ENDOSCOPY

surendranaduthila@gmail.com
ENDOSCOPY
Endoscopy, is the
examination of internal
body cavities using a
specialized medical
instrument called an
endoscope.

Physicians use endoscopy

to diagnose, monitor,
and surgically treat
various medical
problems.

Surendran. K
surendranaduthila@gmail.com
 ‫‪ENDOSCOPY‬‬
‫ﻳﻌﺗﺑﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﻧﻅﻳﺭ ﻭﺳﻳﻠﺔ ﻁﺑﻳﺔ ﻗﻭﻳﺔ ﺗﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﻟﻠﺗﺷﺧﻳﺹ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻟﻸﻣﺭﺍﺽ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻗﺩ ﻣﻬﺩ ﺍﻟﺗﻁﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﻛﻧﻭﻟﻭﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﻁﺭﻳﻕ ﻛﻲ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﻅﻳﺭ ﻣﻥ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻟﻌﺏ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺎﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻁﺏ‪ .‬ﻟﻠﻣﻧﺎﻅﻳﺭ ﺇﻣﻛﺎﻧﻳﺔ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﺍﻵﻓﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺧﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻋﺿﺎء ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺧﻠﻳﺔ ﻭﺑﺩﻗﺔ ﺣﻳﺯﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻳﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﺟﻝ ﺍﻟﺟﺭﺍﺣﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺻﻐﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﺑﺎﺿﻌﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺎﻟﻙ ﺍﻟﻁﺑﻳﻌﻳﺔ ) ﺍﻟﻔﻡ‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻷﻧﻑ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺷﺭﺝ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﺏ(‪ .‬ﻟﻠﻭﺻﻭﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻷﻋﺿﺎء ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻭﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺛﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻠﻌﻭﻡ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻱ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺩﺓ‪ ،‬ﺍﻷﻣﻌﺎء ﺍﻟﺻﻐﻳﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻟﻭﻥ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺣﻧﺟﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺷﺟﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﺻﺑﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻣﺛﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﻭﻟﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ENDOSCOPY‬‬
‫ﺗﻁﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﻅﻳﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺃﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﻗﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﻟﻳﺎﻑ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﺻﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﻣﺟﺎﻝ ﻣﺣﺩﻭﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﺅﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺑﻌﺩﻫﺎ ﺗﻁﻭﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﻅﻳﺭ‬
‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﻟﻳﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺑﺻﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﻣﻧﺎﻅﻳﺭ ﻣﺭﻧﺔ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﻗﻳﺎﺩﺗﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺿﻣﻥ ﺃﻋﺿﺎء ﻣﺗﻌﺭﺟﺔ ﻟﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻋﻣﺎﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻠﻙ ﺍﻷﻋﺿﺎء‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺑﻌﺩﻫﺎ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺗﻁﻭﺭ ﺣﺳﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺃﺷﺑﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻧﻭﺍﻗﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻧﺎﻫﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺻﻐﺭ ﻗﺩ ﻣﻛﻥ ﻣﻥ ﻧﻘﻝ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺃﻓﺿﻝ ﻣﻥ ﻏﻳﺭﻩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺗﺻﻭﻳﺭ ﺑﺎﻷﻣﻭﺍﺝ ﻓﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺗﻳﺔ ﻗﺩ ﺿﻡ ﺇﻟﻰ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻧﻅﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻥ ﻟﻠﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺧﻠﻑ ﺍﻷﻧﺳﺟﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺣﻳﺙ ﺍﻟﺑﻧﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻷﺟﺯﺍء ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻥ‪:‬‬
 ‫ﺍﻷﺟﺯﺍء ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻥ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﺣﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺩﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺟﺳﻡ‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺑﺻﺭﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻁﻠﺑﺔ ﻹﻧﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﺟﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﻧﻅﻳﺭﻳﺔ‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺃﻗﻧﻳﺔ ﻟﺩﺧﻭﻝ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺟﺭﺍﺣﻳﺔ‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﻭﺁﻟﻳﺔ ﺗﺯﻭﻳﺩ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﻭﻓﻌﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺛﻧﻳﻪ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﺣﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻣﻥ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺗﻣﻔﺻﻼﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺳﻣﺢ ﻟﻠﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺣﻧﺎء ﺑﺯﻭﺍﻳﺎ ﻛﺑﻳﺭﺓ‬

