
know which one it is. This is called a blind test. She takes 4 beakers and wraps each one in a
different material. She pours hot water into each beaker. She measures the temperature of the
water at the start of the experiment and again 30 minutes later. The following table shows
the results of her experiment.
Time (minutes) Material A (oC) Material B (oC) Material C (oC) Material D (oC)
0 70 70 70 70
30 34 30 50 48
a) What is the independent variable for this experiment? [1]

b) What is the dependent variable for this experiment? [1]
c) Draw a bar graph of the material collected. Show the starting temperature and
end temperature for each material as separate bars. [8]
d) After the experiment the results show that your material is the best insulator.
Based on the results, which material (A, B, C or D) is yours? [2]
e) How do you know? [2]
7. How does a thick woollen jersey help to prevent heat loss? [2]

8. Look at the following photo showing the inside of a ceiling in a house being
constructed. Do you see the pink material?
Figure 12.9 The ceiling in a new house being built.
a) What do you think this is for? [1]

b) How will it work? [2]
c) What type of climate do you think this house is being built in? Why? [2]
9. Marathon runners are often given thermal blankets at the end of a long race which are
made from plastic and have a shiny surface. This very thin, light blanket does not look
very warm at all.
a) How do you think it works? [2]
b) You might think that a wool blanket would be better for this purpose. Why do
you think the race organisers preferred to use these plastic blankets? [2]
10. Study the following diagram showing the parts that make up a solar water heating system.
This is a different type from the one we looked at in the beginning of the chapter. In this solar
water heater, instead of evacuated tubes, there is a flat solar panel, called a collector.
tank
solar panel
to heat water
a) What are the parts that make up this system? [3]

b) Why does it make sense to have the outlet pipe for the tank to go to the solar panel
at the bottom of the tank? [2]
c) Why do you think the tap is at the top of the tank? [2]
d) What sort of covering do you think this tank should have to make it the most
efficient system? [2]
Total [48 marks]

Energy transfer to
13 surroundings
Key questions
• What sort of useful energy output do some systems produce?
• What is meant by ‘wasted’ energy?
• What is a Sankey diagram?
• How do we draw Sankey diagrams?
13.1 Useful and wasted energy Keywords

This term we have been looking at energy transfers within systems. Systems
have an input energy and an output energy. Systems such as appliances, • Sankey
diagram
tools, vehicles and machines provide us with a useful output. Let’s look at
• input
some examples to identify what these outputs are in some systems.
• output
ACTIVITY Useful outputs from energy systems
Instructions
1. Look at each of the photos and identify what is useful to use from this
system. Write the answers in your exercise books.
System What useful output does it provide us with?
A light bulb.
An electric fan.
An electric iron.
2. What was the input for each of these systems?
Unit 13: Energy transfer to surroundings 233

Whenever we use an appliance or a machine we are transferring energy from
one object to another. Not all the energy is transferred where we want it, a lot
of it is transferred to the surroundings where it does not help us achieve our
aims. The energy which is transferred to the surroundings is ‘wasted’.
We can use a Sankey diagram to show how the energy is transferred in a
system. This gives us a picture of what is happening, and shows the input
energy and how the output energy is made up of useful energy (arrow at
the top) and wasted energy (arrow going to the bottom). Have a look at the
following general example.
useful The width of the arrows tell us

Did you Input
output something in these diagrams.
energy The input energy is the width of
know? energy
the original arrow. The width of
Sankey both the output energy arrows
diagrams are (useful and wasted) add up to
named after the width of the input arrow.
the Irishman, Why do you think this is so?
Captain Think back to what you learned
Matthew wasted output energy about energy within systems in
Sankey, who first Unit 2.
used this type of
diagram in 1898 Sankey diagrams are drawn to scale so that the width of the arrows gives us
in a publication a visual idea of how much energy is useful and how much is wasted. In the
on the energy diagram above, you can see that only a small part of the input energy was
efficiency of a useful and a large amount of the input was wasted by being transferred to the
steam engine. surroundings. An efficient system is one where the useful output energy is
only slightly smaller than the input energy. An inefficient system has a lot of
wasted energy. Do you think this is an efficient energy system? Why?
This brings us to our next point of how efficient an energy system is. If the
wasted energy is much larger than the useful energy output, then the system
is not energy efficient. The above Sankey diagram actually shows the energy
transfers for a light bulb. You identified the useful energy output as light in
the last activity. What do you think the wasted energy output is? Where does
it go?
Do you see that an incandescent light bulb is actually not a very efficient
system? This is because a lot of the energy is lost as heat as energy is
transferred to the surroundings. Is there something more efficient? Look at
the photo of a fluorescent light bulb.
A fluorescent light bulb is much more efficient than incandescent light bulbs
which use a heated wire to produce light. Most of the energy is lost as it is
Figure 13.1 A fluorescent
transferred to the surrounding air from the metal filament.
light bulb.
In a fluorescent light bulb, less energy is lost to the surroundings and more
energy is transferred to useful light energy. Use this information to draw a
Sankey diagram for a fluorescent light bulb.

Let’s look at another example.
Look at the woman in the photo using an electric drill. The electrical
energy from the drill is transferred to the drill bit as kinetic energy.
The drill bit turns and drills into the metal. But the drill also makes a
lot of noise. Energy is used to make sound and the drill bits get hot, so
some of the energy is converted into thermal energy. This means that
some of the electrical energy has been transferred to the surroundings
as sound and thermal energy. This is energy that has been ‘wasted’
because the sound and thermal energy are not useful to us.
Complete the following Sankey diagram by writing in what the energy
input is, and then the energy outputs.
Figure 13.2 Using an electric drill

to make a hole.
In order to draw a Sankey diagram you need to think carefully about the
input energy and how the input energy is transferred to the surroundings.
Let’s practice this a bit more in the following activity.
ACTIVITY Energy transfers in systems
Instructions
1. Look at the following photos of appliances.
2. Copy and complete the table below to show the energy transfers for
each photo.
Energy INPUT Useful Energy OUTPUT Wasted energy OUTPUT
Figure 13.3 Filament in a light bulb. Figure 13.4 Burning candles. Figure 13.5 An electric beater.

Figure 13.6 A car engine. Figure 13.7 Welding metal together.
Figure 13.8 Athletes running. Figure 13.9 A television.
Now that we have identified the energy transfers in each system and the
input and output energy, let’s practise drawing some more Sankey diagrams.
ACTIVITY Drawing Sankey diagrams

Let’s look at the example of a filament light bulb to draw a Sankey diagram.
A filament light bulb only uses about 10% of the input energy to generate
light, the rest is ‘wasted’ because it warms up the surrounding air without
producing any light. This
light
means that our Sankey energy
electrical
diagram must split into two energy 10%
parts: one for the light and one (100%)
for the thermal energy which is
transferred to the surroundings
(heat). The thermal energy
arrow must be 90% of the
width of the input arrow and
the light arrow must be 10% of
thermal energy (90%)
the width of the input arrow.

Instructions
Take note
1. Now draw a Sankey diagram for some of the appliances from the
In our previous
previous activity, which are listed below.
Sankey diagrams,
2. A description of the energy transfers has been provided for each
we just had one
appliance.
arrow for wasted
3. Concentrate on showing how the input energy is split between useful
energy output,
energy and wasted energy. Remember that the width of the arrow must
but it can split
show how much energy is transferred. A thick arrow means a large
into more than
amount of energy; a thin arrow means a small amount of energy.
one arrow to
4. Show the various input and output energies and the percentages.
represent the
• Electric beater:
different ways
The electric beater transfers 70% of the input energy to kinetic
in which energy
energy to beat the food, and 30% is wasted output energy in the
is wasted. There
form of thermal energy and sound.
could also be
• Car engine:
more than one
The car engine transfers only 30% of the input energy to move the
arrow for the
car, and 70% is wasted as sound and thermal energy.
useful energy. For
• Television:
example, in the
The television uses 80% of the input energy to create the images on
photo of the TV
the screen and sound, and 20% is wasted as thermal energy.
above, light and
sound are both
Questions
useful and could
1. Which is the most efficient system in the above three examples? Why? be represented
2. Which is the least efficient system in the above three examples? Why? by two arrows.
Most of our everyday activities require some form of electrical energy.

Electricity is produced by burning fuels and transforming the chemical Take note
potential energy into kinetic energy to generate electricity. Fossil fuels,
such as coal, store huge amounts of energy but we can only harness a Remember,
small percentage of that energy. A lot of the energy is transferred to the energy is
surroundings in the form of heat, sound and light. measured in
joules (J).
ACTIVITY Researching energy transfers

In the last activity we looked
at the energy transfers in a
car engine. However, we used
only one arrow to represent
the wasted energy. We can
show a difference between
the ways in which energy is
wasted in a Sankey diagram.

Copy the Sankey diagram into your exercise book, then use the following
information to label it:
• The input energy in a car engine is supplied by the combustion of petrol.
• Only 30% of the energy is transferred to useful output energy as
movement.
• About 70% of the energy is transferred to the surroundings in the form
of thermal energy and sound. Some of the energy is lost in cooling down
the engine.
−− 40% is lost as thermal energy to the surroundings.
−− 20% is lost in cooling the engine.
−− 10% is lost as sound.
ACTIVITY Researching energy transfers

In a power station, energy is transferred through the system in order to
produce electricity. During the transfer of energy through the system, some
of the energy is wasted.
1. Use the internet or other resources to find the different ways in which
energy is transferred to the surroundings as wasted energy during the
production of electricity in a power plant.
2. Write a short paragraph to explain the energy transfers; how the input
energy is transferred through the system, and where the wasted energy
is lost?
3. Draw a Sankey diagram for the energy transfers.

Summary
Key concepts
• Energy entering a system is called the input energy.
• The energy is transferred in a system to provide a useful output energy.
• Tools, appliances, vehicles and machines all provide useful energy outputs.
• Not all of the input energy is transferred to a useful output. Some of the energy is wasted or
lost. The useful output is therefore less than the input energy as some of the output energy
is wasted.
• An example is a light bulb, where the input is electricity and the useful output is light.
However, a large amount of the energy is lost to the surroundings as thermal energy.
• The efficiency of a system is determined by how much of the input energy is transferred to
useful output energy. The greater the wasted output energy, the less efficient the system.
• A Sankey diagram is used to show the energy transfers in a system.
• In a Sankey diagram, the arrows represent the portion of the input energy which
is transferred to useful energy output and the portion which is transferred to the
surroundings and wasted.
Concept map
Complete the concept map by giving two examples of systems where energy is transferred to
the surroundings and ‘wasted’ as sound and thermal energy, and one example of where the
wasted energy output is light.
vehicles
appliances machines
such as
Energy transfer
to surroundings from systems
provide
is
due to
wasted energy useful output energy
escapes as less than
light input energy

heat sound
such as such as such as

Revision
1. What is meant by ‘wasted’ energy? [2]
2. Draw a simple Sankey diagram to show the energy transfers in a system where the wasted
energy output is more than the useful energy output. [4]
3. For each of the following situations, draw a labelled Sankey diagram to show the amount of
input energy, useful energy and wasted energy.
useful
output
Input
energy
energy
wasted output energy
a) An electrical torch converts 100 joules (J) of electrical energy to 10 J of light energy
and 90 J of thermal energy. [3]
Figure 13.10 An electric torch.
b) A television has an energy output of 500 J. 400 J is in the form of light. 50 J is in the
form of sound and 50 J is thermal energy. [3]
Figure 13.11 A television set.

c) A hair dryer converts 300 J of energy into 150 J of kinetic energy, 100 J of thermal
energy and 50 J of sound energy. [3]
Figure 13.12 A hair dryer.
4. Write a description of the energy transfers in each of the situations in question 2. [6]
5. What is the difference between a filament light bulb and an energy-saving light bulb? [2]
6. Why is an energy-saving light bulb better at saving energy than a filament light bulb? [3]
7. In the last unit we looked at insulating materials and how they help reduce energy
transfer. Use this knowledge, and what you have learned in this unit about input energy, useful
output energy and wasted energy, to explain why an electric geyser should have an insulating
layer on the outside. [4]
8. In the electric geyser, the heating element is placed near the bottom of the geyser.
Why is this? [2]
Total [32 marks]

The national electricity
14 supply system
Key questions
• How does Eskom produce electricity?
• What energy is transferred during electricity generation?
• How does the electricity reach our homes?
• Can we use as much electricity as we like?
• How can we save electricity?
Keywords 14.1 Energy transfers in the national grid

Do you remember learning about the mains electricity supply in Grade 6
• national Energy and Change? We learnt that the electricity that is used to power our
electricity grid homes, schools, shops and other buildings is generated in power stations and
• Eskom delivered to us in the national electricity grid. In this unit we are going to
• turbine
be looking in more detail at how electricity is generated and delivered to the
• generator
consumers.
• dynamo
• solenoid
• geyser The national grid is a system
• transformer Let’s look at the different parts of the national electricity grid.
• pylon
• consumption
ACTIVITY Overview of the national electricity grid
The following is a diagram of the national electricity grid. This gives you an
overview of the process and different steps that we will be discussing.
national transmission lines transformer
power station
substation
houses, shops and other buildings
Questions
1. Write your own definition of a system.
2. What does the Law of Conservation of Energy tell us about the energy in
a system?

3. Look at the diagram of the national electricity grid. Do you think it is a
system? Why? Take note
4. The national electricity grid is actually a big electrical circuit. Look at the In the simple
following diagram of a simple electric circuit that you might have made circuit, the circuit
in class and the diagram of the national grid. We can draw similarities is completed
between this circuit and the national electricity grid to understand it. as the wire
_ goes from the
+
bulb back to
the battery. We
cannot see this
in the national
electricity grid,
but there are
The battery is the source of potential energy in the simple circuit. What also power
generates electricity in the national electricity grid? lines which
5. In the simple circuit, the conducting wires transmit the electricity in the connect back
circuit. What does this job in the national electricity grid? to the station to
6. In the simple circuit, the useful output energy is to make the light bulb complete the
light up. What are some of the useful outputs in the buildings where the circuit.
electricity is delivered to in the national electricity grid.
7. In Unit 9 of this term, we discussed sources of energy. What is the source
of energy for the power station in the diagram?
8. Is this a renewable or non-renewable energy source? Why?
9. We can divide the national electricity grid up into 4 main stages. These are:
A: Generation (this is where electricity is generated)
B: Transmission (the electricity enters the power lines of the national
grids and is transmitted)
C: Distribution (the electricity is distributed at substations to various
towns and areas)
D: Consumers (this is where the electricity is transferred to useful
energy outputs)
Use this information to write the letters A, B, C and D on the diagram of
the national electricity grid in order to label these stages.
Let’s now take a closer look at the first stage in the national electricity grid,
namely how electricity is generated. Did you
know?
How electricity is generated and supplied The cooling
Do you remember that in Unit 10 we looked at another renewable way that tower on the
electricity is generated using a hydropower plant? The water in the dam was left in the photo
used to turn the turbine to generate electricity. What energy did the water is covered in the
have when it was at the top in the dam? largest mural
painting in
What was this energy transferred to as the water fell and turned the turbine?
South Africa.
In South Africa most of the power stations use coal for fuel. We are therefore
going to learn more about how coal-powered power stations work. The coal
is mined out of the earth. It is then transported to the power station in large
trucks or trains.
Unit14: The national electricity supply system 243

Figure 14.1 This is the Orlando Power Station in Soweto Figure 14.2 A coal-powered power station.
which served Johannesburg for 50 years from 1951. It
is not used any more. The painted cooling towers are
seen most prominently.
Let’s take a closer look at what happens inside a power station. Have a look at
the following diagram.
power lines
coal
turbine generator
pulveriser
transformer
furnace
cooler
1. The large chunks of coal are first crushed into a fine powder. This is
Take note called pulverisation.
2. The coal is then transported to a furnace, where it is burnt.
We will learn 3. The thermal energy from the burning coal is used to boil water and
about how coal generate steam.
is formed next 4. The steam pushes the blades of the turbine and so the turbine spins.
term in Planet 5. The turbine is connected to the shaft of the generator which then turns
Earth and Beyond. large magnets within wire coils, ad generates electricity.
6. The electric current is sent through the power lines to businesses and
homes.
Now that we know the basic process for producing electricity, let’s look more
closely at how energy is transferred from one part to another in the system.