‫ﺗﺻﻝ ﺍﻟﻰ ‪ 270‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‪.‬‬
 ‫ﺍﻷﺟﺯﺍء ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻥ‪:‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﻐﻁﻰ ﺍﻻﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﺑﺑﻼﺳﺗﻳﻙ ﻗﺎﺳﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻳﺎ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻻﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﻓﻬﻲ ﺗﺣﻭﻱ ﺃﻗﻧﻳﺔ ﺩﺧﻭﻝ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻻﺩﻭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭﻣﻔﺎﺗﻳﺢ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺯﻭﺍﻳﺎ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﻟﺛﻧﻲ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻔﻝ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻟﺣﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻭﺿﻌﻳﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﺻﻣﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﻭﺍﻟﻣﻔﺎﺗﻳﺢ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﻋﻥ ﺑﻌﺩ ﻟﺗﺧﺯﻳﻥ ﻭﺃﺧﺫ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

 ‫ﺍﻷﺟﺯﺍء ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻥ‪:‬‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﻳﻭﺟﺩ ﺷﺭﻳﻁ )ﺍﻟﺣﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﺭﻱ( ﻳﺭﺑﻁ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺞ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺣﻭﻱ ﺍﻹﻧﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺎﻋﺩﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﻣﺭﺍﺕ ﻟﻠﻬﻭﺍء‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﻛﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻛﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﺣﻭﺍﻟﻲ ‪ 1.5‬ﻣﺗﺭ ﻭﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺃﻥ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻳﻛﻭﻥ ﺃﻁﻭﻝ ﻣﻥ ﺫﻟﻙ ﺣﺳﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺍﺩ ﺗﻧﻅﻳﺭﻫﺎ‪.‬‬
 ENDOSCOPY
 An endoscope is a Cylinder,
flexible tube equipped with
lenses and a light source.
Illumination is done by the
help of a number of optical
fibers.
 Reflected light rays are
collected by CCD( Charge
coupled device) and electrical
signals are produced, which
are fed to the video monitor
to get image.
 Thorough one channel of
endoscope water and air is
conducted to wash and dry
the surgical site.
 ENDOSCOPY

 The endoscope also has a

channel through which surgeons
can manipulate tiny instruments,
such as forceps, surgical
scissors, and suction devices.
 A variety of instruments can be
fitted to the endoscope for
different purposes.

 A surgeon introduces the

endoscope into the body either
through a body opening, such as
the mouth or the anus, or
through a small incision in the
skin.
 The endoscope
ENDOSCOPY

gives visual
evidence of the
problem, such as
ulceration or
inflammation
 It can be used to
collect a sample of
tissue; remove
problematic
tissue, such as
polyps
 It is used to take
photograph of the
hollow internal
organs
 ENDOSCOPY
 Depending on the body part, each type of endoscopy
has its own special term, such as

laparoscopy (abdomen, uterus, fallopian tube),

laryngoscopy (vocal cords),
bronchoscopy (lungs),
colonoscopy (colon),
arthroscopy (joint) and
Gastroscopy (Stomach).

surendranaduthila@gmail.com
‫‪ -1‬ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ‪:‬‬
 ‫‪ -1‬ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ‪:‬‬

‫‪ -1‬ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﺗﺣﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ )‪ (Distal end‬ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﺻﺭﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺷﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﻧﻅﻳﺭﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﺗﻅﻬﺭ ﺻﻭﺭﺓ ﻣﻘﻁﻊ ﻋﺭﺿﻲ ﻣﻅﻬﺭ ﺟﺑﻬﻲ ﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ‪ .2‬ﻭﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﻣﻭﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻋﺩﺳﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻹﻧﺎﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻣﺳﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺎء‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺣﺳﺎﺳﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ‬
‫‪2‬ﺏ ﻳﻅﻬﺭ ﻋﺩﺳﺗﻲ ﺇﻧﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻝ ﻣﻥ ﺟﺎﻧﺑﻲ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ ﻛﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺳﺗﻁﻳﻊ ﺇﻧﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻧﺻﺭ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺟﻳﺩ ﻭﻣﻭﺣﺩ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -1‬ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ‪:‬‬

‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ ﻗﻧﺎﺓ ﺃﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﻛﺑﻳﺭﺓ ﻟﻭﺻﻭﻝ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﻣﻥ ﺃﺟﻝ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﻧﺳﺟﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﺗﺣﺗﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺩﺓ ﻋﻧﺎﺻﺭ ﺑﺻﺭﻳﺔ ﻣﺛﻝ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻋﺩﺳﺎﺕ ﻣﻘﺭﺑﺔ ﻭﻋﺩﺳﺎﺕ ﻣﺗﻭﺳﻁﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﺗﺣﺔ ﻋﺩﺳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺑﺎﻳﻥ‬
‫ﻟﻭﻧﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﻗﻧﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻓﺗﻭﺟﻪ ﺇﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﺗﺩﻓﻕ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺳﻁﺢ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﻟﺗﻧﻅﻳﻔﻬﺎ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﺎﺥ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء‬
‫ﻟﻧﻔﺦ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻭ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺍﺩ ﺗﻧﻅﻳﺭﻩ ﻛﻲ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺗﻛﺑﻳﺭﻩ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -1‬ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ‪:‬‬