Energy transfers in the national grid
In a coal-powered power station, the potential energy stored in the coal is
used to boil water to produce steam.
The thermal energy in the steam is transferred to a turbine. This allows the
turbine to turn, which means that the turbine now has kinetic energy. Can
you see how energy is transferred from a thermal system to a mechanical
system?
Figure 14.3 A steam turbine with the outer case removed.
How does the steam make the turbine turn? Let’s make a simple turbine
(pinwheel) and see how it works.
ACTIVITY Turning a pinwheel
Materials
• sheet of A5 paper
• stiff cardboard
• straw
• pin
• kettle
Instructions
1. Start with a piece of paper. Fold the rectangular A5 page into a square.
of paper. Fold
page into a square.
o cut off any

1.Start with a piece of paper. Fold
the rectangular A5 page into a square.
Instructions:
Instructions:
Instructions:
2. Use the scissors to cut off any excess paper.
2.
theUse
1.Start the scissors
rectangular
with A5to
a piece ofcut
page off
intoany
paper. a square.
Fold
excess paper. A5 page into a square.
the rectangular
Instructions:
2. Use the scissors to cut off any
1.Start paper.
excess
Instructions:with a piece of paper. Fold
1.Start
2. Use thewith a piecetoofcut
scissors paper.
off any Fold
Instructions:
3.
excess
2. Fold
theUse thescissors
rectangular
paper.
the square A5corner
topage into
cut off 3.a square.
to corner
any Fold the square corner to corner and then unfold so that you have
and
excess
1.Start then unfold
paper.
with a pieceso that you have
of paper. Fold diagonal crease marks.
diagonal
the crease A5
rectangular marks.
page into a square.
3. Fold the square corner to corner
Instructions:
2. Use the scissors to cut off any
and then unfold so that you have
excess
1.Start paper.
with a piece
diagonal
2.
3. 4. Use
Make
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the pencil
scissors toofcut
marks.
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way from page into
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Fold the unfold
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that to have
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along each diagonal line.
2.
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then
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mark cut off any
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have
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diagonal paper.
crease marks.
third of the way from the centre diagonal line.
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line. to corner
5.
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and
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make sure your pin goes
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9.
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also
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to
or turn.
straw.
bead in between the pinwheel free to turn. You can also place a small bead in between the pinwheel
You
Make can
and the sure that the pinwheel is free and the stick to make sure it spins easily.
also
stick place a small
bead
to in between the pinwheel
turn.
9. Stick the pin into a thin stick
and
You the stick
can also place a small
or straw.
bead in between
Make sure that the the pinwheel
pinwheel is free
and the
to turn. stick
You can also place a small
bead in between the pinwheel
and the stick
10. Boil a kettle. The kettle must be full and boiling rapidly.
11. Hold the pinwheel over the spout of the boiling kettle and watch it.
Questions
1. What happened to the pinwheel when it was held in the steam from the
boiling kettle?
2. Why did the pinwheel turn? Explain the energy transfers which are
taking place.
The turning turbine is attached to the axle of a generator. The turning Take note
turbine turns the generator. So the turbine transfers its kinetic energy to the
We will learn
generator.
more about
A generator consists of a very large solenoid with a large rotating magnet. electromagnets
The solenoid is made up of thousands of coils of conducting wire. When next year in
the magnet is turned inside the coil, the generator produces electricity. The Grade 8.
electricity is then sent to our homes through the national grid power lines.
We use the energy in our homes to make our appliances work.
Figure 14.5 The national power lines transmit electricity across the country from the power
stations.
ACTIVITY Energy transfers
Instructions
1. Use the information given in this unit about how electricity is produced
to draw a flow diagram of the energy transfers which take place in the
production of electricity in a coal power station.
2. Start with the burning of coal and end with the transmission of
electricity in the power lines.

Dynamos
Take note Eskom produces electricity by using large generators, but we can produce
A dynamo electricity on a smaller scale using a dynamo. A dynamo is a type of
is a type of generator and they are considered to be the device that came before and led
generator, but a to the development of the modern-day electrical generators that are used
generator is not now all over the world. However, dynamos are still used in some places
necessarily where a low current is needed.
a dynamo. A bicycle light is powered by a small dynamo. A bicycle dynamo has a small
magnet which is turned inside a metal coil. The magnet is turned by the
motion of the bicycle wheel.
Figure 14.6 A dynamo on the wheel of a bicycle.
Do you see the cog which turns at the top as the wheel goes around? This
turns the magnet enclosed in the dynamo. Explain the transfer of energy in
this system.
What is the advantage of having a dynamo on the bicycle, rather than a
battery, for example?
Dynamos are also used in mining helmets and wind-up torches and radios.
If a miner’s light on his helmet goes out, he can just wind up the dynamo
again to generate electricity for the light. This is very useful when miners
are deep underground and they cannot afford to have no light. A battery-
powered light has the risk of running out and there is no way to recharge it
when underground.
Electricity is very expensive to produce and, in South Africa, we rely heavily
on non-renewable sources of energy such as coal. The burning of fossil
fuels releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, causing damage to our
environment. We therefore need to conserve electricity.

14.2 Conserving electricity in the home Keyword
In South Africa, electricity is produced by Eskom and sent to our homes
through the wires of the national grid. Eskom charges us for the electricity • conserve
we use. In order to save money and to preserve our environment, we need to
make sure that we use as little electricity as possible.
There are many ways to cut down on the amount of
electricity we use in our homes, simple things such as
switching off lights when you leave a room, or using
extra blankets to keep warm rather than a heater. Air-
conditioners also use a lot of electricity, so using them only
when really necessary will also help to save electricity.
There are several common household appliances which
use a lot of electricity. The elements of an electric stove and
ovens use a lot of electricity in order to stay hot enough to
cook food. Electricity can be saved by making sure that the
oven is switched off as soon as the food has been cooked.
An electric stove usually has several different sizes of heating Figure 14.7 An electric oven.
elements. In the photo there are two large plates and two
smaller ones. It is important to use small pots on small elements and large pots on
larger elements. Why do you think this is?
ACTIVITY Geyser blankets and solar geysers

Any appliance that produces heat requires a lot of electricity. A geyser is an
appliance which uses a lot of electricity. A geyser is a cylindrical tank which is
used to warm and store hot water for people to use in their homes. It takes a lot
of energy to warm the water and a great deal of electricity is needed. A lot of
the energy transferred to the water is wasted because the air around the geyser
gets warmed up as energy leaves the water and is transferred to the air. The
geyser has to keep warming the water to keep the temperature constant.
One way to help reduce the energy transferred to the surrounding air is to
use a geyser blanket. Geyser blankets are usually between 50 mm and 150
mm thick and are often made from fibreglass and other insulating materials.
They are covered with a reflective aluminium layer.
Solar geysers do not use electricity from the national grid for their energy
needs. We have already learnt about how they work.
Questions
1. Use your knowledge of insulating materials to explain how a
geyser blanket could help reduce energy loss from the water to the
surroundings, and therefore conserve electricity.
2. How does installing a solar geyser contribute to relieving demand placed
on the national grid?

Let’s look at some more ways to conserve electricity.
ACTIVITY Conserving electricity
Instructions
In your exercise books, copy and look at the grid below. If the instruction
helps to SAVE electricity, colour it in BLUE. If the statement WASTES
electricity, colour it in RED.
Turning off Leaving lights on in Using an electric Using fluorescent Using filament
appliances when an empty room blanket light lights
on holiday
Wearing jerseys Leaving outside Using an electric Running full loads Switching off the
and warm clothes lights on during toothbrush in the washing geyser during the
in winter the day machine day
Boiling a full kettle Using a gas heater Hanging clothes Turning the TV off Using a geyser
outside to dry when no one is blanket
watching
Running half-loads Leaving the oven Using an electric Running an air- Using a tumble
in a dishwasher on when nothing is can opener conditioner with dryer
cooking the windows open
Look at all of your red blocks. Rewrite each statement so that it changes from
a waste of electricity to a method of saving electricity.
Questions
1. Make a list of the electrical appliances in your home. Walk through your
home and make sure to count every item. What could you do, in your
home, to help your family conserve electricity?
2. Our country relies heavily on fossil fuels for our energy supply. Eskom
power stations use coal, which is a non-renewable energy source. How
can saving electricity in our homes help to reduce our negative impact
on the environment?
3. What renewable energy alternatives could your family use in your house
to reduce your use of electricity supplied by coal-powered stations
through the national electricity grid?
ACTIVITY Writing a letter to your local newspaper

You have just found out that there are plans to build a new coal-powered power
station just outside your home town. Your local community is upset about this
because of the effects of the pollution on the environment. Your community
also feels that greater measures are needed to change the way we rely so heavily
on non-renewable sources. We should rather be looking at alternative ways of
generating electricity. You decide to do some research about the best possible
solution for a power station, other than one which uses fossil fuels.

Instructions Did you
1. You decide to write a letter to your local newspaper explaining your know?
findings, your community’s concerns, and your alternative suggestion. ‘Citizen science’
2. Use your knowledge from this term’s work and think about the best means that the
possible solution for your area. For example, perhaps there is a dam general public
nearby which could be used for a hydroelectric power plant? Perhaps takes part in
there is a windpower farm close by which could be expanded? and conducts
3. You need to think critically and present a constructive solution to the scientific
problem. research.
4. Write your letter in your exercise books.
5. Reference any sources you use.
Careers in electricity
There are many different careers in the field of electricity generation.
Engineers, both mechanical and electrical, are needed to help design and run
the processes of electricity generation. Technicians and artisans are needed
to build and maintain the power generators. Research scientists are also
needed to help test and develop new technologies.
ACTIVITY Career research
Instructions
Choose an electricity-related career which you find interesting and research
the career. You can do this by searching on the internet or in books. Some
careers to find out about are those in the field of electricity generation,
including engineers, scientists, artisans and technicians.
What does a day in the life of this career involve?

Summary
Key concepts
• The national electricity grid is a system in which the energy is conserved. It makes a
complete circuit.
• In a coal power station, the coal is burned and steam is produced. The steam turns a
turbine. The turbine turns a generator which produces electricity. This is transferred to the
powerlines in the national grid.
• Eskom uses coal-powered stations and generates electricity using generators.
• Dynamos are a type of generator that can be used to produce small amounts of electricity,
such as a for a bicycle lamp.
• Electricity is expensive and we need to conserve electricity to reduce our household costs.
• Fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. When fossil fuels are burnt they release
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. We need to reduce our electricity consumption in
order to reduce pollution.
• There are many practical ways to conserve electricity within our homes.
Concept map
Complete the concept map below by filling in some of the ways to save energy.
The national electricity grid system to

supply system (circuit) supply electrical energy
starts with is
energy
limited
coal, oil, gas,
nuclear fuels from
therefore need to
such as sources
transferred to save energy

falling water, wind
turbines of by
dynamos transferred to
are small
generators
used in
transfer
helmets bicycle radios
lights mechanical movement
into electrical
appliances
electricity transferred wires transfer
into energy to lights
252 Topic 3 Energy and change

Revision n
1. Why do you think we refer to the national electricity supply as a grid? [2]
2. What is the main source of energy for power stations in South Africa? [1]
3. What is Eskom? [1]
4. Look at the diagram of a power station. Write a paragraph to describe the process by which
electricity is produced in a coal power station. [7]
coal
5. Turbine 7. Substation
4. Boiler
1. Coal mine
2. Pulveriser
3. Container 6. Generator
5. We have mostly looked at coal power stations and how energy from coal is transferred to
the turbine. What other energy sources can be used? [3]
6. The following graph shows the energy supply in South Africa from the various sources of
energy. These percentages include the electricity production, consumption and export for
each source in 2010. Answer the questions that follow.
a) What type of graph is this? [1]
b) What do all the percentages add up to in this type of graph? [1]
c) What percentage of our energy supply comes from coal, as shown in 2010? [1]
d) What percentage of our energy supply came from fossil fuels in total in 2010? [2]
e) Does South Africa rely more on renewable or non-renewable energy supply? [1]
f) What energy source is the smallest supply in South Africa, as in 2010? [1]
g) What is the impact of our country’s reliance on non-renewable energy sources? [3]
7. Use the chart to draw a table showing this data. [6]
oil (19%)
solid biomass
and waste (10%)
coal (67%) natural gas (2%)

nuclear (< 2%)
hydro power (< 1%)

8. Why does a miner need a dynamo instead of a battery for his helmet light? [2]
9. List 3 ways in which you could save electricity in your home. [3]
10. The following table shows the amount of energy used by some kitchen appliances in one hour.
Appliance Kilojoules
Coffee machine 2 400
Electric stove 10 800
Electrical frying pan 4 500
Hot plate – large 8 600
Hot plate – small 4 600
Kettle 6 800
Microwave oven 4 400
Toaster 3 600
Snackwich 4 300
Food processor 600
a) Use the table to draw a bar graph. [5]

b) Which appliance uses the most electricity? [1]
c) How could you conserve electricity by continuing to cook your food in another
system, once it has warmed up? Hint: You might have made one of these in a previous
activity! [1]
Total [42 marks]

Glossary 3
absorb to take in hydrocarbon a molecule which consists of
hydrogen and carbon atoms bonded together
biofuel a fuel made from biological materials hydropower the energy harnessed from a
such as soya, maize or sugar cane; examples moving water source, such as a river or a
of these fuels are biodiesel and methanol waterfall
conduction the transfer of energy between input something that enters a system and is
objects that are in direct contact with each altered by the system to produce an output
other insulator a substance which resists the
conductor a substance which allows heat, sound movement of heat, sound or electric charge
or electric charge to pass through it easily; a through it
good conductor allows free passage while a
poor conductor allows partial passage joule the standard, international unit of
conservation a quantity stays constant; measurement for energy
something is not lost or destroyed
conserve to make something last longer by kinetic energy energy that a body has when it
using it carefully is moving
consistent reliable and predictable law in science, a law is a statement of what
consumption using up a resource happens and it is based on repeated
convection current the movement of liquid experiments and observations
and gas particles as the substance warms up
and rises and then cools and moves down matt not glossy or shiny
again to form a current methane a colourless, odourless gas which is
convection transfer of energy through a liquid often called natural gas
or gas by the movement of liquid or gas national electricity grid the network of cables,
particles pylons and transformers which transfer
electricity throughout the country
dynamo a small generator that can be used for
powering a bicycle light, a mine helmet or a non-renewable a resource, such as coal, that
wind up torch cannot be replenished or there is a limited
supply of it
fossil fuel non-renewable energy sources, nuclear the type of energy released when a
namely coal, oil and natural gas large atomic nucleus breaks up or two smaller
generator a machine used to convert ones combine
mechanical energy into electrical energy output the end result of a process
geyser a cylindrical tank that is used to warm
and store hot water potential energy energy that is stored in a
greenhouse gases gases in the atmosphere that system
contribute to the greenhouse effect; these pylon a large vertical steel tower which
gases include carbon dioxide and methane supports electrical power cables
heat heat is the energy transferred between radiation the transfer of energy from a source
two objects as a result of the temperature that does not require physical contact or
difference between them; it also refers to movement of particles
when energy is transferred between a system reflect to throw back heat, light or sound
and the environment as a result of the without absorbing it
temperature difference between them; it is
measured in joules (J).
Unit 14: Glossary 3 255

renewable something which is continuously
replenished or there is an unlimited supply
of it
reservoir a large container or space in which a
gas or liquid can be stored
Sankey diagram a Sankey diagram is used
to show the difference between input and
output energy
solenoid a current carrying coil or coils of
conducting wire
system a system is any set of parts working
together to carry out a particular function
temperature a measure of how hot or cold a
substance feels; it is measured in degrees
Celsius (˚C).
theory in science, a theory is an explanation of
why or how something happens
thermal relating to heat
transfer to move from one object or place to
another; in an energy system, we say energy
is transferred from one object to another
transformer an electrical device to transfer
energy between two parts of the circuit in the
national electricity grid
turbine a set of curved blades on a central,
rotating spire

STRAND
Planet Earth and Beyond

Relationship of the Sun to
15 the Earth
Key questions
• Why do we have night and day?
• Why do we experience seasons on Earth?
• Do other planets have seasons too?
• How does the Sun influence life on Earth?
The Sun is our closest star. It is

Keywords a huge ball of very hot gas in
• sphere space which radiates heat and
• axis light in all directions. All the
• rotation planets, including our home,
• revolution the Earth, travel around the
• day Sun in orbits. As we will see in
• orbit this unit, the Sun is incredibly
important: it provides us with
light and warmth, and its
apparent motion across our sky
causes day and night and the
passage of the seasons. Figure 15.1 Our Sun.
Did you
know? 15.1 Solar energy and the Earth’s seasons
Different planets Earth’s rotation
take different Let’s start off with seeing what you can remember learning about day and
amounts of night in Grade 6.
time to make
one complete
rotation on their ACTIVITY Day and night revision exercise
axis and so they
have different Instructions
lengths of days.
Venus is the Answer the questions in the table below.
most sluggish
rotator of all the Questions
planets in our
solar system 1. In which direction would you have to look to see the Sun rising?
– it takes 243 2. In which direction would you look to see the Sun setting?
Earth days to 3. At what time is the Sun at its highest point in the sky?
complete one 4. At midnight, where is the Sun in relation to your position on the Earth?
rotation. A 5. How long does it take the Earth to complete one rotation on its axis?
Venus day lasts
longer than 200
If you follow the path of the Sun during the day you will see that it rises in
days on Earth!
the east and sets in the west. The Sun reaches its highest point at noon
258 STRAND Planet Earth and Beyond

(midday). Why do you think it looks as though the Sun moves across the sky
during the day?
12 pm
2 pm
8 am
6 pm 6 am
Figure 15.2 The Sun is at different positions in the sky during the day. But is it the Sun that
is moving?
Let’s do an activity to find out!
ACTIVITY Movement of a classroom Sun
Materials
• yellow round balloon or ball which can be hung from the ceiling
• string for hanging the ball or balloon
Instructions
1. Hang up the balloon or ball from the ceiling using the string close to
one of the corners in your classroom. Make sure that the balloon/ball
is high up and visible from the back of the classroom. The balloon/ball
represents the Sun.
2. Stand up in your classroom and face the balloon/ball.
3. Now slowly turn on the spot in a clockwise direction keeping your head
still, completing two or three turns.
4. Repeat the activity but this time turn in an anti-clockwise direction.
Questions
1. As you turned clockwise what direction did the hanging balloon/ball
appear to move?
2. As you turned anti-clockwise what direction did the hanging balloon/
ball appear to move?
3. Did the hanging Sun actually move?
4. Why do you think we see the Sun move across the sky?
As you can see the hanging Sun is not really moving, it just appears to move
because you are turning. This is also true for the real Sun in the sky. The Sun
does not really move, it just appears to move because the Earth is turning on
its axis. So, it is the Earth’s rotation that causes the apparent movement of the
Sun across the sky during the day.
Unit 15: Relationship of the Sun to the Earth 259

ACTIVITY Daytime and night time
Materials
• a globe (or a ball/balloon with the shapes of the continents drawn on it)
which can be hung from the ceiling
• string for hanging the globe
• non-permanent marker or sticker
• desk lamp or torch
• black bin bags or curtains to darken the room
It is incorrect to 1. If you do not have a globe, you can make a model of the Earth yourself
talk about the in class. Use any ball. Draw the Equator and mark the North and South
Sun ‘burning’. Poles.
The Sun is not 2. Mark with a dot/sticker your position on the globe.
‘burning’ in the 3. Hang the globe from the ceiling near the middle of the class. It should be
way a fire does. at about eye level height. The globe represents the Earth.
Remember, a fire 4. Darken the room.
burning on Earth 5. Shine a desk lamp or torch on the globe facing Africa and keep the lamp/
requires oxygen torch steady in this position. The torch represents the Sun.
and there is no 6. Walk around the globe so that you can see all of it. Is it all lit up by the
oxygen in space. torch? How much of it is lit and how much is dark?
Rather, the gas 7. The lit area represents daytime and the dark area represents night time.
is very hot and Is your dot/sticker in daytime or night time?
glows as a result. 8. Now turn the globe anti-clockwise, half a turn. Is your dot/sticker in
daytime or night time?
9. Where is it now daytime?
10. Keep turning the globe anti-clockwise until your dot/sticker is back in its
original position and lit again. How long would it take on the real Earth
for the dot to complete one rotation like this?