‫ﻟﻘﺩ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻳﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺃﻟﻳﺎﻑ ﺑﺻﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﻧﻘﻝ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻳﺎ ﺣﻳﺙ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﺑﻳﺏ ﻳﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﻋﺩﺳﺔ ﻋﻳﻧﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺭﻛﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻭﺑﻌﺩ ﺗﻁﻭﺭ ﺗﻘﻧﻳﺔ ﺃﺷﺑﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻧﻭﺍﻗﻝ ﻓﻘﺩ ﺗﻡ ﺍﺳﺗﺑﺩﺍﻝ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻷﻟﻳﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺑﺻﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﺣﺳﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﺷﺣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺗﺑﻁ‬
‫)‪ (CCD‬ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺗﻭﺿﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ ﻣﺑﺎﺷﺭﺓ ﺧﻠﻑ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ ﻹﻧﺗﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻳﺩﻳﻭﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -2‬ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ‪:‬‬

‫ﺗﺻﻣﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻟﺗﺯﻭﺩﻧﺎ ﺑﺣﻘﻝ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﻛﺑﻳﺭ ﻭﺑﺩﻗﺔ ﺣﻳﺯﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻧﻅﺭﺍً ﻷﻧﻪ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺻﻌﺏ ﺍﻧﺟﺎﺯ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻁﻠﺑﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺩﺳﺔ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻭﺣﻳﺩﺓ ﻟﺫﺍ ﻧﻠﺟﺄ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺩﺳﺎﺕ ﻣﺗﻌﺩﺩﺓ ﻟﺗﺷﻛﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -2‬ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻅﻬﺭ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ‪ 2‬ﺃ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺑﺻﺭﻱ ﻟﻠﻌﺩﺳﺎﺕ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺗﻌﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺛﻳﺗﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺷﻛﻠﺔ ﻣﻥ ﻣﺣﻭﺭ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺿﻭﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻌﻛﺱ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﺟﺳﻡ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﻋﺩﺳﺔ ﻣﺑﻌﺩﺓ )ﻣﻧﻔﺭﺟﺔ‪ -‬ﺫﺍﺕ ﺑﻌﺩ ﻣﺣﺭﻗﻲ ﺳﺎﻟﺏ(‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻹﻧﺗﺎﺝ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻛﺑﻳﺭﺓ ﺛﻳﺗﺎ ﻟﺗﻛﺑﻳﺭ ﺣﻘﻝ ﺍﻟﺭﺅﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -2‬ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻳﺗﻭﺿﻊ ﺧﻠﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ ﻓﺗﺣﺔ ﺗﻣﺭﻳﺭ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﻟﻣﻧﻊ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻻﻧﻌﻛﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺧﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﺧﻳﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﻋﺩﺳﺔ ﺃﻛﺭﻭﻣﺎﺕ )ﻻ ﻣﻘﺯﺣﺔ( ﺑﺗﺻﺣﻳﺢ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻭﻫﺎﺕ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻛﺭﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻭﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻧﺎﺗﺟﺔ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺎﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻭﺳﻁﺔ ﺗﺳﺎﻋﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺑﺋﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺣﺳﺎﺱ‪ .‬ﺗﺻﺣﺢ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﻳﺭ ﻣﻘﺯﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻭﻫﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻭﻧﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺣﻳﺙ ﺃﻥ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻷﻟﻭﺍﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻁﻳﻑ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺋﻲ ﺳﻭﻑ ﺗﺗﺭﻛﺯ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺳﺗﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺣﺳﺎﺱ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -2‬ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﺧﺗﻠﻑ ﺍﻟﻁﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﺭﻗﻲ ﻟﻠﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺭﻛﺯ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻳﻁ‪ ،‬ﻳﻘﺩﻡ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺩﻋﻰ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻭﻳﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﻳﻠﻲ )‪ (Barrel Distortion‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ‪ .‬ﻳﻣﻛﻥ‬
‫ﺗﻭﺿﻳﺢ ﺍﻟﺗﺄﺛﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﻳﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻭﺭﺓ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻣﺭﺑﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﺄﺑﻌﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﺗﺳﺎﻭﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ‪3‬ﺃ ﻻ ﻳﻭﺟﺩ ﺗﺄﺛﻳﺭ ﺗﺷﻭﻩ ﺑﺭﻣﻳﻠﻲ‬
 ‫‪ -2‬ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﻭﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺑﻌﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺃﺑﻌﺎﺩ ﻣﺗﺳﺎﻭﻳﺔ‬
‫‪ Delta X‬ﻋﺭﺽ ﻭ ‪ Delta Y‬ﻁﻭﻝ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ ﺫﻭ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻭﻳﻪ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﻳﻠﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺗﻛﺑﻳﺭ ﻫﻭ ﺍﻛﺑﺭ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻛﺯ ﻋﻧﻪ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻳﻁ‪ .‬ﻭﻛﻣﺎ ﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ‪3‬ﺏ ﻓﺈﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺑﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺟﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻛﺯ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﺑﻌﺎﺩ ﺍﻛﺑﺭ ) ‪Delta‬‬
‫‪ (Xc, Delta Yc‬ﻣﻥ ﺗﻠﻙ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺟﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻳﻁ‬
‫)‪.(Delta Xp, Delta Yp‬‬
‫ﻭﺑﺳﺑﺏ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻝ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻳﺩﻳﻭ ﺫﻭ ﺍﻷﻟﻳﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺑﺻﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻭ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺗﻣﺩ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﻳﺩﻳﻭ ﻓﺈﻧﻧﺎ ﺳﻧﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﻭﺣﺩﺓ ‪ resel‬ﻟﻠﺗﻌﺑﻳﺭ ﻋﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻧﻘﺎﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﻳﺯﻳﺔ ﺃﻱ ﺍﺻﻐﺭ ﺟﺯء ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻓﻬﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺑﺭ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻳﻑ ﺍﻟﺑﺻﺭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﺃﻟﻳﺎﻑ ﺑﺻﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻛﺳﻝ )ﻋﻧﺻﺭ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭﺓ( ﻓﻲ ﻣﺻﻔﻭﻓﺔ ‪.CCD‬‬
 ‫‪ -3‬ﺃﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‪:‬‬