So, now you can see how the Earth’s
rotation about its axis causes day and
night. When one half of the Earth is lit up
by the Sun, the other half is in darkness. It
is daytime in the lit half and night-time in
the dark half. As the Earth spins you move
from light to shadow and back to light
again over the course of one day
(24 hours).
During the night you cannot see the
Sun move across the sky, but if you look
carefully you will notice that the stars
move across the sky, just like the Sun does.
It takes the Earth 24 hours to make one Figure 15.3 This picture of the SALT telescope near Sutherland
complete turn (called a rotation) on its was taken at night with the camera shutter left open. You can
axis, so an Earth day is 24 hours long. see the star trails due to the Earth’s rotation.
You now know that the Earth rotates on its axis completing one turn every
24 hours. But which way does it turn? Let’s see if you can figure it out.
ACTIVITY Which way does the Earth rotate?
Materials
• a ball or balloon
• string for hanging the ball
Instructions
1. Hang up the balloon or ball from the ceiling using the string close to
one of the corners in your classroom. Make sure that the balloon/ball is
high up and visible from the back of the classroom. The ball represents
the Sun.
2. Stand up in your classroom and face the balloon/ball.
3. Now slowly turn on the spot in a clockwise direction keeping your head
still, completing two or three turns. Are you turning to your left or right?
Note what happens to the hanging balloon or ball. Did you
4. Now repeat the activity, but this time turn in an anti-clockwise direction. know?
Are you turning to your left or right? Note what happens to the hanging
The only planet
balloon or ball.
that rotates on
5. What do you notice about the direction that you turn (left or right) and
its side like a
the direction that the hanging Sun appears to move?
barrel is Uranus.
6. Which direction does the Sun appear to move across the sky, east to
The only planet
west or west to east? Given your answer to question 5, which way do you
that spins
think the Earth is really turning?
backwards
7. Look at the following picture showing the Earth from space. Using
relative to the
your answer to question 6, is the Earth spinning in a clockwise or anti-
others is Venus.
clockwise direction? Draw the direction on the picture below.

Figure 15.4 This colour image shows
Keywords North and South America (green
• solar energy and brown continents) as they
• intensity would appear from space.
• oblique
• direct
• indirect
• equator
• equinox
• hemisphere
• tilt
• season
• solstice
Earth’s revolution
The Earth revolves around the Sun in an almost perfect circle, completing
one revolution (orbit) around the Sun per year (or 36514 days to be precise).
As the Earth revolves around the Sun it also rotates (spins) on its axis at the
same time. Having two words both beginning with ‘r’ relating to movement
can be confusing! Let’s check now that you know what they mean before we
continue.
In your own words explain what is meant by the Earth’s rotation.
In your own words explain what is meant by the Earth revolving.
Different planets take different amounts of time to make one complete
revolution around the Sun and so their years have different lengths. The
planets further from the Sun will have bigger orbits, as shown in the
diagram, and therefore take longer to revolve around the Sun.
Mercury
Mars
Jupiter Sun
Venus
Earth Saturn
asteroid belt
Uranus
Neptune
Figure 15.5 Our solar system.

Why do we have seasons?
Did you
As the Earth travels around the Sun it receives solar energy in the form of
know?
light and heat, emitted from the Sun. Do you remember that in Energy and
Change last term, we spoke about how heat is transferred from the Sun, to Mercury has a
Earth through space? What is this called? year of just 88
Earth days, and
We are very lucky to have our Sun! If the Earth did not receive any energy
Neptune has
from the Sun the Earth would be cold and lifeless. Have you noticed that
a year of 164
the average temperature is not the same all year round? We experience the
Earth years.
seasons: winter, spring, summer and autumn. It is generally much warmer in
summer and cooler in winter. Why do you think that is?
Let’s first make sure that we know some of the terminology about Earth
before continuing.
ACTIVITY Label the Earth

Take note
Instructions
The amount of
Using the word bank, label the diagram of the Earth below. solar energy the
Earth receives is
Word bank called ‘insolation’
which comes
• Northern Hemisphere
from the words:
• Southern Hemisphere
‘incoming solar
• Equator
North Pole radiation’.
•
• South Pole
You may already have some thoughts about why we get different seasons
throughout the year.
ACTIVITY What causes the seasons? Guesses!
Instructions
Which of the statements in the table do you think are true and which do
you think are false? Copy the table and write your answers in the right-hand
column.
Statement True or False

We experience winter because the Sun emits
less energy in winter.
We experience summer because we are closer
to the Sun during summer.

Statement True or False
If it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere it is
winter in the Southern Hemisphere too.
Daytime is longer in the summer because the
Earth spins more slowly in the summer months.
ALL the statements in the ‘What causes the seasons?’ activity are false! The
amount of energy emitted by the Sun is the same all year round. Also the
Earth spins on its axis at the same rate all year. When it is summer in Cape
Town it is winter in Paris, and when it is spring in London it is autumn
in South Africa. The seasons are reversed in the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. If it can both be winter and summer on different parts of the
Earth at the same time, the seasons cannot be caused by our distance from
the Sun. If that were the case, then the whole of the Earth would experience
summer and winter at the same time.
Figure 15.7 Winter
time in the Northern
Cape. In Sutherland,
temperatures can
go below 0°C and it
often snows.
Figure 15.6 Springtime in the Northern Cape, when the

flowers are out in bloom.
Let us now find out what causes the seasons. The seasons don’t just divide
up the year into quarters; they tell us where the Earth is in its path around
the Sun. Have a look at the following diagram which shows how the Earth
revolves (orbits) around the Sun and the different seasons experienced by the
Southern Hemisphere.
southern spring Look at the picture showing the position of

the Earth as it orbits the Sun during a year.
The Earth travels around the Sun in an almost
perfect circle. If you look closely, you can see
that the Earth’s axis is not pointing straight up,
but is slanted, or tilted in the picture. This is
because the Earth is actually tipped over slightly
southern summer southern winter relative to the plane of its orbit. The Earth’s axis
always tilts in the same direction in space: the
North Pole points towards the star Polaris.
Figure 15.8 The relative positions of the Earth and Sun
southern autumn during the course of a year. It takes one complete year
for the Earth to revolve (orbit) around the Sun. It takes six
months for the Earth to travel halfway around the Sun.

What do we mean when we say that the Earth’s axis is ‘tilted relative to the
plane of its orbit’? A plane is a flat surface, for example a flat piece of card Take note
or the surface of still water. The plane of the Earth’s orbit is an imaginary flat
The relative
surface that contains the Earth as it revolves around the Sun.
position of the
Imagine that the Earth is a beach ball floating on the surface of water in a Earth around the
swimming pool with half the ball submerged so that you can only see the top Sun is not drawn
half of the ball poking out of the water. Now imagine that the ball is moving to scale. If it was
around in a circle on the surface of the water but it is not moving up or drawn to scale,
down. This is what we mean when we say that the Earth travels in a circle in the Earth would
a plane. In this example the Earth’s orbital plane is the surface of the water. In not fit on this
space there is no surface of water. The plane is just an imaginary flat surface! page!
Now imagine that the valve

where you blow up the beach
ball is pointing straight up
towards the sky. This valve
represents the Earth’s North Take note
Pole. In this case the valve and
the plane are perpendicular The Earth’s
to each other and the angle orbit is actually
between them is 90°. very slightly
elongated but
very close to a
circle, called an
However, if you push the ball ellipse.
over slightly so that the valve
no longer points straight up,
then the valve (representing
the Earth’s North Pole) and
the water surface will not be
perpendicular to each other.
Did you
know?
By pure luck, in
23.5º The Earth’s rotation axis is the Northern
perpendicular to
the orbital plane tilted over by an angle of Hemisphere
23,5 degrees (23,5°) from the the North Pole
vertical. As the Earth travels points to the
around the Sun its North star Polaris,
and South Poles constantly which allows
orbital plane point in the same direction in astronomers to
space. find north easily!
axis of rotation
Unfortunately,
there is no
Figure 15.9 The Earth’s rotation axis is tilted by 23. 5° ‘south star’ in
from the vertical as it orbits the Sun. the Southern
Hemisphere.
Let’s model the Earth’s tilt.

ACTIVITY The Earth’s tilt
Materials
• globe or ball/balloon
• non-permanent marker or stickers
• card and tinfoil to make a star
• string
• scissors
• glue
Instructions
1. Mark on the globe the position of the North and South Pole with a
marker or stickers. If using a ball or balloon mark the positions of two
points directly opposite each other on the surface of the ball/balloon
which will be used to represent the North and South Poles of the
ball/balloon.
2. Using the scissors, cut the card into the shape of a star.
3. Cover the star in foil, using the glue if necessary to stick it to the card.
4. Hang the star up from the ceiling using the string. Make sure it is high
up and clearly visible from the whole of the class.
5. Sit in a circle with the rest of your class, your class teacher should sit or
stand in the middle of the circle representing the Sun.
6. Select one member of your class in the circle to start the activity and pass
the globe to them.
7. Tilt the globe away from the vertical, pointing the North Pole towards
the hanging star.
8. Pass the globe around the circle keeping the North Pole pointed in the
same direction towards the hanging star. Remember to keep the globe
spinning on its axis as it is passed around!
9. Note how as the globe moves around the circle, sometimes the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted more towards the Sun, sometimes the Southern
Hemisphere is pointed more towards the Sun and sometimes neither
hemispheres are tilted towards the Sun.
Questions
1. For roughly what fraction of the orbit did the Southern Hemisphere
point towards the Sun?
2. For roughly what fraction of the orbit did the Northern Hemisphere
point towards the Sun?
3. What length of time do these fractions correspond to for the real Earth’s
orbit around the Sun?
Let’s see now what effect this tilt has on the Earth.

ACTIVITY Direct and indirect light
Materials
• A4-sized or larger piece of black card, one per pair
• torch, one per pair
• bin bags to darken the room if necessary
• pencil or pen, one per pair
Instructions
1. You will need to work in a pair for this activity.
2. Place the card flat on a desktop or table.
3. Darken the room using curtains or bin bags.
4. One person should hold the torch about 25 cm above the card, pointing
straight down onto the card. Shine the light onto the card.
5. Look at the beam shining on the black card and note its size. The person
in the pair not holding the torch should draw around the edge of the
beam with a pen or pencil.
6. Swap places and point the torch towards the card at an angle of 45°,
keeping it at the same distance from the card as before. Shine the light
onto the card.
7. Look at the beam shining on to the card, draw around the edge of the
beam with a pen or pencil.
Questions
1. In which case is the light more concentrated? (direct or indirect)
2. In which case is the light more spread out? (direct or indirect)
3. If the light is more concentrated, does this mean that the energy from
the torch is more concentrated or spread out?
4. In which case did the light look brighter? Why is this?
The energy is spread out over a larger surface area when the light is shone at
a slanting (oblique) angle relative to the card than when it is shone directly
onto the card. Similarly, when light from the Sun hits the Earth directly,
the solar energy is spread over a smaller surface area and is more intense
(concentrated) than when light hits the Earth indirectly. Do you think this
has an effect on the temperature? Let’s investigate.
Investigation Direct and indirect light and its effects

on temperature
Scientists often use models to recreate the real world in a laboratory. In
this investigation, you will use a model to simulate how sunlight strikes
the surface of the Earth. You will use a torch to represent the Sun. You
will change the angle at which light strikes a flat surface and see what
effect this has on the heating of the surface. This will model how sunlight
strikes the surface of the Earth at different angles.

Does direct light heat an area more quickly or more slowly than indirect
light?
Hypothesis
What do you think will happen?
Identify variables
1. What are you keeping constant in this experiment?
2. What are you changing in this experiment?
3. What are you going to be measuring in this investigation?
• two desk lamps
• two pieces of black card/paper
• two strip thermometers
• watch or clock
• marker pen and/or sticker to label the cards
Method
1. Place the two desk lamps on a table or desk about 1 metre apart from
each other.
2. Point one of the desk lamps directly downwards towards the table, at
a height of about 30 cm.
3. Place the black card under the light and label it ‘A’.
4. Place the thermometer strip in the centre of the black card. The light
bulb should be directly above the thermometer strip.
5. Adjust the second desk lamp so that it is at the same height as the
first one, but instead of pointing it directly down at the table, tilt it
slightly to one side (left-right direction).
6. Place the second piece of black card under this lamp and label it ‘B’.

7. Place the second thermometer strip in the centre of the black paper.
This light should shine indirectly over the thermometer.
8. Copy the following table in your exercise books and record the
temperature of both thermometers.
9. Turn on both lights at the same time. Wait for about 30 seconds and
then record the temperatures of the thermometers in the table below.
Card Initial Final Temperature
temperature (oC) temperature (oC) difference (oC)
Card A (direct light)
Card B (indirect light)
1. Is light hitting the card from lamp A direct or indirect light?

2. Is light hitting the card from lamp B direct or indirect light?
3. Which card has the hottest final temperature? Why is this?
Evaluation
How could you have improved this experiment?
Conclusion
1. What do you conclude about the heating effects of direct and indirect
light?
2. Why do you think this is the case?
Questions
Imagine that the lamps represent sunlight and the cards represent the
surface of the Earth.
1. What season on Earth do you think corresponds to case A, and why
do you think this?
2. What season on Earth do you think corresponds to case B, and why
do you think this?
Areas of the Earth that are hit by direct sunlight are therefore warmer than
areas that are hit by indirect sunlight. In the summer, the Sun is high in the
sky and we receive more direct sunlight than in winter when the Sun is lower
in the sky and we receive more indirect sunlight. This explains why summer
is warmer than winter.
sunlight summer winter
direct light indirect light
t
gh
nli
su
surface area surface area

But why do we receive more direct light in summer? And why is it always
Did you warmer at the equator than at the North and South Poles? Let’s do an activity
know? to find out.
Different
cultures around ACTIVITY Looking at sunlight hitting the Earth
the world
have various
celebrations and Instructions
holidays around 1. Look at the example picture below. It shows sunlight hitting the Earth.
the winter 2. Look at the Sun’s rays and see how the angle at which they hit the Earth’s
and summer surface changes at different points along the surface of the Earth because
solstices, the of its curved shape.
equinoxes, and 3. Answer the questions below.
the midpoints
between them.
Questions
Take note 1. Does the equator receive more or less direct light than the poles?
2. Which hemisphere receives more direct light in the picture? Why is this?
Another way to
3. Which hemisphere in this diagram receives more indirect light?
say that the light
Why is this?
falls indirectly is
4. Why do you think it is warmer at the equator than at the poles?
to say ‘obliquely’.
5. Is it summer or winter in the Southern Hemisphere in this example?
Oblique means
6. Is it summer or winter in the Northern Hemisphere in this example?
it is not at a right
7. What would happen to the seasons if the Earth was tilted in the opposite
angle (90°), but
direction, with the Northern Hemisphere tilted towards the Sun instead?
slanted.
The light falling on the Equator always hits at angles very close to 90° (almost
direct), so it stays almost the same temperature all year round.