‫ﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ﻣﻘﻁﻊ ﻋﺭﺿﻲ ﻷﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﻳﺗﺄﻟﻑ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﻣﻥ ﻏﻁﺎء ﺑﻼﺳﺗﻳﻛﻲ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺳﻭﺍﺋﻝ ﺍﻟﺟﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻣﺿﻳﺔ ﻣﺛﻝ ﺍﻷﺣﻣﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺩﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻣﻭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺗﻁﻬﻳﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻧﻅﻳﻑ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺣﺕ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻐﻁﺎء ﻓﺈﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ ﺷﺑﻛﺔ ﺃﺳﻼﻙ ﺗﻣﺗﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻁﻭﻝ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻻﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﻟﻣﻧﻊ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﺎﻓﻪ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻣﺗﻁﺎﻁﻪ ﺃﺛﻧﺎء ﺍﻻﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗﺣﺕ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻷﺳﻼﻙ ﻫﻧﺎﻙ ﻧﻁﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻫﻠﻳﻠﻳﺟﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺑﻘﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ﺍﻻﺳﻁﻭﺍﻧﻲ ﻭﺗﺯﻭﺩﻧﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺣﻣﺎﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﻳﻛﺎﻧﻳﻛﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
Insertion Tube
 ‫‪ -3‬ﺃﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‪:‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﻣﺣﺗﻭﻳﺎﺕ ﺃﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺩﻟﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﺿﻭﺋﻲ‪ ،‬ﺣﺯﻣﺔ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﺻﻭﻳﺭ‪ ،‬ﺃﺳﻼﻙ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺯﻭﺍﻳﺎ‪ ،‬ﺃﻧﺎﺑﻳﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء‪،‬‬
‫ﻭﻗﻧﺎﺓ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺕ‪ .‬ﻳﺻﻣﻡ ﺍﻻﻧﺑﻭﺏ ﺑﻘﺳﺎﻭﺓ )‪(Stiffness‬‬
‫ﻣﺣﺩﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺧﺗﻠﻑ ﻣﻊ ﻁﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﻟﺗﺳﻬﻳﻝ‬
‫ﺩﺧﻭﻟﻪ ﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﻬﺿﻣﻲ‪ .‬ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﻟﻠﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺣﺭﻓﻬﺎ )ﺛﻧﻳﻬﺎ( ﺑﺯﻭﺍﻳﺎ ﻛﺑﻳﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﺣﺗﺎﺟﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺑﻳﺏ ﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺯ ﺍﻟﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺧﻠﻑ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻭﻛﺫﻟﻙ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺣﺭﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﻗﻳﻘﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺍﻻﻋﺿﺎء ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺧﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻌﺭﺟﺔ ﻣﺛﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻣﻌﺎء‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -4‬ﺍﻟﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺣﻧﺎء‪:‬‬