The areas around the Equator are warmer than at the
poles throughout the year, as light falls almost directly
on the Earth’s surface between the Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn.
Areas that are hit by indirect sunlight are cooler because
the Sun’s energy is spread out over a larger area than at
the equator. The poles are always hit by indirect sunlight
which explains why it is cold at the North and South
Poles.
We experience the different seasons because of the
varying amount of direct and indirect sunlight we
receive. When the Southern Hemisphere is tilted
towards the Sun it receives more direct
autumn
sunlight (more radiant energy) and
temperatures increase: it is summer in northern
the Southern Hemisphere. hemisphere
spring
The opposite hemisphere is tilted winter summer
away from the Sun and receives less
direct sunlight, it receives less energy
and temperatures decrease, so it is
summer winter
winter in the Northern Hemisphere.
When the Northern Hemisphere is southern
hemisphere spring
tilted towards the Sun we have the
opposite case, and it is summer in the
Northern Hemisphere and winter in autumn
the Southern Hemisphere.
The seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun
In the picture above you can see the Earth travelling around the Sun in its
orbit. The Earth’s axis always points in the same direction in space. Because
of this, sometimes the Southern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun and
sometimes it is tilted away from the Sun. Let’s follow the path of the Earth
around the Sun as it completes one revolution from points 1 to 4.
Take note
At position 1 the light falls directly on the Tropic of Capricorn (23,5° S).
This occurs when we, in the Southern Hemisphere, are having summer, and The term
is called a solstice. The day of the summer solstice is the longest day in the ‘equinox’ comes
year. In the Southern Hemisphere, this is usually around 21 December. At from the Latin
position 3, the light falls directly on the Tropic of Cancer (23,5° N). This words ‘aequus’
occurs during our winter, while the Northern Hemisphere is having summer. (equal) and ‘nox’
This is called the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere and occurs (night), because
around the 21 June. The winter solstice is the shortest day of the year. around the
At position 2 and 4, the equator receives direct sunlight. This is called an equinox, night
equinox. An equinox occurs twice a year, around 22 March (when our and day are
autumn equinox occurs at position 2) and 22 September (when our spring about the same
equinox occurs at position 4). length.

ACTIVITY Earth’s seasons summary
Instructions
1. Refer to the previous diagram showing the Earth’s seasons.
2. Fill in the blanks in the sentences below.
3. Write out the paragraph in full and underline your answers.
Questions
1. At position 1, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun
and experiences summer. This is called the summer ________ in
the Southern Hemisphere and occurs around the date________.
The Northern Hemisphere is tilted ____________ from the Sun and
experiences winter. This is called the winter ________ in the Northern
Hemisphere.
2. At position 2, ____________ months later, neither hemisphere is tilted
more toward the Sun. Direct sunlight hits the Earth only near the
____________, and indirect sunlight hits nearly everywhere else. This is
called an __________. This causes mild temperatures in the north and
south away from the equator.
3. Six months later, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted _________ from the
Sun and experiences _________. This is called the winter ____________
in the Southern Hemisphere and occurs around the date, ________. The
Northern Hemisphere is tilted ____________ the Sun and experiences
____________. This is called the summer ________ in the Northern
Hemisphere.
4. Nine months later, neither hemisphere is tilted more toward the Sun.
Direct light hits the Earth only near the _______________, and indirect
light hits nearly everywhere else. This causes mild temperatures in the
north and south away from the equator.
5. The Earth is now back to its starting point again, having completed one
revolution of the Sun in _________ months.
6. Why do you think it is important to know about the seasons? Think
about how people used to use the knowledge of the seasons to organise
their lives and mark the passage of time. Discuss this with your class and
take some notes below.
So you now know that temperatures (and therefore the seasons) on Earth
are determined by the angle at which sunlight hits the Earth. In summer, the
Sun is high in the sky and sunlight hits the Earth directly. In winter, the Sun
is low in the sky and the Sun’s rays strike the Earth indirectly at an oblique
(shallow) angle. The seasons occur because the Earth’s axis is tilted relative to
the path of its orbit around the Sun and not because the distance between the
Earth and the Sun vary as the Earth revolves around the Sun.

Viewed from the Earth’s surface, the Sun appears higher in the sky in
summer. As the Sun travels higher in the sky it takes more time to travel Take note
across the sky from sunrise to sunset. Therefore, daytime is longer in
Remember
summer than in winter. The change in the length of daytime during the year
that it is NOT
also occurs because of the tilt of the Earth’s rotation axis in space.
actually the Sun
that moves, but
Earth’s rotation
which makes it
look as though
the Sun moves
across the sky.
Figure 15.10 The apparent path of the Sun across the sky in winter and summer. The Sun
travels higher and further across the sky in summer, and so days are longer.
What do you think would happen to the seasons if the Earth were not tilted
by 23,5o, but instead were pointed straight up relative to the path of its orbit?
The Southern Hemisphere receives the greatest amount of solar energy
around the 21st of December each year. However, the hottest days of the year
are generally a month or so afterwards. Why do you think this is?
Seasons on other planets

Do you think that other planets experience seasons too?
Yes, they do! Every planet in the solar system has seasons, but they are
nothing like the seasons we experience on Earth. Seasons pass very quickly
on some planets like Venus, yet last decades on others like Uranus. Unlike
the Earth’s seasons, which are caused only by the tilt of the Earth’s axis in
space, seasons on other planets can be caused by:
1. The tilt of the planet’s rotation axis.
2. The variable distance of the planet from the Sun during its orbit. This is
because some planets have extremely oval-shaped orbits around the Sun
unlike Earth.

The planets Venus and Jupiter have very small tilts compared with Earth.
Their rotation axes are tilted only by 3o compared with the Earth’s 23,5o
tilt so Venus’s and Jupiter’s seasons are hardly noticeable. Venus does have
interesting weather, however! Venus’s surface is a whopping 460 oC all year
round because Venus has an atmosphere made of dense acidic clouds which
trap sunlight leading to a runaway greenhouse effect.
Mars’s tilt is 25°, very close to the Earth’s 23,5o. Because of this tilt, Mars
has seasons, just like the Earth. As Mars takes two Earth years to orbit the
Sun, the seasons on Mars are twice as long. The rotation axis of Mars does
not point toward Polaris, our North Star, but points towards the star Alpha
Cygni. Because of this, Martian seasons are out of step with the seasons on
Earth. Mars also has a distinctly oval-shaped orbit. When Mars is further
away from the Sun in its orbit it is cooler, which leads to long, extreme
southern winters. The northern winters are not so long and extreme because
they occur when the planet is closer to the Sun.
The planet with the most extreme seasons in the solar system is Uranus.
Like Earth, the orbit of Uranus is nearly circular. However, Uranus’s rotation
axis is tilted by a massive 98˚. Uranus is on its side! Uranus completes one
revolution around the Sun every 84 Earth years, giving rise to seasons which
last 21 years each! For two of the seasons, one pole is pointed directly at the
Sun and the opposite hemisphere does not see the Sun because Uranus spins
on its side. The hemisphere facing away from the Sun experiences a long
(around 21 years!) dark, bitterly cold winter and doesn’t see the Sun until
the planet has travelled on in its orbit, to a point in its orbit where Uranus’s
Figure 15.11 Uranus. rotation axis no longer points directly at the Sun.
Rings
face-on 1965
to Sun
N S
Earth
1986 2028
Rings edge-on to Sun 2007
The seasons on Uranus:

In 1986 the South Pole was facing the Sun and so its Northern Hemisphere
was in total darkness. In 2028 the North Pole of Uranus will face the Sun and
the Southern Hemisphere will be in total darkness. At present, neither pole is
facing the Sun directly.

15.2 Solar energy and life on Earth Keywords
So far this term you hve learnt about how the Sun and Earth interact to form
day and night, and the seasons. In this section we are going to look further • solar energy
at how important the Sun is for us on Earth, and more specifically at how the • photosynthesis
• cellulose
energy from the Sun is essential for life on Earth.
• glucose
In Grade 6 you learnt how plants produce food through the process of • starch
photosynthesis. Plants absorb light energy from the Sun and use the energy
to make food. In this way the Sun’s energy is captured and stored so that it
can be used later on.
Take note
Plants also take
up minerals from
the soil, which
are necessary for
Figure 15.12 The process of photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates which are stored in
their functioning.
the plant.
In photosynthesis the energy from the Sun is used to change carbon dioxide
and water into carbohydrates (for example cellulose, starch or glucose).
The carbohydrates are stored in fruits, leaves, wood or bark. When we eat the
plant, for example an apple, our bodies are able to release the energy stored
in carbohydrates. In the same way animals, for example cows, use the Sun’s
energy when they eat the grass.

ACTIVITY Capturing the Sun’s energy
Study the following flow diagram and answer the question below.
Questions
A boy says: ‘The energy I get from eating a slice of bread is a result of the Sun
shining on Earth.’ Do you agree with this statement? Use the flow diagram
provided, and write a paragraph to explain why you agree or disagree with
the statement. Use the words in the word bank in your explanation.
Word bank
• capture • photosynthesis
• release • Sun
• store • wheat
• energy • bread
All plants and animals depend on photosynthesis for their energy. In

previous grades, you learnt about energy transfer between producers, for
example grass, and consumers, for example a buck or lion. You used food
chains and food webs to show how energy is transferred. Plants play a vital
role in life on Earth as they form the basis of food chains. Without plants,
life on Earth would not survive. Plants are completely dependent upon the
Sun for survival and would die out without its energy which allows them to
photosynthesise. Let’s investigate this in the following activity:

ACTIVITY W
hat would happen if the Sun’s rays were
blocked from reaching Earth?
Imagine a world without the Sun. How can this happen? It has happened Take note
before in Earth’s history.
A caldera,
Dinosaurs lived on Earth millions of years ago. They were the dominant meaning cooking
terrestrial vertebrates until about 65 million years ago, when there was a pot in Latin, is
massive extinction. There are several theories about what caused this mass a large volcanic
extinction. The most strongly supported theory is that a massive asteroid feature usually
hit Earth. It entered Earth’s atmosphere with a brilliant flash of light and formed by the
crashed into a shallow sea. Huge pieces of red-hot rock and steam exploded collapse of land
into the sky, causing raging fires which destroyed everything in their path. after a volcanic
The asteroid’s impact also caused giant waves, called tsunamis, which swept eruption.
across the coastal lands. Scientists think that the impact could have started
a series of volcanic eruptions. This sent huge clouds of ash and dust into
the atmosphere, blocking the sunlight. These huge clouds of ash, dust and
steam quickly spread all over Earth and blocked the warm rays of the Sun.
Scientists hypothesise that this cold, dark environment could have lasted for
months, or even years.
Much more recently in Earth’s history, there was a super volcanic eruption at
the present site of Lake Toba in Indonesia. This occurred about 70 000 years
ago when Mount Toba erupted and sent a huge volcanic ash cloud into the
atmosphere. The eruption was followed by a six-year-long volcanic winter as
the ash blocked out the sun’s rays, and a 1 000-year-long Ice Age. Following
the eruption, mount Toba collapsed inwards, and today the site can be seen
at Lake Toba.
Figure 15.13 An artist’s depiction of the asteroid Figure 15.14 An image of Earth’s largest caldera taken by a crew
impact 65 millions years ago, which scientists member on the International Space Station.
think is the most direct cause of the dinosaur’s
sudden, mass extinction. Visit

Let’s now pretend that another event occurs in present day, blocking the
Sun’s rays from reaching Earth. What would happen to the people, animals
and plants on Earth? Discuss this with a friend and then copy and complete
the table by writing down the things that you think would happen if the Sun’s
rays were blocked from reaching Earth for an extended period.
What do you think would happen?

On the first day
One week later
One month later
One year later
15.3 Stored solar energy

Earlier this year you learnt about renewable and non-renewable energy
sources. Fossil fuels are examples of non-renewable energy sources. In this
section we are looking at the relationship between the Earth and the Sun and
how solar energy is stored on Earth. We have learnt that plants store the Sun’s
energy and we are able to use that energy later on. But what happens to the
stored energy when plants die? To answer this question we need to go back
in time. Millions of years back in time...
ACTIVITY Going back in time

The following video tells the story of how fossil fuels were formed millions of
Keywords years ago and how we are able today to use the energy captured at the time:
• fossil fuels bit.ly/19FdvrQ.
• coal
Watch the video and answer the questions below.
• crude oil
• natural gas
• renewable Questions
• non-renewable
• vegetation 1. What are fossil fuels?
2. Are fossil fuels renewable or non-renewable? Give a reason for your
answer.
3. What conditions are needed for fossil fuels to form?
4. How were each of these conditions met at the time when fossil fuels were
formed?
5. Why are fossil fuels important?
6. Why can’t we make fossil fuels today?
Fossil fuels were formed millions of years ago. Coal, crude oil and natural
gas are examples of fossil fuels. The different fossil fuels were all formed in
slightly different ways. Let’s look at how they were formed.

Formation of coal
Millions of years ago the Earth was covered with fern-like plants. The plants
Take note
captured the Sun’s energy and manufactured carbohydrates through the Bituminous
process of photosynthesis, just like plants do today. Through changes in the coal is a soft
conditions on Earth, the land was increasingly covered by water, forming coal, containing
swamps. Over time the plants died, forming a thick layer of dead vegetation bitumen, a
on swamp bottoms. sticky, black tar-
As more water covered the land, sand and silt were washed in and covered like substance.
the dead vegetation, enabling more and more plants to grow. These plants Bituminous coal
eventually died as well and more layers of plant material formed. Again is of a lower
Earth was covered with water, sand and soil. This process repeated itself for quality than
millions of years building up massive layers of dead plant material, called anthracite coal,
peat. The peat layers eventually became buried and compressed by further which is a hard,
layers of sediment forming above them. compact coal
with the highest
carbon content
of all the coal
heat and pressure types.
swamp
Figure 15.15 Coal was formed

peat lignite coal from the remains of ancient
time plants over millions of years.
Deep in the Earth the peat was subjected to pressure and heat, and turned
into lignite, a porous type of coal. Upon further pressurisation and
heating, more moisture was squeezed out of the lignite until it became soft,
bituminous coal and eventually anthracite, the hardest type of coal available.
ACTIVITY Coal formation flow diagram
Instructions
1. Read the above section on the formation of coal and summarise it in a
flow diagram.
2. The following tips will help you draw your flow diagram:
a) Underline the most important key words.
b) Write a short sentence on each event.
c) Identify the order in which events took place.
d) Link the sentences using arrows.

Coal is found in a number of different areas in South Africa. Study the map
Did you to see where the coal deposits are located in South Africa. Millions of years
know? ago the interior of South Africa was a large swamp where many plants grew
92% of the coal and died, eventually forming coal.
consumed in
Africa, is mined
in South Africa.
Figure 15.16 Coal deposits in South Africa.
Formation of crude oil and natural gas

Did you Oil, also known as crude oil, and natural gas were also formed millions of
know? years ago by processes similar to those leading to the formation of coal. Sea
South Africa animals and plants died in the oceans and were deposited on the ocean floor.
is one of the Over millions of years, layer upon layer of marine deposits formed and were
seven largest covered by sand and silt.
coal-producing Through the actions of temperature and pressure, the deposits were changed
countries in into crude oil and natural gas. Today, oil and gas are trapped under layers
the world. A of rocks and sediment and have to be drilled and pumped out of the Earth.
quarter of the South Africa has some gas fields off the coast of Mossel Bay, but we do not
coal mined in have any oil reserves.
South Africa
is exported, Crude oil is a thick, dark, sticky substance when it comes out of the ground.
mostly from Crude oil has many uses, but has to be refined first to obtain different
Richards Bay. a number of different products. These different products have different
boiling points, which is how they can be separated from each other. Do you
remember that we learnt about this in Matter and Materials when looking
at how to separate mixtures? What is the name of this technique where
different components, which have different boiling points, are separated by
evaporating and collecting them?

300 to 400 million years ago 50 to 100 million years ago present time
ocean sediment
and rock
marine organisms
sediment and rock
hard rock hard rock
porous sedimentary rock porous

trapped oil
sedimentary
organisms turn into trapped gas rock
oil and gas over time
Figure 15.17 Crude oil and gas were formed millions of years ago.
Crude oil is refined to make a number of different products such as motor

oil, petrol, lighter fuel, aeroplane fuel, diesel and tar, Vaseline and other
waxes. The components of crude oil are evaporated at different temperatures,
starting with lighter fuel (which has the lowest boiling point), then jet fuel,
then petroleum, then motor car oil, until only tar is left. When crude oil is
refined, some of the raw materials extracted from this process are then used
to make plastics and various chemicals.
ACTIVITY Forming coal
Instructions
1. The following pictures explain the formation of coal. The pictures are not
in the correct order.
2. Study the pictures and list them in the correct order to show how coal is
formed.
3. Write a paragraph explaining the formation of coal.
Picture 1 Picture 2

Picture 3 Picture 4
4. Fossil fuels store and transfer solar energy. What type of energy is stored
in fossil fuels?
When we use fossil fuels, the stored energy is transferred to another part
in the system, for example as kinetic energy. We have already seen this in
Energy and Change last term when looking at how a coal-powered power
station works to generate electricity. In a coal-powered station, coal is burned
and used to boil water. The steam produced then turns the turbine, which in
turn causes the generator to turn to produce electricity. In the next activity
we will investigate how the Sun’s energy is transferred through fossil fuels.
ACTIVITY Explaining the flow of energy
Instructions
Petrol is made from crude oil, a fossil fuel. Use the diagram below to answer
the questions about how the Sun’s energy is captured in petrol and how this
helps life on Earth.
Sun
marine plants and animals underground crude oil petrol and movement energy
oil supplies diesel of a car

Questions Take note
1. Using the diagram, explain how the Sun’s energy is captured in petrol We also rely on
and used in cars. crude oil form
2. What transfer of energy takes place within the system? any products
3. Why is petrol important in our lives? besides as
4. Draw a labelled flow diagram to show the transfer of energy from the a source of
Sun to a fire made from burning anthracite, a type of coal. energy, such
5. For each label write a sentence explaining how the energy is transferred. as producing
Also give an example of how this energy can be used in human activity. plastics,
This stored energy is not in limitless supply. It will run out at some point so lubricating waxes
we need to be very careful how we use it, and we need to find alternatives to and oils and
using fossil fuels for our energy supply. Do you think that people on Earth other materials
are using our fossil fuels wisely? Let’s investigate how fossil fuels are used in and chemicals.
our homes.
For this task, you need to find out how much your household makes use of
fossil fuels in one month.
Investigation: The uses of fossil fuels in our homes

1. Make up a question that you would like to answer. Your teacher will help
you formulate this. Write your question below.
2. Think about what information you need and design a table where you
will gather this information.
3. Research information about fossil fuels and their uses.
4. Report the information in the format that your teacher specified (either
a written report, a poster or a project):
a) Do a write-up that clearly shows how your findings are linked to
fossil fuels, and how you collected your data.
b) What have you found? Write a paragraph on your findings.
c) Write a conclusion. Answer the question you posed in step 1.
d) Make some recommendations on what you have found. Does your
family use a lot of fossil fuels? Is this good or bad? Why do you think
so? Write your opinion in your exercise book.

Summary
Key concepts
• The Earth revolves around the Sun completing one orbit every 365 days. As the Earth
revolves around the Sun it also spins on its axis completing one rotation in 24 hours.
• The Earth’s rotation axis is tilted in space. The North Pole points towards the star Polaris
and the axis is offset from the vertical by 23,5°.
• The tilt of the Earth’s rotation axis is responsible for the seasons on Earth.
• Areas near the equator are warmer than areas near the poles because they receive more
direct sunlight.
• The Sun’s energy is captured and used by plants to produce carbohydrates, which the plant
uses and stores. Plants form the basis of food chains.
• The energy stored by plants millions of years ago is available to us today in fossil fuels. The
energy, however, is non-renewable.
• Coal, crude oil and natural gas was formed millions of years ago from the remains of dead
animals and plants.
• Life on Earth depends on the Sun’s stored energy in fossil fuels.
284 Topic 4 Planet Earth and beyond

Concept map
Look at the concept map below which shows what we have learnt in this unit about the
relationship between the Sun and the Earth.
Fill in the blank spaces to complete the concept map. You need to fill in two of the seasons.
To do this, read the concept map and complete the sentence. For example ‘when solar energy
falls directly on the Southern Hemisphere, we have _____________.
There are also two blank spaces to fill in about what orbits what in terms of the Sun and
the Earth.
It is important to take note of the direction in which the arrows are pointing in a concept map
so that you know which way to read it. For example, below where we have:
.
seasons depends on day length

Revision
1. What causes day and night? [2]
2. The Sun appears to move across the sky during the day moving from east to west.
What is really happening? [2]
3. What is the difference between rotation and revolution? [2]
4. How long does it take the Earth to complete one rotation? [1]
5. How many days does it take for the Earth to complete one revolution around the Sun? [1]
6. Why do you think we have leap years every 4 years, when there is an ‘extra day’,
29 February? [1]
7. What does sunlight do for the Earth? [2]
8. Why is it hotter at the equator than at the poles? [4]
9. What causes the seasons on Earth? [5]
10. Explain why the seasons cannot be caused by the change in the Earth’s distance from
the Sun as it travels along its slightly oval (elliptical) orbit. [2]
11. Where does crude oil come from? [2]
12. Why are the coal deposits found mostly in the same area in South Africa? [1]
13. Compare the formation of natural gas, crude oil and coal by completing the following table. [5]
When was it What was it What Does South Renewable or

formed? formed from? conditions Africa have non renewable
were need for this natural resource?
its formation? resource?
Coal
Oil
Natural Gas
14. Explain how fossil fuels are able to store the Sun’s energy. [4]
15. The Sun’s energy is essential for life on Earth. Draw a flow diagram to show how the
Sun’s energy is transferred through natural gas and used in gas cooker in a household.
Use appropriate labels to explain the diagram. [4]
Total [38 marks]

Relationship of the Moon
16 to the Earth
Key questions
• How long does it take for the Moon to orbit the Earth?
• What keeps the Moon in orbit around the Earth?
• What causes tides on Earth?
The Moon is the most obvious

feature in our night sky and has Keywords
captivated people for thousands of • moon
years. Ancient cultures recorded • lunar
the apparent motion of the Moon • eclipse
through the sky and made calendars
which used the phases of the Moon
to mark the months. In fact some
religious calendars still use a lunar
Did you
– (Moon) based calendar rather know?
than the official solar – (Sun) based The Moon is
calendar used today in South Africa actually covered
and most of the Western world Figure 16.1 Our Moon. in a layer of
(called the Gregorian calendar). The lunar ‘soil’ called
Moon’s influence on the Earth is also important to us in other ways, as you ‘regolith’. This
will discover in this unit. is why you can
see astronauts’
16.1 Relative positions footprints on
You learnt about the Moon in Grades 4 and 6. Let’s see what you can the Moon.
remember! Lunar ‘soil’
has different
properties
ACTIVITY Moon revision quiz to soil on
Earth. Most
significant is
Instructions
that terrestrials
1. Copy the following table in your exercise books and fill in the gaps in the soil has organic
Earth-Moon comparison, using the word bank. matter in it.
Word bank
• rock, soil and water • an
• rock and lunar soil • no
• reflects • larger
• absorbs • smaller
• Sun • 24
• Earth • 27,3
Unit 16: Relationship of the Moon to the Earth 287

The Earth The Moon
Surface consists of ____________. Surface consists of __________.
Is_______________ than the Moon. Is ____________ than the Earth.
Is visible because it ________ light from the Sun Is visible because it _______ light from the Sun
hitting it. hitting it
Is in orbit around the___________. Is in orbit around the____________.
Spins on its axis once every _________ hours. Spins on its axis once every _____________ days.
Has _______________ atmosphere. Has ____________ atmosphere.
Let’s now take a closer look at the surface of the Moon.
ACTIVITY Observe the Moon!

Did you
know?
Humanity got
its first view of
the far side of
the Moon in
1959 when the
Soviet Union
launched the
small spacecraft,
Luna 3. This
was the first
probe to get to Near side Far side
the far side of
Figure 16.2 Images of the near side and far side of the Moon. Look at the difference
the Moon and
between the two images, what do you notice?
photograph it.
Instructions
1. Study the images of the Moon.
2. Answer the questions below.
Questions
1. Does the Moon’s surface have any oceans or lakes?
2. What do you notice covering much of the Moon’s surface?
3. Some areas look dark and others look lighter, the dark areas are called
‘maria’ (singular mare) meaning ‘seas’, as astronomers initially thought
that these areas were seas on the surface. The bright areas are called
highlands as they are higher than the maria. On what side of the Moon
(near or far) are there more dark areas (maria)?

The Earth, just like all the other planets in the solar system, travels around
the Sun, completing one revolution every year. As the Earth travels around Take note
the Sun it has a companion in space: our Moon!
The time that it
The Moon orbits around the Earth completing one revolution every 27,3 takes an object
days. Our Moon rotates on its own axis and experiences daytime and dark to make one
night time just like the Earth does. However, the Moon spins much more complete orbit
slowly than the Earth does and completes one rotation on its axis once every around another
27,3 days. Did you notice that the Moon takes the same amount of time object, relative
to spin on its axis as it does to orbit completely around Earth? This means to the stars, is
that from the Earth, we always see the same side of the Moon (called the called the orbital
‘near side’). The side we do not see from Earth, called the ‘far side’, has been period or synodic
mapped during space missions to the Moon. period.
Viewed from above, the Moon moves in an anticlockwise direction around

the Earth. The Moon’s orbit is not a perfect circle, it is elliptical; so its
distance from Earth varies as it revolves around the Earth. The average Take note
distance is about 385 000 km, which is about 60 times the radius of the In the diagram,
Earth itself. For comparison, the Earth’s average distance from the Sun is the Sun and Sun-
149 597 871 km, or about 23 481 times the radius of the Earth. You can see Earth distance
now why the Moon is called Earth’s close companion! are not drawn
to scale. The Sun
Figure 16.3 Diagram showing would be MUCH
the Earth’s motion around larger than in
Moon
the Sun and the Moon’s this image, and
Earth
motion around the Earth.
the distance
between the Sun
and Earth would
Sun also be MUCH
larger.
Figure 16.4 The Moon spins

on its own axis at the same
rate that it revolves around
the Earth. As it completes
one quarter turn on its axis,
it also completes one quarter
of its orbit. This results in
the same side of the Moon
always facing Earth.

Figure 16.5 An image of the Earth
and Moon taken from the Galileo
satellite on its way to Jupiter over
6 million km away. The Moon’s
diameter is just under a third of
the Earth’s diameter. You can see
the sunlit sides of the Earth and
Moon. On what side do you think
the Sun is?
Visit
The following table summarises some useful information about the Sun,
Earth and Moon.
Characteristic Sun Earth Moon

Relative Is at the centre of Orbits the Sun once Orbits the Earth
position our solar system every 365,25 days once every
27,3 days
Rotation Spins on its own Spins on its own Spins on its own
axis roughly once axis once every axis once every
every 28 days 24 hours 27,3 days
Distance from 23 481 Earth radii 60 Earth radii from
orbited body from the Sun Earth
Size Diameter is roughly Diameter is roughly
100 times the times the Earth’s
Earth’s diameter diameter
We have now looked at the relative positions and movement of the Earth,
Moon and Sun. Let’s extend this knowledge to learn about a solar eclipse.
ACTIVITY Total solar eclipse
Instructions
Look at the image below. It shows a total solar eclipse which you learnt about
in Grade 6. This happens when the Moon passes directly in front of the Sun
and blocks the Sun’s light. The bright light from the Sun is blocked, allowing
us to see the very faint outer edge of the Sun’s atmosphere, called the corona.
We normally cannot see the corona as it is swamped by the bright light from
the Sun. When you look at the size of the Moon in the sky compared with
the size of the Sun in the sky you see that they are very similar. We call this
the angular size. This is because the Moon is much closer than the Sun. The
Moon appears large enough from Earth to block out the Sun’s light totally.

Figure 16.6 A total solar
eclipse. The Moon is
in front of the Sun
allowing us a rare
glimpse of the Sun’s
outer corona, with thin
wisps of atmosphere
extending into space.
Questions
1. Which is larger in reality, the Moon or the Sun?
2. Which is further away, the Moon or the Sun?
3. How do the angular sizes of the Moon and the Sun compare when
viewed from the Earth’s surface?
4. Why is this the case?
A total solar eclipse occurs when the Earth, Moon and Sun are aligned in a
straight line, with the Moon placed in between the Earth and the Sun. Just
by chance, the Sun and Moon are currently at distances where they have
the same angular size viewed from the Earth’s surface. If the angular size of
the Moon were smaller, it would not be large enough to completely block
the Sun and we wouldn’t have a total eclipse! The picture below shows the
relative alignment of the Sun, Earth and Moon during a solar eclipse.
The picture below shows the relative alignment of the Sun, Earth and Moon
during a solar eclipse.
Figure 16.7 The Sun,
Moon, and Earth all
lined up during a solar
eclipse. The black spot
on Earth shows the
location from where a
total solar eclipse would
be visible. This area is
in the Moon’s shadow.
The grey area on Earth’s
surface indicates the
location from where a
partial eclipse would be
visible.

We can also get a lunar eclipse. This is when the Sun, Earth and Moon line
up with the Earth in the middle.
Figure 16.8 A series of images showing the Moon during a full lunar eclipse.
See how a lunar eclipse compares to a solar eclipse in the diagram. In this
case, the Earth blocks the sunlight from reaching the Moon’s surface, making
the Moon appear dark in the night sky.
Keywords
• gravity
• mass
• weight
• acceleration
due to gravity
• gravitational
force
Figure 16.9 Sun, Earth and Moon line up to form a lunar eclipse.
16.2 Gravity
The word gravity is used to describe the gravitational pull (force) an object
experiences on or near the surface of a planet or moon. The gravitational
force is a force that attracts objects with mass towards each other. Any object
with mass exerts a gravitational force on any other object with mass. So, the

Earth exerts a gravitational pull on you, the desks in your classroom and the
chairs in your classroom, holding you on the surface and stopping you from
drifting off into space.
The Earth’s gravity pulls everything down towards the centre of the Earth,
and so when you drop an object such as a book or an apple it falls to the
ground. However, do you know that you, your desk, your chair, and the
falling apple and book exert an equal but opposite pull on the Earth? Why do
you think that these pulls don’t cause the Earth to move noticeably?
Figure 16.10 The arrows
show the direction of the
force of gravity by the
Earth on all other objects
with mass. The arrows all
point towards the centre
of the Earth because the
gravitational force is always
attractive.
The gravitational force between two objects decreases as the objects

move further apart. If you double the distance between two objects the
gravitational force between them decreases by a factor of four. Similarly, if
you triple the distance between them, the gravitational force between them
decreases by a factor of nine. This explains why we are stuck to the Earth
rather than the Sun. The Sun is 333 000 times more massive than the Earth
and its gravity is much stronger than the Earth’s. However, we are so far
away from the Sun that the gravitational force the Sun exerts on us, is much
smaller than the gravitational force the Earth exerts on us.
The Moon is held in orbit around the Earth by the gravitational force
between the Earth and the Moon. Similarly, the Sun’s gravity holds the Earth
in orbit around the Sun. Let’s do an activity to demonstrate the Moon’s orbit
around the Earth.
ACTIVITY D
emonstrating the Moon’s orbit around
the Earth
Materials
• rope
• ball (tennis balls are ideal)
Instructions
1. Tie a ball to the end of a piece of rope. You may have to wrap the rope
around the ball a few times to do this.

2. Hold the rope up high above your head and swing the rope around in a
Did you horizontal circle.
know? 3. Let go of the rope and observe what happens.
The Moon is
slowly moving
away from the
Earth at a rate
of 3,8cm per
year (the Moon’s
orbit is getting
larger). In about
563 million
years’ time its
angular size on
the sky will have
decreased so
much that it will
no longer be
large enough to
Figure 16.11 Looking down at a ball swung in a circle after it is released.
produce total
solar eclipses!
Questions
1. How can you describe the movement of the ball as you swing it around?
2. The rope pulls the ball inwards towards the centre of the circle keeping
the ball moving in a circle. What force holds the Moon in orbit around
the Earth?
3. What happens to be ball when you let the rope go?
4. What does this represent in terms of the Earth and the Moon?
All the components in our Universe are held together by gravity. In summary
we can say:
• The greater the mass of the objects, the stronger the gravitational pull
between them.
• The closer objects are, the stronger the gravitational pull between them.
Weight
The weight of an object is the force acting on it due to gravity. Weight is not
the same as mass although the two words are often confused in everyday
language.
The mass of an object is the amount of matter in the object, it tells you how
many particles you have. Do you remember that we briefly spoke about
atoms in Matter and Materials? So, for example, the mass of a wooden block
tells us how many atoms there are. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg) and is
independent of where you measure it. A wooden block with a mass of 10 kg
on Earth also has a mass of 10 kg on the Moon.

However, an object’s weight can change
as it depends on the mass of the object
and also the strength of gravity acting
on it. Weight is measured in Newtons
(N). For example, the Earth exerts a
gravitational force of about 10 Newtons
for every kilogram of mass on its surface.
So, a person with a mass of 50 kg has a 600
800
1000
weight of 500 N on the surface of 400

N
the Earth.
1200
200
50 500
1400
0
The Moon also has its own gravity. The 600

800
1000
strength of gravity on the surface of the 400

N
1200
Moon is one-sixth that of the Earth, and 50 500
200 1400
so you would weigh one-sixth of what 0
you do on Earth on the Moon. On Jupiter

you would weigh 2.5 times more than
you do on Earth as Jupiter’s gravity is
2.5 times that of the Earth’s. Even though
you would weigh different amounts (and
feel lighter on the Moon and heavier on
1200 N 200 N
Jupiter) your actual mass would stay the Earth Moon
same in both cases.
Figure 16.12 An astronaut’s mass remains the same wherever it is
measured. The astronaut’s weight, however, depends on where
you measure it. As you can see, the astronaut weighs 1200 N on
Earth but only 200 N on the Moon.
Check your understanding of mass and weight with the following questions.
1. Lindiwe has a mass of 50 kg on Earth. What is her mass on the Moon? Did you
2. Andrew has a mass of 60 kg on Earth, what is his weight in Newtons on know?
Earth? The Moon’s
3. How much would Andrew weigh on the Moon? gravity affects
4. Would Lindiwe feel heavier or lighter on the Moon? humans on
Earth. The
ACTIVITY How much would you weigh on other planets? tug of the
Moon’s gravity
decreases
Materials a person’s
weight by the
• weighing scales
equivalent of a
• calculator
few grams on
the surface of
Instructions
the Earth!
1. Measure your mass in kilograms using weighing scales. Record the value
in the table below.
2. Look at the table below. It shows how strong the gravity is on each of the
planets in our solar system.