‫ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺛﻧﻲ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻳﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻳﺩ ﺍﻟﻳﺳﺭﻯ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﻟﻠﻁﺑﻳﺏ ﺗﺎﺭﻛﺎ ً ﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﻳﺩ ﺍﻟﻳﻣﻧﻰ ﺣﺭﺓ ﻟﻼﻣﺳﺎﻙ ﻭﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ‪ .‬ﺗﻧﺗﺞ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻻﻧﺣﻧﺎءﺍﺕ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻥ ﺃﺳﻼﻙ ﺍﻟﺩﻻﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣﻧﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﺑﺄﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺍﺗﺟﺎﻫﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺃﺳﻔﻝ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﻣﻳﻥ ﻳﺳﺎﺭ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺭﺗﺑﻁ ﺯﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺣﻧﺎء‬
‫ﺑﻣﺳﻧﻥ ﻭﺳﻳﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣﺭﻙ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻙ ﺍﻷﺳﻼﻙ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﺩﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺗﺑﻁﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻁﻠﺏ ﺍﻷﻣﺭ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ‬
‫ﺗﻁﺑﻳﻕ ﻗﻔﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺿﻌﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺣﺭﺍﻑ‪.‬‬
 Control Body
 Angulationcontrol knobs
 Free/Engage lever
 Suction & air/water
valves
 Switch unit (buttons)
 Instrument port
 ‫‪ -5‬ﺻﻣﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء‪:‬‬

‫ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﺯﺭﺍﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺻﻣﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺗﺗﻭﺿﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻹﻋﻁﺎء ﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻣﺣﺗﻭﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻭﻋﺎء ﺍﻟﻬﺿﻣﻲ‪ .‬ﻋﻧﺩﻣﺎ ﺗﻐﻁﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺗﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺻﻐﻳﺭﺓ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺻﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﻳﺗﻡ ﺗﺯﻭﻳﺩ ﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﺑﻭﺍﺳﻁﺔ ﻣﺿﺧﺔ‬
‫ﺿﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺞ ﺍﻟﻔﻳﺩﻳﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﻧﺑﻌﺙ ﻣﻥ ﻓﻭﻫﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻰ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ‪ .‬ﻳﻘﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺿﻭ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺍﺩ ﺗﻧﻅﻳﺭﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻣﺎ ﻳﺅﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻣﺩﺩﻩ ﻟﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﺃﻓﺿﻝ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -5‬ﺻﻣﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء‪:‬‬

‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺳﺣﺏ ﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﻟﺗﻘﻠﻳﺹ ﺍﻟﻭﻋﺎء ﻋﻧﺩ ﺍﻟﺿﺭﻭﺭﺓ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﻋﻧﺩﻣﺎ ﻳﺿﻐﻁ ﺻﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء ﻳﺗﻡ ﺗﺯﻭﻳﺩ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻣﻥ‬
‫ﻭﻋﺎء ﻣﺎء ﻣﺿﻐﻭﻁ ﻣﺗﻭﺿﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺞ ﺍﻟﻔﻳﺩﻳﻭﻱ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﺎ ً‬
‫ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺗﺣﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻠﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺳﻁﺢ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﺋﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪ -5‬ﺻﻣﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻣﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻭﺍء‪:‬‬

‫ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺳﺣﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﺭﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺑﻘﻳﺔ ﺍﻭ ﺍﻟﻔﺿﻼﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺩﺓ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻰ ﺯﺟﺎﺟﺔ ﺗﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﺿﺧﺔ ﺳﺣﺏ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺯﻭﺩﻧﺎ ﺑﺿﻐﻁ ﺳﺎﻟﺏ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺣﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﺭﻱ ﻳﺣﺗﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺗﻭﺻﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺑﻊ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺿﻭﺋﻲ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺎء‪ ،‬ﻣﺿﺧﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﻠﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺳﻠﻙ ﺍﻟﻛﻬﺭﺑﺎء‬
‫ﻛﻲ ﻳﻌﻳﺩ ﺍﻱ ﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﺗﺳﺭﻳﺑﻲ‪ .‬ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺗﻬﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﺎﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ‬
‫ﻭﺻﻠﺔ ﻗﺑﻝ ﻭﺿﻌﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺟﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﻘﻳﻡ‪.‬‬
Bending section and
angulations system
Air, water, and suction
systems
VIDEO IMAGE CAPTURE
 CCDs
 The silicon on the surface of the sensor
responds to light and exhibits a
phenomenon called the photoelectric
effect.
 when a photon of light strikes the
photosensitive surface of the CCD, it
displaces an electron from a silicon
atom in the material.
 CCDs
 This produces a free, negatively charged
electron and a corresponding positively
charged “hole’’ in the crystalline structure of
the silicon at the location where the electron
was previously bound.
 The charges built up on the surface of the
sensor are directly proportional to the amount
of light which fell on the CCD.
CCDs
TYPES OF CCDS
 The three most common types of CCDs
are
 line transfer CCD
 frame transfer CCD

 interline transfer CCD

TYPES OF CCDS
 Each of these designs has specific
advantages in terms of:
 the CCD’s sensitivity to light (and in
turn, the brightness required of the
endoscope’s illumination system),
 the type of light source required
(strobed or nonstrobed), the
TYPES OF CCDS
 The physical size of the CCD(which in
turn affects the diameter of the distal
tip of the endoscope),
 The speed at which the charges can be
transferred out of the CCD.
Interline Transfer CCD
 The interline CCD has a series of
vertical shift registers placed adjacent
to each column of photosites.
 Immediately after exposure to light
(i.e., the image), the charges developed
at the photosites are transferred in one
quick simultaneous step to the adjacent
vertical shift registers.
Interline Transfer CCD
 A big advantage of the interline transfer
CCD is that it does not require strobing
of the illumination.
 Since the entire sensor array is cleared
to the vertical shift registers in one
quick step, the sensor array is
immediately ready to capture the next
image.
Interline Transfer CCD
 So called “color-chip’’ endoscopes that
use continuous, non strobed light
sources are examples of interline
transfer CCD systems.
SHAPE OF DISPLAYED
IMAGE
 All endoscopes emit a
 conical beam of light from their distal
tip
SHAPE OF DISPLAYED
IMAGE
REPRODUCTION OF COLOR

 All solid-state image sensors are

inherently monochromatic devices.
 the silicon photosites employed on the
surface of the CCD develop charges in
proportion only to the intensity
(brightness) of the light falling on the
array.
REPRODUCTION OF COLOR

 However, color is extremely important

in endoscopic diagnosis and treatment.
 For an endoscope to reproduce the
necessary attribute of color, the
imaging system must have some
additional means to analyze the color
(wavelength) of the light falling on the
sensor.
REPRODUCTION OF COLOR
REPRODUCTION OF COLOR

 The human eye is most sensitive to

green light and less sensitive to reds,
blues, and other colors.
 The CCD has a similar but broader
sensitivity, ranging from infrared light
(wavelengths > 780 nm), through the
visible spectrum, to the ultraviolet
spectrum (wavelengths < 380 nm).
Trichromatic vision
 The first commercial video image
endoscope system, the Video
EndoscopeTM introduced by Welch
Allyn in 1983, was based on an RGB
sequential imaging system.
 Many current instruments continue to
use this system. The second system,
the so-called color-chip endoscope,
 despite being developed later, has now
become the predominant system
worldwide. Each color reproduction
system has its own advantages and
disadvantages, as explained below.
RGB sequential imaging
RGB sequential imaging
RGB sequential imaging
Color-chip video imaging
Color-chip video imaging
 A color-chip CCD is essentially a black-
and-white image sensor with a custom-
fabricated, miniaturized, and
multicolored filter bonded to its
photosensitive surface.
 This filter allows the CCD to directly and
simultaneously resolve the component
colors of the image.
Color-chip video imaging
 The term instantaneous single-plate
CCD is sometimes employed to
emphasize that all three color
components are obtained concurrently
by a single plate or CCD.
Color-chip video imaging
 Endoscopes typically use a color mosaic
filter of the type shown in Fig.
 It is possible to design a mosaic filter
with a number of different color
configurations.
 color choices and the corresponding
algorithm shown in Fig are by far the
most common.
Color-chip video imaging
 The colors used in this micro mosaic
filter are yellow, cyan, and white (no
filter). These segments are arranged in
a 2 × 2-pixel box pattern that regularly
repeats over the face of the CCD. Since
the final output signals to be sent to
the observation monitor must be the
standard red, green, and blue
component images,
The image produced behind this yellow/
cyan/white filter must first be converted
into its primary red, green, and blue
components prior to display
 A cyan filter blocks only red light,
passing both green and blue light.
 A magenta filter passes both red

and blue light.

 yellow filter passes both red and green
light.
 It may be asked why one would go through this
extended process if using an RGB-striped filter will
yield the RGB component values directly, without
calculation.
 The answer lies in the fact that a yellow/cyan/white
mosaic filter has a significant advantage in brightness
over an RGB-striped filter.
 When red, green, and blue filter segments are used,
each pixel is filtered to receive only one of the three
primary colors
 A cyan-filtered pixel, on the other hand, is
exposed to both blue and green light. It is
therefore more heavily illuminated than a
pure blue or a pure green pixel.
 Likewise, pixels behind a yellow filter (red
and green) or a white filter (no filtration =
red + green + blue) receive more photons
(light) than pixels behind a pure red, a pure
green, or a pure blue filter.
 Because of the increased light intensity
passing through a yellow/cyan/white mosaic
filter.
 A CCD with this construction exhibits far
greater light sensitivity.
 The improved light sensitivity allows the video
endoscope designer to construct an endoscope:
 with a smaller illumination bundle, to maximize