3. Calculate your weight on each of the planets and enter it into the table
below.
Hint: On Earth each kilogram weighs 10 Newtons. So if your mass
is 50 kg then you weigh 50 x 10 = 500 N on Earth. If the strength of
gravity on a planet is half the strength of the Earth’s gravity then you
would weigh half of what you weigh on Earth on that planet.
Planet Your mass Strength of gravity Your weight

(kilograms relative to Earth (Newtons)
Earth 1
Mercury 0,378
Venus 0,907
Mars 0,377
Jupiter 2,36
Saturn 0,916
Uranus 0,889
Neptune 1,12
Questions
1. On which planets would you feel heavier than you do on Earth?
2. On which planets would you feel lighter than you do on Earth?
The Moon’s gravity

As you have already
Keywords discovered, the Moon, like any
• tides other planet or moon, has its
• tidal bulge own gravity. The strength of
• spring tides gravity on the surface of the
• neap tides Moon is one-sixth that of the
Earth, and so on the Moon
you would weigh one-sixth of
what you do on Earth. Due to
the weak gravity on the Moon,
you would be able to jump
six times higher than usual!
The astronauts had to learn to
walk in strange ways (such as
leaping or hopping) to move
Figure 16.13 Neil Armstrong, the first man on the about on the surface of the
Moon. Moon.
As we will find out in the next section, the Moon’s gravity not only affects
humans walking on the Moon, but also influences the Earth.

16.3 Tides Did you
Tides are the predictable, repeated rise and fall of sea levels on Earth. If you know?
look closely you will notice that the height of the surf at any beach varies
slowly with time. When the sea is far out and there is lots of sand exposed, it Some lakes and
is called low tide. You can see an example of low tide in the photo. rivers also have
tides!
Figure 16.14 At low tide, the water is far out and the boats are resting on the sand.
Following low tide, the water gradually comes further up on the beach until
it reaches its highest level. This is called high tide. After high tide the water
level gradually drops again until it goes back to low tide. This pattern repeats
over and over again. You can see an example of low and high tide at the same
beach in the pictures below.
Figure 16.15 The same beach photographed at low tide (top) and high tide (bottom).
In general there are two low and two high tides per day on the sea, which can
be observed on the beaches or even in estuaries. The times of high and low
tides are not exactly the same every day; they occur roughly one hour later
each day.

Tides can be predicted, and low and high tide times are published in tide tables.
Fishermen use this information to plan when they will fish. Surfers also use this
information so they can plan the best times to go surfing as each beach has a
particular time when the sea level is just right for producing excellent surfing waves.
Figure 16.16 This diagram shows how the sea level differs at low and high tide at a beach.
The vertical difference between low and high tide is called the tidal range.
ACTIVITY Reading a tide chart
Instructions
1. Look at the chart below. It shows the predicted times of low and high
tide for one week in Cape Town.
2. The peaks represent times of high tide and the heights are listed in metres
along with the time of high tide. The troughs represent times of low tide.
Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed
28 Aug 29 Aug 30 Aug 31 Aug 01 Sep 02 Sep 03 Sep 04 Sep
2,0 m
2:22 p.m 2:34 a.m 2:51 p.m.

1,71 m
1,63 m 1,62 m
1:52 p.m 2:04 a.m.
1,33 m 1:18 p.m 1,54 m 1,54 m
12:35 p.m. 1,44 m 1:29 a.m
1,5 m 12:48 a.m. 1,45 m
1,23 m 11:50 p.m
8:09 a.m 8:38 p.m. 10:17 p.m. 1,33 m 1,36 m
1,27 m 1,29 m 11:27 a.m.
1,21 m
1,24 m
9:39 a.m.
1,0 m
0,80 m 0,87 m 0,83 m

2:13 p.m 3:16 m 3:57 p.m.5:00
0,80a.m. m 5:42 p.m. 0,73 m 0,74 m
0,80a.m.
5:45 p.m.
6:13 a.m. 0,64 m 0,64 m
7:01 p.m. 7:26 p.m.
0,5 m 0,54 m
0,55 m 7:59 p.m. 0,45 m
7:37 a.m. 0,46 m
8:09 a.m. 8:30 p.m. 0,39 m 0,37 m
8:38 a.m. 8:59 p.m.
0,0 m
Sunrise 7:08 a.m. 7:07 a.m 7:05 a.m. 7:04 a.m. 7:03 a.m. 7:01 a.m. 7:00 a.m.
Moonrise 6:25 p.m 6:26 p.m. 6:27 p.m. 6:27 p.m. 6:28 p.m. 6:29 p.m. 6:29 p.m. 6:30 p.m.
Sunset 1:57 a.m. 2:46 a.m. 3:31 a.m. 4:13 a.m. 4:52 a.m. 5:28 a.m. 6:03 a.m.
Moonset 11:40 a.m. 12:26 p.m. 1:14 p.m. 2:05 p.m. 2:58 p.m 3:53 p.m. 4:48 p.m. 5:45 p.m.
Last quarter/11: 35 a.m.
TFigure 16.17 his graph shows the predicted tides for a period of one week in Cape Town.
Although the graph includes data for only one week, the actual pattern of high and low
tides repeats every day throughout the year.

Questions
1. How many peaks appear per day in the chart?
2. What do these correspond to? High or low tide?
3. How many troughs appear per day in the chart?
4. What do these correspond to? High or low tide?
5. What is the height in metres of the highest low tide during the week?
6. When does the lowest high tide occur? (date and time)
7. What height is the lowest high tide?
8. The following photo is of a small harbour in Cape Town with a boat
moored. These photos were taken on Monday 29 April.
Figure 16.18 Boulders Beach in Cape Town at low tide. Figure 16.19 The same view of Boulders Beach at high tide.
a) What time of day was the photo taken of low tide?

b) What time of day was the photo taken of high tide?
Figure 16.20 This picture shows a small harbour at low tide. The tide is out and the boats
are stuck on the sand banks. Once the tide comes back in the boats will float on the water
again.
So you now know that all seas have tides, why do you think this is? Let’s do
an activity to find out. ...

ACTIVITY Dance of the tides
Materials
Four (ideally blue) scarves or strips of fabric per group. Each one needs to be
about a metre in length.
Instructions
1. Work in groups of six. One learner represents the Earth, four learners
represent the Earth’s oceans and one learner represents the Moon.
2. The learner representing the Earth: stand in an open space.
3. The four learners representing the oceans: take one scarf each and stand
in a circle around the learner representing Earth. (One behind, one in
front, and one on either side.)
4. The four learners representing the oceans: link scarves with your neighbours.
5. Learner representing the Moon: stand outside the circle of ‘oceans’ about
five steps away from the ‘Earth’, directly in front of one of the learners
representing the ocean.
6. All learners apart from the Moon: turn to face the ‘Moon’. You are now
going to be ‘pulled’ towards the Moon by the Moon’s gravitational
attraction! Remember that the gravitational pull exerted on an object by
the Moon decreases with increasing distance to the Moon.
7. Which part of the Earth and ocean is being pulled the most by the Moon?
8. Which part of the Earth and oceans is being pulled least by the Moon?
9. Ocean learner closest to the Moon: take three large steps towards the Moon.
10. Two ocean learners standing beside the Earth and the Earth learner: take
two large steps toward the Moon.
11. Ocean learner farthest from the Moon: take one large step towards the
Moon. Why have you moved towards the Moon by varying amounts?
12. Note what happens to the shape the ‘oceans’ now make, are you still in a
circle or forming an oval shape?
13. Note which sides of ‘Earth’s’ body is experiencing high tide. (Front and
back or left and right arms.)
14. Earth: spin around on the spot a few times, stopping in a random
position, not directly facing the Moon. Remember that the Earth is
continually spinning on its axis!
15. Note which sides of the ‘Earth’s’ body is experiencing high tide.
16. Now imagine that there is no Moon, but only the Sun to exert a
gravitational pull on the Earth. Because the Sun is much farther than the
Moon, its gravitational pull is only one third of the Moon’s pull. The team
member representing the Moon must now represent the Sun instead.
17. Sun learner: take an additional 10 steps away from the Earth so that you
are 15 steps away in total.
18. Ocean learners return to your starting circle positions.
19. All learners apart from the Sun: turn to face the ‘Sun’. You are now ready
to be pulled towards the Sun.
20. Ocean learner closest to the Sun: take one large step towards the Sun.

21. Two oceans learners standing beside the Earth and the Earth learner:
take one normal step toward the Sun. Did you
22. Ocean learner farthest from the Sun: take one small step towards the Sun. know?
23. Note what happens to the shape the ‘oceans’ now make, are you still in a As well as
circle or forming an oval shape? How does the shape compare with that distorting the
made when you were pulled by the Moon? shape of the
Earth’s oceans,
Questions the Moon’s
1. How many sides of the Earth experience high tide at the same time? gravitational
2. Where are they positioned in relation to the Moon? pull also distorts
3. As the Earth spins, what happens to the position of high tides in relation the shape of
to the Moon? the solid Earth.
4. As the Earth spins, what happens to the position of high and low tides The solid Earth’s
on the surface of Earth? bulge is about
5. Besides the Moon, what pulls on the Earth? one hundred
6. If there were no Moon, would we still have tides? times smaller
than the ocean
bulge, but the
Look at the image below. It shows how the Moon’s gravity distorts the Earth’s crust
shape of the Earth’s oceans into an oval shape. Do you remember how the closest to the
gravitational force depends on distance? The ocean on the side of the Earth Moon actually
closest to the Moon experiences a greater gravitational pull towards the rises a few
Moon relative to the ocean on the far side of the Earth. centimetres!
This difference in gravitational pulls stretches the Earth’s oceans into an oval
shape. Along the Earth-Moon direction the oceans form two tidal bulges.
At places in line with the Moon, where the oceans are experiencing a tidal
bulge, we have high tide. At locations which are at right angles to the Moon,
we have low tide.
Earth
high
tide
ocean
Moon
low tide
Figure 16.21 This picture shows the Earth and the Moon looking down from above. The
gravitational pull experienced by different parts of the Earth towards the Moon is shown
as arrows. The longer the arrow, the greater the pull. The ocean closest to the Moon
experiences the greatest pull from the Moon, and the ocean farthest from the Moon
experiences the smallest pull towards the Moon. The differences result in the Earth’s
oceans being stretched to an oval shape.

Why do you think there are two low tides and two high tides at a given
Did you beach per day? Look at the diagram above again. When the Moon is directly
know? overhead your location you experience high tide. You also experience high
The highest tide when the Moon is directly opposite your location on Earth. Remember
tides in the that the Earth spins on its axis once every 24 hours and so during one day
world are at the you experience two high tides at a given location: one when the Moon is
Bay of Fundy in directly above your location and one when the Moon is directly opposite
Canada. The bay your location roughly twelve hours later. Similarly, there are two low tides
is very narrow, per day. This cycle continues as the Earth spins.
so water rushing The height of the tides varies slightly with the phase of the Moon. This is not
in from the because the gravitational pull of the Moon is changing: the Moon has the
ocean can rise same amount of mass and therefore exerts the same gravitational pull at all
and fall by up to phases. Rather, the change in the heights is due to the relative alignment of
20 metres a day! the Sun and the Moon. Let’s look at this further in the following activity.
ACTIVITY Spring and neap tides
Instructions
1. Look carefully at the following diagrams. They show the size of the tides
at Full and New Moon (top) and at the first and third quarter phases
(bottom).
high
tide
Sun
new full
moon moon
low
tide
Figure 16.22 Spring tide, showing the size of the tides at New moon and Full moon.
Did you know?

Earth’s only natural satellite is simply called the Moon because people
didn’t know other moons existed until Galileo Galilei discovered four
moons orbiting Jupiter in 1610. Other moons in our solar system are
given names so they won’t be confused with each other.

3rd quarter moon
low
Sun
tide
high tide
1st quarter moon
Figure 16.23 Neap tide, showing the size of the tides at first quarter and third quarter moon.
Questions Did you

know?
1. When the Sun, Moon and Earth are in a straight line, the Sun’s
gravitational pull adds to the Moon’s gravitational pull. What Moon The Moon’s
phases does this correspond to? orbit is gradually
2. During what phases of the Moon do the Moon’s and Sun’s gravitational increasing, and
pulls partly cancel each other out? the Moon is
3. During what Moon phases would you expect the highest high tides and slowly moving
the lowest low tides? away from the
Earth. Because
of this, the tides
When the Sun, Moon, and Earth are lined up in a straight line (at the time of used to be
New or Full Moon), the pull of the Sun’s gravity adds to the pull of the Moon’s much higher
gravity, creating extra-high high tides, and very low tides. The difference in than they are
height between low and high tide is at its maximum at this time. These are today, and they
called spring tides. When the Sun and Moon are at right angles to each other will continue to
(during the first and third quarters), the Sun’s gravitational pull partially become smaller.
cancels out the Moon’s gravitational pull and produces less extreme tides.
The difference in height between low and high tide is at its minimum at this
time. These are called neap tides. Overall, the Moon’s contribution to the
Earth’s tides is bigger than the Sun’s contribution, because it is much closer to
Earth. If there were no Moon, the Earth’s tides would be about a third of their
current height.
You can now see how important our closest neighbour the Moon is. The
Moon’s gravitational pull is responsible for the ocean tides!

The effects of tides on shoreline ecosystems
Keywords
The region of the beach between
• ecosystem high tide and low tide levels
• intertidal zone is called the intertidal zone.
The intertidal zone is a harsh
environment for marine animals
to live. During storms the surf
can be very rough and plants
and animals must be able to
withstand the battering from big
waves and not get washed away!
Animals and plants that live here
are underwater at high tide but
are exposed to the air during low
tide. Some organisms may stay Figure 16.24 The intertidal zone can be seen
underwater if they are in small here between the sea and the top of the sand.
rock pools which do not empty
out when the tide goes out. Those that are exposed to air at low tide, face hot
temperatures in summer and cold temperatures in winter, so they must be
able to adapt to different temperatures.
Animals exposed to the air at low tide may be soaked in fresh water when it
rains and yet be soaked in salty sea water at high tide. Therefore, they must also
be able to adapt to different salt concentrations as the tides come in and out.
Different animals have adapted to this tough environment in different ways.
For example:
Figure 16.25 Crabs burrow into the sand to hide during Figure 16.26 This oystercatcher takes advantage of low
low tide. tide to feed.
Figure 16.27 Mussels and barnacles close their shells Figure 16.28 Kelp and other seaweeds are covered with
tightly to avoid drying out. thick slime to prevent them from drying out.

ACTIVITY The effects of tides on shoreline ecosystems
Materials
Pictures and texts about shoreline animals. (Can be textbooks, library books,
or online materials, as directed by your teacher).
Figure 16.29 Seaweed, starfish and mussels Figure 16.30 Birds feeding on the rocks.
in a rock pool.
Figure 16.31 Eggs on some seaweed. Figure 16.32 Green anemones in a rock pool.
Figure 16.33 Mussels growing on the rocks. Figure 16.34 A crab in the sand.
Figure 16.35 A mother seal and pup in the Figure 16.36 Mudskippers – fish that can
waves in the intertidal zone. walk on land!

Instructions
Study the pictures and texts and write a summary about how two different
organisms are adapted to living in the intertidal zone. You can use the
internet or other resources to do some more research.
High up in the intertidal zone, water splashes only during high tide, and the
rest of the time it is dry. As you go lower down the intertidal zone, down the
beach towards the sea, it gets progressively wetter for longer periods of time.
Figure 16.37 Fishermen looking for big catches time Figure 16.38 Harvesting seaweed during low tide.
their fishing activities according to the tides too. Let’s
investigate this further.
Marine life in the intertidal zone has to adapt to the rise and fall of sea
Did you levels at the beach. But marine life is not the only kind of life that has to
know? take note of the tides. Many people also use the low tide to collect seaweed.
Sea anemones Seaweed has many uses, including being a food source for people. In some
look like plants cultures seaweed is used for medicinal purposes and to make various woven
with flowers, products, such as rope, baskets and mats.
but they are
actually animals. ACTIVITY How good a fisherman are you?
Their tentacles
contain a
poison which Background
paralyses their Fish are easier to catch at times when they are feeding. The tides determine
food (small fish when most fish feed. When the tide is coming in or going out, the moving
and shrimps) water stimulates feeding. The fastest part of the tide is normally around two
when touched. hours before and after low and high tides. These times are the best times to
go fishing.

Instructions
1. Look at the example of tide table data for one day below, and answer the
following questions.
Durban – Thursday 29th August 2013
Time Tide Height (m) Comment

00:56 Moonrise
02:29 0,85 Low tide
06:14 Sunrise
08:41 1,26 High tide
11:42 Moonset
14:52 0,93 Low tide
17:39 Sunset
21:34 1,27 High tide
Questions
2. Thembela wants to go fishing at the best time around the first low tide of
the day. What times could she go fishing?
3. Josh wants to go fishing when the Sun has set. What would be the best
possible times for him to choose from?
4. Faried wants to go fishing while the Sun is up. What would be the best
possible times for him to choose from?