the endoscope’s angle of view,

 and to increase the endoscope’s depth
of field. All of these features improve the
instrument’s optical performance, but require
additional light. Because of this advantage in
brightness, all commercial color-chip endoscopes
use color mosaic CCDs.
REPRODUCTION OF MOTION
 The color-chip video endoscope has an
inherent advantage over the RGB
sequential endoscope in reproducing
motion.
RGB sequential imaging
Color-chip video imaging
REPRODUCTION OF MOTION
 The filter wheel in current RGB sequential
video processors typically rotates at 20–30
rps.
 Since each of the color component images
are captured individually in sequence, it takes
1/30 s (with a 30-rps filter wheel) to capture
the three component images that make up a
single video image.
REPRODUCTION OF MOTION
 If there is any relative motion during
this time between the endoscope and
the object being viewed, as often
occurs during endoscopy, the three
component images may differ with
respect to object size and position.
REPRODUCTION OF MOTION
 When these three RGB images are
subsequently superimposed on the
video monitor, they will be misaligned.
 This misalignment will be clearly visible
if the endoscopist happens to freeze the
image while it is moving rapidly.
REPRODUCTION OF MOTION
 This color separation is present, to a
greater or lesser extent, continuously
throughout the entire examination.
 It gives the images an unnatural, highly
colorful, and stroboscopic appearance
whenever there is rapid motion of the
endoscope, the object being viewed, or
both.
REPRODUCTION OF MOTION
 This type of color separation is
especially apparent when the
endoscopist feeds water to clean the
objective lens. The water droplets
produce a colorful but distracting flicker
across the endoscopic image.
 REPRODUCTION OF
MOTION
 Second generation RGB sequential video
processors are engineered to reduce the
problem of color separation on captured
images.
 These processors incorporate an anti-color-
slip circuit to analyze the video signal in real
time and to freeze the image at the moment
when color separation is at a minimum
 REPRODUCTION OF
MOTION
 This circuit is remarkably effective in
reducing color separation within
captured still image s. However, this
system does not reduce the strobing,
color separation, and water droplet
flicker observed during real-time
endoscopy.
 REPRODUCTION OF
MOTION
 The color-chip videoscope, on the other
hand, has no problem imaging moving tissue.
 Because a color-chip endoscope captures all
three color components of the image
simultaneously, there is never any color
separation with either moving or “frozen’’
images.
 REPRODUCTION OF
MOTION
 Since the color-chip endoscope’s illumination
is continuous and unstrobed, and the frame
rate is matched to contemporary TV
standards, the reproduction of moving
images is always smooth and always appears
natural.
 It allows its effective shutter speed to be
shortened to increase the sharpness of frozen
images.
 REPRODUCTION OF
MOTION
 This electronic “fast shutter’’ feature reduces
the blur that may occur if the tissue or
endoscope is moving rapidly during the image
capture period.
TRANSILLUMINATION
 Abdominal transillumination with RGB
sequential endoscopes is often
problematic since its strobed light
output is substantially weaker than that
of nonstrobed systems.
 This weak light is not easily seen
through the abdominal wall.
TRANSILLUMINATION
 Many RGB sequential light sources have
a means for temporarily removing the
spinning filter wheel from the light path
when placed in the “transillumination’’
mode.
TRANSILLUMINATION
 This produces a steady, intense white
light that is ideal for transillumination.
 However, with the filter wheel out of
the light path the image is typically lost,
 since in most cases the illumination is
so intense that it saturates the CCD,
thus producing a totally white screen.
TRANSILLUMINATION
 Even if an image is visible, it will be in
black-and-white, since the filter wheel
must be in its proper position to
reproduce color.
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 It is impossible to use a laser that

operates within the visible spectrum
with a video endoscope. The intense
laser light will totally saturate the CCD
image sensor, making endoscopic
observation impossible.
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 The neodymium/yttrium–aluminum
garnet (Nd:YAG) laser produces near-
infrared light at 1060 nm. Since the
Nd:YAG laser output is outside the
visible spectrum,
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 it is possible to make video endoscopes

compatible with this commonly used
laser by installing a filter over the CCD
that transmits visible light (the image)
but heavily absorbs the reflected laser
light (near-infrared light).
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 Wheneverthe laser is fired within the

endoscopic field, this filter prevents the
laser output from reaching the CCD,
leaving the image undisturbed.
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES
 However, even with such a filter, RGB
sequential videoscopes still have problems
with Nd:YAG lasers.
 The first problem is a loss of the true color of
the aiming beam. The helium–neon (He–Ne)
aiming beam found in almost all Nd:YAG laser
systems appears as a red spot when
observed with a fiberscope or a color-chip
videoscope.
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 However, when observed by an RGB

sequential videoscope, the beam
appears to be white in color. Because
the red aiming beam is on continuously,
it appears equally bright to the CCD
imager during all portions of the RGB
imaging cycle.
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 As a result, the video processor

interprets the red He–Ne beam as being
white. This bright, artificially white
aiming beam will obscure the tissue-
blanching effect produced by the
Nd:YAG laser itself and thereby impairs
observation of the laser’s therapeutic
effect.
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 Another disadvantage of the RGB

sequential endoscope is the relatively
low brightness of its strobed
illumination.
 This causes two problems:
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 (i) the intensity of the laser-aiming

beam must be appropriately reduced
 (ii) during periods of extended
treatment, the tissue may glow at the
point of laser impact.
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES

 Since the burning tissue may be

brighter than the videoscope’s
background illumination, the glowing
tissue may cause the CCD to bloom,
creating whiteout, which also masks the
local tissue effect of the laser.
 LASER THERAPY WITH VIDEO
ENDOSCOPES
 In contrast, the color-chip videoscope uses
intense, nonstrobed white light
illumination, similar to that used with
fiberscopes.
 The aiming beam retains its red color, and
its intensity is usually not a problem.
Because of these factors, the color-chip
videoscope is the better choice for
endoscopic laser therapy.
 IMAGE RESOLUTION
 One of the major advantages of the
RGB sequential videoscope is the
opportunity for increased image
resolution.
 IMAGE RESOLUTION
 Image resolution is heavily dependent
on the number of pixels in the captured
image.
 The physical size of an endoscopic CCD
is restricted to the space available
within the distal tip of the endoscope.
 This limits the size of the CCD and the
number of pixels that it can contain.
 IMAGE RESOLUTION
 The color-chip system requires
information from several different
pixels, which is then processed via an
algorithm to obtain the red, green, and
blue component values for a single
point within the image
 IMAGE RESOLUTION
 In the RGB sequential system, each pixel is
illuminated by red, green, and blue light.
 sequentially. Thus, each pixel in turn provides
information on each of the three color
components.
 The fact that a single pixel can provide all
three color components is an advantage for
small imaging devices like endoscopes.
 IMAGE RESOLUTION
 Since the color-chip CCD uses several
pixels to provide the same information
obtained from a single pixel in the RGB
system, the RGB system can
theoretically produce the greatest
image resolution – based on equivalent
numbers of pixels.
 IMAGE RESOLUTION
 In practice, this advantage is not
significant when designing most video
endoscopes, even pediatric instruments,
 but it is a significant advantage when
the thinnest possible endoscope is
required (e.g., video choledochoscopy).
 COLOR REPRODUCTION
ACCURACY

 Because the RGB sequential videoscope

uses primary-colored filters,
 and since the color components are
isolated, captured, and processed
separately within the videoprocessor,
this type of videoscope provides very
accurate color information.
 COLOR REPRODUCTION
ACCURACY
 Although both systems produce natural-
appearing images, the RGB sequential
system can theoretically produce a truer color
signal.
 Again, this potential advantage is not

apparent with routine GI endoscopy.

 The RGB sequential system, however, has the

upper hand in image analysis research.

ENDOSCOPE REPROCESSING
 After each patient exam the endoscope
must be reprocessed prior to reuse or
storage.
ENDOSCOPE REPROCESSING
 Cleaning
 Thorough manual cleaning
 The recommended channel-cleaning brushes
and any special brushes
 Leak testing
 High-level disinfection
 including 2.0–3.4% glutaraldehydes
 7.5% hydrogen peroxide
ENDOSCOPE REPROCESSING

 Endoscopes are composed of a variety

of rubbers, plastics, metals, glasses,
adhesives, coatings, etc., which may be
either immediately damaged or
gradually deteriorated following long
term exposure to certain chemicals.
Capsule Endoscopy
Laparascopy
 1 Proximal End
 Interface point with the eye or video equipment
 2 Distal End
 Furthest point from the proximal end or users eye
 3 Insertion Diameter
 The diameter quoted as the actual diameter inserted into the
anatomy of endoscope sheath
 4 Instrument Axis
 The axis of the instrument relative to the instrument axis
 5 Optical Axis
 The axis of the optical path which is displaced to the instrument
axis
 6 Angle of View
 The agular value of displacement to the optical axis
 7 Optical Field of View
 The area which the conical system covers is as a cone
 8 Fibre Illumination
 The area which the fibre illumination covers as a cone and is greater
than the optical field of view
 9 Working Length
 The actual length embodying the insertion diameter which can be
applied
 10 Light Post
 Input point of the illumination when connected to a light guide and
source
 11 Eyeshield
 Used as a cup for the eye or a diameter for the attachment of video
camera equipment
RIGID ENDOSCOPE
ARTHROSCOPY LAPAROSCOPY
Trocars