Summary
Key concepts
• The Moon orbits the Earth once every 27,3 days. The Moon also spins on its own axis once
every 27,3 days. Because both of these time periods are the same, we only ever see one side
of the Moon from Earth.
• Gravity is a force that acts between all objects with mass. The size of the force acting on the
objects is proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to their distance from
each other.
• The Earth’s gravity is responsible for holding the Moon in orbit around the Earth.
• The Moon’s gravitational pull is mainly responsible for the tides on Earth.
• Neap tides occur when the Sun and Moon are at 90 degrees to each other.
• Spring tides occur when the Sun and Moon are in line with each other.
• The rise and fall of the tides affects marine life living along shorelines. They have adapted
to this harsh environment in many ways to prevent themselves from drying out and from
being washed away by strong waves.
308 Topic 4 Planet Earth and beyond

Concept map
Complete the concept map by filling in the blank spaces. You can do this by reading the
sentence that is made in the concept map. For example, ‘Gravity depends on mass of objects. If
objects same distance apart, then _____________________ exerts a stronger pull.’ What would
the answer be? A ‘bigger object’ or a ‘smaller object’? Fill the answer in. Also do this for the
distance between objects. Would ‘closer objects’, or ‘further-away objects’ exert a stronger pull?
Then give a description of tides.

Revision
1. Why do we only see one side of the Moon from Earth? [2]
2. What is gravity? [1]
3. What holds the Moon in orbit around the Earth? [1]
4. How does the gravitational force of attraction between two objects depend on their masses? [2]
5. How does the gravitational force of attraction between two objects depend upon
their distance? [2]
6. If you were to stand on the surface of the Moon you would experience only one-sixth |
the strength of gravity that you experience standing on the surface of the Earth.
Why is this? [2]
7. What causes tides? [2]
8. Look at the following photo of boats on the sand. Do you think it is a problem that they are
stuck on the sand? How will people get them into the sea?
Figure 16.39 Boats on the sand.
9. What kind of tides occur when the Moon is in line with the Sun? [1]
10. What kind of tides occur when the Sun, Earth and Moon are at right angles to each other? [1]
11. At what phases of the Moon do spring tides occur? [2]
12. At what phases of the Moon do neap tides occur? [2]

13. What would happen to the height of the tides if there were no Moon? [1]
14. Draw a diagram to show the alignment of the Sun, Earth and Moon during neap and
spring tides. [4]
15. Explain why spring tides are more extreme than neap tides. [2]
16. Look at the following photo and answer the questions.
Figure 16.40 A rocky shore.
a) Do you think it is low or high tide? Give a reason for your answer. [2]
b) What is the name given to this zone on the shoreline where the tides move back
and forth? [1]
c) What are the main risks to marine life living in this region? [2]
d) How is the seaweed adapted so that it does not dry out? [1]
e) What other types of animals do you think you would find in this region?
Give 4 examples. [2]
Total [33 marks]

Historical development
17 of astronomy
Key questions
• How did ancient astronomers use the motions of the Sun, Moon and stars for time keeping?
• How did ancient astronomers view our place in the solar system?
• Why did Copernicus think that the Earth and planets go around the Sun?
• What discoveries did Galileo make using his telescope?
• How did Newton explain Kepler’s observations?
17.1 Early indigenous knowledge

Keywords
Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Ancient civilisations around the
• lunar calendar world watched the night skies, noting the patterns they saw in the sky. These
• solar calendar patterns are called the constellations. A constellation is any group of stars, as
• constellation seen from Earth, that seems to form a pattern or picture in the sky. Different
• star lore nations, cultures and people have given different names to the different star
patterns and how they interpreted the patterns.
A well-known example is the Southern Cross. Have a look at the photos which
show the stars in the night’s sky and how to view the pattern making up the cross.
Southern Cross
Figure 17.1 This pattern of stars is the Southern Cross. Figure 17.2 The white lines show you how to view the
Southern Cross.
Take note The Southern Cross, Crux, and the two bright Pointer stars were used by
farmers to mark the beginning of the planting season. According to Sotho,
To find south
Tswana and Venda traditions, these stars were called Dithutlwa, meaning
using the
‘The Giraffes’. The bright stars of Crux are male giraffes, and the two Pointers
Southern Cross
are female giraffes.
constellation,
extend the long Another example is the constellation Orion. It is named after Orion,
axis of the cross a supernaturally, strong hunter in Greek mythology. This is one of the
four times and most recognised constellations around the world and many cultures have
go straight down identified with it, each forming their own myths, many around a strong man
to the horizon. or hunter.

Did you
know?
We have seven
days of the
week due to the
seven moving
celestial bodies
known to the
ancient people,
Figure 17.3 The Orion constellation, seen here as the three Figure 17.4 This image shows namely, the
bright stars in the middle making up Orion’s belt and the how the pattern of stars in Sun, the Moon,
four stars in each corner. Orion make the image of the Mercury, Venus,
hunter. Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn.
People also watched the movement of the stars and planets across the sky
marking the passage of time. Early cultures tended to identify the stars and
planets they saw in the night sky with gods, spirits or animals. Ancient
astronomers could tell the difference between stars and planets as the relative Did you
positions of the stars remain fixed in the sky, whereas planets appear to move know?
across the sky relative to the background stars. Not all the planets were
known to the ancient people; only Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn The name
were. Uranus and Neptune were discovered only after telescopes were ‘planet’ comes
invented. from the Greek
word ‘planetes’
Ancient civilisations like the which means
Sumerians, Babylonians and ‘wanderer’.
Egyptians were responsible Planets
for introducing many of the were called
constellations that astronomers use wanderers by
in the West today. the ancient
Knowledge of these constellations Greeks as they
were later passed on and added to move across the
by later civilisations such as the sky relative to
ancient Greeks, Romans and Arabs. Figure 17.5 The Dunhuang Star Map from the the background
Native Americans, Aboriginal stars.
Tang Dynasty in China (circa 700 AD) shows
Australians, Mayans, Aztecs, some of the constellations they observed.
Polynesians and ancient Chinese
and Japanese peoples took a keen interest in the stars and had their own
constellations and stories about the stars.
Astronomy played an important role in religion at the time, and the dates of
festivals and holy days were fixed by the alignment of the stars or the phase
of the Moon. In fact, the ancient Egyptian and Mayan pyramids and temples
were designed in such a way that the Sun, Moon, stars and planets would be
visible from the top or through certain windows at important times of the
year, such as solstices or equinoxes.
Unit 17: Historical development of astronomy 313

Did you
know?
Some people
believe that
the builders
of the ancient
pyramids of
Giza in Egypt
placed them
Figure 17.6 The three Great Pyramids of Giza.
specifically to
look the same Here in South Africa, early cultures also had their own constellations and
from above as stories which were passed down from generation to generation.
the three “belt
stars” of the Early cultures used the stars for navigation. When travelling to new areas or
constellation over water they would have been unable to use familiar landmarks. When
Orion looked viewed from a particular location, a star always rises and sets in the same
from Earth. direction and follows the same path across the sky. We are familiar with this
idea as the Sun is a star and we see it rise and set in the same direction every
day. Early navigators learnt to use the directions of rising and setting stars to
find their way.
Take note
In a lunar
calendar the
time between
one New Moon
and the next is
called a synodic
month and it is
29,5 days. Figure 17.7 Ancient manuscripts from Timbuktu in Mali in central Africa, documenting
astronomical observations.
Early cultures also used the observed changes in the sky for timekeeping.
A day was marked by the time between one sunrise and the next, just as it is
today. The Moon’s regular phases made it a very convenient ‘clock’, and the
time period between one New Moon and the next formed the basis of many
of the oldest calendars.
The lunar cycle was useful because it was predictable in the same way as day
and night. However, each Moon cycle was also connected to a slightly

different season, with its own name and activities. Tally sticks made of
bones with notches etched into them have been found dating as far back as
20 – 30 000 years ago, and are believed to mark the phases of the Moon.
Today we use a solar calendar, a calendar in which a year is defined by the
complete revolution of the Earth around the Sun, but some religious
calendars still use a lunar calendar. Accurate timekeeping was particularly
important for farming communities, because people needed to know when
to plant their seeds and when to harvest their crops.
Figure 17.8 The Lebombo Bone was discovered in the Lebombo mountains between
South Africa and Swaziland in the 1970s. It is a bone from a baboon used as a Tally Stick.
It is roughly 35 000 years old. It is thought to have been used for tracking lunar cycles,
because of the 29 marks on it.
The Pleiades, also called the Seven Sisters, form a bright cluster of stars.
Traditional farming communities in South Africa used the Pleiades to help
them plan their planting. Once the constellation was visible in the early
morning in June they knew it was time to start planting their crops. The
Khoikhoi call the Pleiades Khuseti or Khunuseh, meaning ‘rain stars’. They are
called Selemela in Sotho and Tswana, Shirimela in Tsonga, Tshilimela in Venda,
and isiLimela in Xhosa and Zulu. In Xhosa the stars are called the ‘digging stars’.
In East Africa and Zanzibar the Pleiades are called Kilimia, which also means
‘ploughing stars’ or ‘ digging stars’. Not only were the Pleiades used in Africa to
mark planting season; they were also used by the ancient Mayans in Mexico and
Central America to mark the start of their rainy season.
Figure 17.9 The Pleiades or Seven Sisters star cluster. Although the constellation is
known as the Seven Sisters, the star cluster actually contains hundreds of stars,
although only about seven are easily visible to the human eye.

ACTIVITY The traditional and modern Xhosa calendars
In the Xhosa language, there are two ways of naming months, the modern
and the traditional way. The modern names of the months are used in urban
areas. However, in rural areas, in poetry, and particularly in the Eastern
Cape, the old names are still used. Look at the following table which shows
these names.
English Modern Traditional Xhosa Meaning of traditional name

Xhosa
January uJanuwari EyoMqungu month of the Tambuki Grass
February uFebhuwari EyoMdumba month of the swelling grain
March uMatshi EyoKwindla month of the first fruits
April uApreli UTshazimpuzi month of the withering pumpkins
May uMeyi UCanzibe month of Canopus (Canopus is a star)
June uJuni Isilimela month of the Pleiades
July uJulayi EyeKhala / EyeNtlaba month of the aloes
August uAgasti EyeThupha month of the buds
September uSeptemba EyoMsintsi month of the coast coral tree
October uOktobha EyeDwarha month of the lilypad
November uNovemba EyeNkanga month of the small yellow daisies
December uDisemba EyoMnga month of the mimosa thorn tree and Simba (the lion)
Questions
1. Do you see that the modern Xhosa names are derived from the English
names? The traditional names for the months mostly come from the
names of plants and flowers. Why do you think certain months are given
specific plant or flower names?
Take note
2. Why do you think August is called EyeThupha, the month of the buds?
You do not need 3. Why is June called Isilimela? Hint: Read the preceding text in your
to know the workbook.
names of the 4. What time of year does Isilimela correspond to? What does this signal to
months in Xhosa. traditional farmers?
This activity is for 5. What month were you born in? Write down the traditional Xhosa name
interest. below.
ACTIVITY Class discussion about different calendars.

The calendar we use is the Gregorian calendar and it is the most widely used
around the world. It is also known as the ‘Western calendar’ or ‘Christian
calendar’. It was named after the man who first introduced it in February
1582: Pope Gregory XIII. The term ‘New Year’s Day’ for 1 January was
adopted in Western Europe in the Middle Ages. Before this, the Roman
Julian calendar (named after Julius Caesar) was used.

The Islamic year begins on the first day of the month of Muharram. It is
counted from the year of the Hegira (Anno Hegirae), when Muhammad
emigrated from Mecca to Medina (16 July 622 AD).
The Jewish calendar represents the number of years since they believed the
world was created. This is calculated by adding up the ages of people in the
Bible. So when someone of Jewish beliefs says that the year is 5763, it means
5 763 years from the creation of Adam.
Instructions
1. Around the world, and within South Africa, there are different calendars
which are in use. Do you think it would just be easier to have one
calendar?
2. Discuss this as a class.
3. You could do this as a class debate with teams debating the pros and
cons of the concept.
As well as their practical uses in timekeeping, stories surrounding the

Sun, Moon and constellations have been passed down from generation to
generation. These mythical stories are called star lore. For example, some
believed that after sunset, the Sun travelled back to the east over the top of
the sky, and that the stars are small holes which let the light through. Others
said that the Sun is eaten each night by a crocodile and that it emerges from Did you
the crocodile each morning. know?
Being the most prominent object in the night sky, the Moon also has many The Roman
stories and legends associated with it. If you look closely at the Moon you influence in
can see that it has lighter and darker patches. The pattern formed by the light the Gregorian
and dark patches had been interpreted differently by different cultures: some calendar
see a rabbit, others a buffalo, others a ‘Man in the Moon’. One urban legend explains why
that some people still incorrectly believe is that the Full Moon is linked to the months
insanity. There is no evidence to support the claims of increased birth rates, of July (Julius)
admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides and August
during a Full Moon. (Augustus)
are named
The Khoikhoi called the Moon ‘kham’, or ‘khab’ meaning ‘the Returner’. The
after Roman
Khoikhoi also considered the Moon to be ‘the Lord of Light and Life’ and
emperors.
would sing and dance at times of New and Full Moon. In /Xam San star lore,
there is the following story:
The Moon is a man who has made the Sun angry. The Sun’s sharp light
cuts off pieces of the Moon until almost the whole of the Moon is gone,
leaving only one small piece. The Moon then pleads for mercy and the
Sun lets him go. From this small piece, the Moon gradually grows again
until it becomes a Full Moon.
What do you think the San were observing which they explained with this
story?

The Xhosa considered the time of New Moon to be a time of inaction.
Did you When it reappeared as a crescent in the evening sky, it was cause for
know? celebration. Important events were scheduled to take place around the time
‘Lunacy’ and of Full Moon.
‘lunatic’ are The Milky Way is also a prominent feature of the South African night time
derived from sky visible away from cities. Ancient peoples in South Africa described the
the Latin name Milky Way as a footpath across the sky, along which the ancestor spirits
for the Moon, walked. In San starlore, the Milky Way was created by a girl who scooped
‘Luna’. up a handful of ashes from a fire and flung them into the sky. This made a
glowing path along which people could see the route to return home
at night.
Take note
We will learn
more about our
galaxy, the Milky
Way, and other
galaxies, next
year in Grade 8.
Figure 17.10 The Milky Way seen from Sutherland, Northern Cape, by Janus Brink
(SAAO/SALT).
Meteors (also called shooting stars) and comets also feature heavily in
starlore around the world. In most cultures meteors and comets were
regarded as signs of important events. In Tswana star lore, a very bright
meteor is an indication of a good season ahead. However, the .Xu San saw a
meteor as an evil spirit racing across the sky to cause mischief among people.
The /Xam San, thought that a meteor announced the death of one of them.
In Xhosa star lore, a comet, Uzatshoba, is associated with bad luck, wars
and death. There was also a strong belief that comets predicted the death of
a chief. The Sothos called comets ‘naledi tsha mesela’, and the Zulus called
them ‘inkanyezi enomsile’, which means ‘stars with tails’.

ACTIVITY Create your own legend
Materials
• pictures of famous constellations for inspiration
Figure 17.11 Some examples of constellations in the sky.
Instructions
1. Make up your own pattern of stars and draw them in your exercise book.
2. Make up a legend (story) to go along with your new constellation.
17.2 Modern developments

The earliest astronomers had no sophisticated observatories. They studied
the stars and planets using just their eyes. This is called ‘naked eye’
observing. The South American Mayans, ancient Egyptians and ancient
Chinese built some of the first observatories. These are special buildings used
for studying the stars. These ancient observatories had no telescopes inside.
Nowadays modern observatories contain large telescopes with extremely
sensitive cameras and instruments mounted on the telescopes. Astronomers
use computers to move the telescopes and operate the instruments. As
technology has progressed, we have been able to see a lot more and have
learnt a lot more about the Universe.
Visit

South Africa currently has the
largest optical telescope in
the Southern Hemisphere, the
Southern African Large Telescope
(SALT). SALT is located just
outside Sutherland in the Karoo
where the skies are clear and very
dark. SALT’s main mirror is a
hexagonal shape measuring
11 × 9 metres across, and is
made up of 91 individual smaller
mirrors, which are slotted
together. Its mirror is as large so
as it can be it can collect a lot of
light from very faint and distant
objects. SALT is used to study
a variety of objects including
asteroids, stars and galaxies. Figure 17.11 Chichen-Itza observatory in Mexico.
This ancient observatory was used by the
Mayans, although it had no telescope inside.
Figure 17.12 The Southern African Large Figure 17.13 SALT’s huge mirror collects light from faint distant objects.
Telescope (SALT).
South Africa will also be hosting part of the Square Kilometre Array (SKA),
the world’s largest radio telescope, scheduled to be completed in 2024. The
SKA will be located in the Karoo near the town of Carnarvon, far away from
big towns and cities where there is little radio interference. When complete,
the telescope array will be 50 times more sensitive than any other radio
telescope to date. The array will contain 3 000 radio dishes as well as other
types of radio detectors.
Visit

Figure 17.14 What the SKA will look like in the Karoo.
Astronomers plan to use the giant telescope to test the laws of gravity using
black holes. They will also peer at some of the most distant clouds of gas
in the Universe, which formed before the first stars. Astronomers will also
study how galaxies form, and change over time, and perhaps also detect life
elsewhere in the Universe. Take note
We still have so much to learn about our Universe. We understand only An array means a
about 5% of the content of our Universe presently. SALT and SKA will help large number of
us understand far more about our Universe, so much is still to be discovered. the same items.
For example,
Let’s look at some of the highlights in our journey of scientific discovery so far. when the desks
in your classroom
The discovery that the Sun is at the centre of the solar system are all lined up
and not the Earth neatly, we can
Early astronomers such as the ancient Greeks believed that the Earth was call that an array
at the centre of the Universe, with the stars and planets orbiting around of desks.
the Earth.
Figure 17.15 The ancient Greeks thought that the Earth was at the centre of the universe
and believed that the planets, Sun and background stars all orbited around the Earth.

By carefully watching the motions of the planets in the sky, the Greeks saw
Take note that most of the time the planets travelled west to east across the sky relative
to the background stars. However, they occasionally reversed their direction
Motion towards
and moved backwards, from east to west relative to the background stars.
the east is
The ancient Greeks’ ideas about the Earth-centred Universe worked when
called direct
the planets were travelling in the same direction as the background stars, but
or prograde
could not account for their retrograde (backwards) motion.
motion.
Backwards In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer,
motion is called published his book called De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, or in English,
retrograde On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. In it he correctly deduced that the
motion. Sun, rather than the Earth, was at the centre of the Solar system. He based
his deductions on many of his own and other people’s observations.
Copernicus correctly ordered all the planets known at the time in increasing
distance from the Sun. In his model, all the orbits of the planets were
circular, so in this way, it was similar to the model of the ancient Greeks.
But how did Copernicus’s new deduction solve the problem of Mars’s
backwards motion?
Let’s do an activity to find out.
ACTIVITY Explaining the motions of Mars
Materials
• pencil/pen
• ruler
Figure 17.16 Note that the inner orbit is that of Earth (green) and the outer is that of Mars
(red). The dashed line indicate the background stars.

Instructions
1. Draw a line from each Earth position through the Mars position for the
same month. Extend the line approximately 1 cm past the dashed curve
on the right which represents the background stars.
2. Place a dot at the end of the line and label the dots in order. If a new line
crosses one already drawn, draw the new line slightly longer and place
the dot slightly farther away than you did for the other lines. The line for
January is already drawn as an example. The dots represent the positions
where an observer on Earth would see Mars for the month indicated on
the diagram.
3. Start with the dot number 1, and carefully connect the dots in order. This
connecting line represents the path Mars appears to follow on the sky as
viewed from Earth.
4. Answer the questions below.
Questions Did you

1. How does Mars move around the Sun between January and August? know?
2. To an observer on Earth, what movement does Mars appear to The idea of a
experience during that time period? Sun-centred
3. During which months does Mars appear to be moving backward in solar system
its orbit? was proposed
4. Carefully observe what is happening to Earth and Mars in their orbits as early as about
when Mars seems to loop ‘backward’. What causes Mars to seem to move 200 BC. by
backward in its orbit? Aristarchus of
Figure 17.17 The Earth
Samos (Samos is
west
moves faster than Mars an island off the
in its orbit and catches coast of Turkey).
east
up with Mars at point However, the
(b) before overtaking idea did not
Mars at point (d). As survive long
the Earth overtakes because the
Mars, Mars appears to famous Greek
travel backwards on Aristotle did not
the sky, even though believe in a Sun-
Mars is not really centred solar
changing direction in system.
space.
Mars
e d c
f b
g a
Sun
Earth

How can objects appear to move backwards when they are not really moving
backwards? Let’s do a test right now. Hold your arm outstretched in front of
you and hold up your first finger. Cover or close your left eye and note where
your finger appears against the background. Now cover or close your right
eye instead. What do you notice about the position of where your finger
appears? It moved to the right didn’t it? But did you really move your finger?
No, it just appeared to move because of your change in perspective.
The discovery that the planets’ orbits are elliptical

Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician. He spent ten
years trying to explain the motion of Mars across the sky in detail. He could
only get his model of the solar system to fit the observations of the planets’
motions if he assumed that rather than moving in a circle around the Sun,
the planets all orbited in ellipses (ovals). He discovered that the true shape of
the planets’ orbits is elliptical.
The Earth travels faster in its elliptical orbit when it is closer to the Sun than
when it is farther away. This is because the gravitational force of attraction
Figure 17.18 Johannes between the Earth and Sun is stronger when the Earth is closer to the Sun.
Kepler. This is true of the orbits of all planets around the Sun.
Neptune
Uranus
Saturn
Jupiter
Earth Mars
Sun
Mercury
outer planets Venus
inner planets
Figure 17.19 The Earth and the other planets in our solar system orbit around the Sun in an
ellipse.

Galileo’s discoveries using his telescope
Galileo Galilei was an Italian physicist, mathematician and astronomer.
Take note
He built his first telescope in 1609 and was the first astronomer to use a Although
telescope. In 1610 he published a book called the Sidereal Messenger, listing Galileo wasn’t
the discoveries he had made using his telescope. appreciated
during his
lifetime, his
experimental and
mathematical
approach to
physics was
revolutionary
and way ahead
of his time.
Figure 17.20 Galileo displaying his telescope.
Galileo discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (which are now called
the Galilean moons). Over several nights he watched them move and
realised that they were actually orbiting around Jupiter.
Take note
Heresy is having
a belief or
opinion that
is against the
official teachings
of the church at
the time.
Figure 17.21 The four largest moons of Jupiter, left to right in increasing distance from
Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
He also found that Venus has phases just like the Moon (and just like all
planets). He discovered that the Moon has craters and that the Sun has dark
spots which are called sunspots. These imperfections on the Moon and
Sun discredited the belief held by the Catholic Church at the time that the
heavens were perfect and unchanging.
The Catholic Church allowed Galileo to conduct his research, as long as he
did not openly publicise his findings. In 1632 Galileo angered the head of the
Catholic Church (the Pope) when he published a book in which he stated
that the Earth was moving around the Sun. He was put on trial and found
guilty of heresy. He was first imprisoned and later placed under house arrest.

Newton discovers gravity
Isaac Newton was an English physicist and mathematician and is considered
one of the greatest scientists of all time. He derived mathematical laws to
describe the motions of objects but his greatest discovery was that of the
force of gravity. In 1687 he published a book called Philosophae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica, or in English: Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, in which he explained his ideas about the motions of objects
and gravity.
There is a famous story which says that Newton was sitting under an apple
tree when an apple fell on his head and he began to think about gravity and
Figure 17.22 Sir Isaac falling objects. The apple didn’t really land on his head, but he did watch an
Newton aged 46. apple fall and began to wonder why apples always fall down. He suggested
that it was the force of gravity that caused apples to fall.
Amazingly, he made the mental leap from Earth to space and realised that
it was the force of gravity that was holding the Moon in its orbit around the
Earth. According to Newton, gravity is the reason that objects fall to the
ground when dropped and why planets orbit the Sun and why moons orbit
planets. Up until Newton no one had been able to explain what held the
Moon and the planets up in their orbits.
ACTIVITY Interview with a revolutionary
Did you
know? Materials
Quotes from Sir • reference materials about famous historical astronomers.

Isaac Newton:
Instructions
‘I can calculate
the motions of 1. Work in pairs in this activity. One of you will play the role of an early
the heavenly famous astronomer and the other will play the role of a journalist.
bodies, but not 2. Astronomer: Pick which famous astronomer you are going to be and
the madness of answer the questions your partner asks you.
people.’ 3. Journalist: Ask the ‘astronomer’ what they have discovered and why their
discoveries are important.
Modern day discoveries

Scientists are continually making new discoveries, and with every new
discovery comes a new question.
Visit

ACTIVITY Research a new discovery, invention or scientist.
Instructions
1. Research either a recent discovery made in astronomy, or an invention
used in astronomy, or about a famous astronomer.
2. You can choose to write about one of the examples provided in the text
below, or you can choose your own example.
3. Your teacher will inform you how you must present your work.
Some example discoveries: See Visit boxes in margin.
Exoplanets: An exoplanet is a planet orbiting around a star other than our

own Sun. The first exoplanet was discovered in 1992, when several planets
were found orbiting around a small, rapidly spinning star. By June 2013,
890 exoplanets had been discovered, and more and more are being found all
the time.
Figure 17.23 This image compares the smallest known exoplanets orbiting outside the
solar system, to our own planets Mars and Earth.
Black holes: Black holes are super-dense regions in space which have very
strong gravity, so strong that not even light can escape from them. Although
you cannot see a black hole directly, astronomers know they exist because of
their pull on objects close to them. If you were to fall into a black hole feet
first, you would be pulled apart like a piece of spaghetti.
Figure 17.24 An artist’s drawing concept. On the left, the yellow, sun-like star comes too
close to the black hole, and is stretched (middle yellow blob), until it is ripped apart. Some
of the remains of the star swirl into the black hole (blue-white cloudy ring on the right). A
black hole in the universe.

The Expansion of the
Universe: In 1929,
astronomer Edwin Hubble
made the astonishing
discovery that our universe
is expanding. Looking at
galaxies outside our Milky
Way galaxy, he found that
all the galaxies he looked
at were moving away from
the Earth, and that the most
distant ones were moving
away fastest. This implies that
every galaxy is moving away
from every other galaxy.
In fact, the space between
galaxies is itself expanding.
Visit
Figure 17.25 As the Universe expands,
galaxies move further and further apart.
ACTIVITY Modern-day astronomers and physicists
Instructions
Look at the photographs below and match the face to the description of the
person.
Descriptions:
Stephen Hawking, a famous British physicist diagnosed with ALS, a form of
Motor Neuron Disease, shortly after his 21st birthday. He is famous for his
work on black holes.
Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, the astronomer responsible for discovering that
stars are made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.
Albert Einstein, a German physicist famous for his work on gravity and the
nature of space and time.

Summary
Key concept
• People have watched the stars for thousands of years. They have created stories about the
stars and constellations which have been passed on from generation to generation.
• Early scientists believed that the Earth was at the centre of the solar system.
• Copernicus found that the observations of planetary motion could be more easily explained
if the Sun were at the centre of the solar system.
• Galileo was the first astronomer who used a telescope and found that Jupiter had moons
orbiting around it.
• Newton discovered gravity and explained that planets and moons are held in orbit by the
force of gravity.
• New discoveries are continuously made using modern telescopes.
Concept map
Throughout this year we have been looking at how to produce concept maps after each unit.
This is now your chance to make your own concept map. The concepts in this unit about the
development of astronomy can easily be divided into two main themes: firstly, about ‘early
indigenous knowledge’, and then about the ‘modern developments’ that people have made and
are still making. The concept map has been started for you. Copy this into your notebook to
first practice drawing your concept map. With the help of your teacher, complete your concept
map, which will summarise this chapter.

Revision
1. What motions could the ancient Greek model of the solar system not explain? [2]
2. How did Copernicus’s model of the solar system differ from the ancient Greek model of
the solar system, and how was it similar? [2]
3. Explain in your own words why Mars sometimes appears to move backwards relative to
the motion of the background stars. [3]
4. List two different discoveries that Galileo made using his telescope. [2]
5. Do planets travel around the Sun in circles or ellipses? [1]
6. How does the speed of a planet vary as it travels around the Sun? [2]
7. What practical uses for the stars were used by early cultures? [2]
8. How did early San people explain the Milky Way? [2]
9. Do the phases of the Moon have an effect on human behaviour? [1]
Total [17 marks]

Glossary 4
acceleration due to gravity the acceleration hemisphere one half of a sphere or globe;
given to an object by the attractive the Earth is divided at the equator into
gravitational force of the Earth or other the Northern and Southern hemispheres
celestial body indirect not direct, by a longer way
axis a real or imaginary straight line about
which something turns; the imaginary axis intensity the concentration or amount of
of the Earth passes through the North and something
South Pole intertidal zone an area that is above water at
low tide and under water at high tide (it lies
cellulose a carbohydrate which plants use to between low- and high-tide levels)
form leaves and stems
coal brown or black rock that can be lunar calendar a calendar based on lunar cycles
ignited and burned, and which consists of (phases of the Moon)
carbonised plant matter lunar related to the Moon, for example, lunar
constellation a group of stars that when viewed surface (Moon’s surface), lunar day (the
from Earth form a pattern in the sky Moon’s day)
crude oil a dark oil found in rock formations mass the quantity of matter an object contains
deep underground, used as fuel moon a body that orbits around a planet, or a
day the length of time it takes for a planet to small body such as an asteroid (not a star)
spin once on its axis natural gas a flammable gas, consisting largely
decompose to break down or decay of methane, occurring naturally underground
direct the shortest way and used as fuel
eclipse the blocking of light coming from a neap tides tides with the minimum difference
celestial object, for example, a solar eclipse or between low and high tides which occur
a lunar eclipse when the Moon and Sun are at right angles to
ecosystem a community of living organisms each other
and their interaction with the environment non-renewable something of which there is
equator an imaginary horizontal line around a limited supply, or which can only be used
the middle of the Earth, at an equal distance once
from the North Pole and the South Pole oblique at an angle other than 90 degrees,
equinox occurs twice a year (around 22 March slanting inward
and 22 September) when the Sun’s rays fall observatory a room or building housing a
directly on the Earth’s equator telescope or other scientific equipment for
fossil fuels a natural fuel such as coal, oil or observations and research, especially of
natural gas, formed in the geological past objects in space.
from the remains of living organisms orbit the path followed by a planet , moon,
or other object in space as it travels around
glucose a carbohydrate produce by most plants, another object; the path of the Earth around
which is energy rich the Sun is an orbit
gravitational force the force that attracts an
object with mass towards another object with photosynthesis the process whereby green
mass plants use sunlight (energy), water and
gravity the force that attracts a body towards carbon dioxide to produce glucose, which is
the centre of the Earth or towards any other food for the plant; oxygen is released during
celestial body having mass this process
Unit 17: Glossary 4 331

prograde direct or forward motion (proceeding sphere any round object that has a surface that
from west to east across the sky) is the same distance from its centre at all
points, for example, a ball or globe
renewable something of which there is an spring tides extreme tides with the maximum
unlimited supply found in nature, or which difference between low and high tides which
can be reused occur when the Earth, Moon and Sun are in
retrograde reversed motion (proceeding from alignment
east to west across the sky) star lore mythical stories about the stars,
revolution the orbit of Earth (or other object or planets and constellations
planet) around the Sun starch a carbohydrate consisting of a large
rotation the spinning of the Earth (or other number of glucose units
object or planet) on its axis
telescope an instrument designed to make
season each of the four divisions of the year distant objects appear nearer and magnified
(spring, summer, autumn and winter) which tidal bulge a swell in the sea level in line with
have different weather patterns and daylight the Moon on either side of the Earth (along
hours the Earth-Moon line)
solar calendar a calendar whose dates indicate tides the regular rise and fall of the oceans (and
the position of the Earth in its orbit around some rivers and lakes) twice a day, caused by
the Sun the gravitational attraction of the Moon and,
solar energy energy from the Sun’s light and to a lesser extent, the Sun
heat tilt to slant or tip
solstice occurs twice in a year (around 21 June
and 21 December), when the Sun’s rays strike vegetation the general word used for plants
the Tropic of Capricorn (southern summer growing in an area or region
solstice) or the Tropic of Cancer (northern
summer solstice) directly weight the force exerted on a mass due to
gravity

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Unit 1 The biosphere 2

STRAND Matter and Materials 93

Unit 9 Renewable and non-renewable energy 168

STRAND Planet Earth and Beyond 257

Unit 15 Relationship of the Earth to the Sun 258

Life and Living

Take note The Biosphere

2 STRAND Life and Living

ACTIVITY Where do you think life exists on Earth?

Unit 1: The biosphere 3

ACTIVITY Describe the components of the biosphere.

Figure 1.3 The lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere on Earth.

Identify and describe the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and

Different organisms can exists in different places in the biosphere. Let’s

4 STRAND Life and Living

ACTIVITY The atmosphere

ACTIVITY The water cycle

Unit 1: The biosphere 5

ACTIVITY How do organisms depend on the lithosphere?

Figure 1.4 Birds’ nests Figure 1.5 A rock pool

Figure 1.8 An earthworm in soil Figure 1.9 A mud hut

6 STRAND Life and Living

1.2 Requirements for sustaining life

ACTIVITY Identify the requirements for sustaining life

Unit 1: The biosphere 7

1. Work in groups of four.

8 STRAND Life and Living

Unit 1: The biosphere 9

10 STRAND Life and Living

Adapted for life

ACTIVITY Adaptations in organisms

Unit 1: The biosphere 11

Figure 1.16 A ﬂying ﬁsh eagle about to catch some food.

1. How do you think the penguin is adapted to swim in water?

12 STRAND Life and Living

Figure 1.18 A lion attacking a buffalo in Kruger National Park.

Unit 1: The biosphere 13

• Life on planet Earth exists in the biosphere.

14 STRAND Life and Living

The biosphere made up of

environment seven life processes

Unit 1: Summary 15

Hint: Look at its leaves.

Hint: What is on the leaves?

c) Stick insect (1)

16 STRAND Life and Living

2.1 Classiﬁcation of living things

ACTIVITY Group some everyday objects

• objects from home

Unit 2: Biodiversity 17

• characteristics 1. Work in groups of four.

Aristotle’s classification system

ACTIVITY Aristotle’s classiﬁcation system

1. Look at the following photos of different kinds of animals.

18 STRAND Life and Living

Carl Linnaeus classification system

Figure 1.16 A ﬂying ﬁsh eagle about to catch some food.