PLSQL 1 5

PL/SQL Basics
PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of programming languages. It was
developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90's to enhance the capabilities of SQL. PL/SQL is one of
three key programming languages embedded in the Oracle Database, along with SQL itself and Java.
 PL/SQL is a completely portable, high-performance transaction-processing language.
 PL/SQL provides a built-in, interpreted and OS independent programming environment.
 PL/SQL can also directly be called from the command-line SQL*Plus interface.
 Direct call can also be made from external programming language calls to database.
 PL/SQL's general syntax is based on that of ADA and Pascal programming language.
Features of PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following features
 PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL.
 It offers extensive error checking.
 It offers numerous data types.
 It offers a variety of programming structures.
 It supports structured programming through functions and procedures.
 It supports object-oriented programming.
 It supports the development of web applications and server pages.
Advantages of PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following advantages −
 SQL is the standard database language and PL/SQL is strongly integrated with SQL. PL/SQL
supports both static and dynamic SQL. Static SQL supports DML operations and transaction
control from PL/SQL block. In Dynamic SQL, SQL allows embedding DDL statements in
PL/SQL blocks.
 PL/SQL allows sending an entire block of statements to the database at one time. This reduces
network traffic and provides high performance for the applications.
 PL/SQL gives high productivity to programmers as it can query, transform, and update data in a
database.
 PL/SQL saves time on design and debugging by strong features, such as exception handling,
encapsulation, data hiding, and object-oriented data types.
 Applications written in PL/SQL are fully portable.
 PL/SQL provides high security level.
 PL/SQL provides access to predefined SQL packages.
 PL/SQL provides support for Object-Oriented Programming.
 PL/SQL provides support for developing Web Applications and Server Pages.
PL/SQL - Basic Syntax

PL/SQL programs are divided and written in logical blocks of code. Each block consists of three sub-parts
Declarations
This section starts with the keyword DECLARE. It is an optional section and defines all variables,
cursors, subprograms, and other elements to be used in the program.
Executable Commands
This section is enclosed between the keywords BEGIN and END and it is a mandatory section. It consists
of the executable PL/SQL statements of the program. It should have at least one executable line of code,
which may be just a NULL command to indicate that nothing should be executed.
Exception Handling
This section starts with the keyword EXCEPTION. This optional section contains exception(s) that
handle errors in the program.
DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling>
END;
The 'Hello World' Example

DECLARE
message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;
/
The PL/SQL Identifiers

PL/SQL identifiers are constants, variables, exceptions, procedures, cursors, and reserved words. The
identifiers consist of a letter optionally followed by more letters, numerals, dollar signs, underscores, and
number signs and should not exceed 30 characters.
The PL/SQL Comments

The PL/SQL supports single-line and multi-line comments. All characters available inside any comment
are ignored by the PL/SQL compiler. The PL/SQL single-line comments start with the delimiter --
(double hyphen) and multi-line comments are enclosed by /* and */.
DECLARE
-- variable declaration
message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';
BEGIN
/*
* PL/SQL executable statement(s)
*/
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;
/
When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
Hello World
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Program Units
A PL/SQL unit is any one of the following
 PL/SQL block
 Function
 Package
 Package body
 Procedure
 Trigger
 Type
 Type body
PL/SQL - Data Types

The PL/SQL variables, constants and parameters must have a valid data type, which specifies a storage
format, constraints, and a valid range of values.
Scalar
Single values with no internal components, such as a NUMBER, DATE, or BOOLEAN.
Large Object (LOB)

Pointers to large objects that are stored separately from other data items, such as text, graphic images,
video clips, and sound waveforms.
Composite
Data items that have internal components that can be accessed individually. For example, collections and
records.
Reference
Pointers to other data items.
PL/SQL Scalar Data Types and Subtypes

PL/SQL Numeric Data Types and Subtypes
PL/SQL Character Data Types and Subtypes
PL/SQL Boolean Data Types
PL/SQL Datetime and Interval Types
PL/SQL – Variables
The name of a PL/SQL variable consists of a letter optionally followed by more letters, numerals, dollar
signs, underscores, and number signs and should not exceed 30 characters. By default, variable names
are not case-sensitive. You cannot use a reserved PL/SQL keyword as a variable name.
Variable Declaration in PL/SQL

PL/SQL variables must be declared in the declaration section or in a package as a global variable. When
you declare a variable, PL/SQL allocates memory for the variable's value and the storage location is
identified by the variable name.
The syntax for declaring a variable is −
variable_name [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL] [:= | DEFAULT initial_value]
Initializing Variables in PL/SQL

Whenever you declare a variable, PL/SQL assigns it a default value of NULL. If you want to initialize a
variable with a value other than the NULL value, you can do so during the declaration, using either of
the following −
The DEFAULT keyword
The assignment operator
For example −
counter binary_integer := 0;
greetings varchar2(20) DEFAULT 'Have a Good Day';
You can also specify that a variable should not have a NULL value using the NOT NULL constraint. If
you use the NOT NULL constraint, you must explicitly assign an initial value for that variable.
It is a good programming practice to initialize variables properly otherwise, sometimes programs would
produce unexpected results. Try the following example which makes use of various types of variables −
DECLARE
a integer := 10;
b integer := 20;
c integer;
f real;
BEGIN
c := a + b;
dbms_output.put_line('Value of c: ' || c);
f := 70.0/3.0;
dbms_output.put_line('Value of f: ' || f);
END;
/
Variable Scope in PL/SQL

PL/SQL allows the nesting of blocks, i.e., each program block may contain another inner block. If a
variable is declared within an inner block, it is not accessible to the outer block. However, if a variable is
declared and accessible to an outer block, it is also accessible to all nested inner blocks. There are two
types of variable scope
 Local variables − Variables declared in an inner block and not accessible to outer blocks.
 Global variables − Variables declared in the outermost block or a package.
Following example shows the usage of Local and Global variables in its simple form −
DECLARE
-- Global variables
num1 number := 95;
num2 number := 85;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num1: ' || num1);
dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num2: ' || num2);
DECLARE
-- Local variables
num1 number := 195;
num2 number := 185;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num1: ' || num1);
dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num2: ' || num2);
END;
END;
/
PL/SQL - Constants and Literals
A constant holds a value that once declared, does not change in the program. A constant declaration
specifies its name, data type, and value, and allocates storage for it. The declaration can also impose
the NOT NULL constraint.
Declaring a Constant
A constant is declared using the CONSTANT keyword. It requires an initial value and does not allow
that value to be changed. For example −
PI CONSTANT NUMBER := 3.141592654;
DECLARE
-- constant declaration
pi constant number := 3.141592654;
-- other declarations
radius number(5,2);
dia number(5,2);
circumference number(7, 2);
area number (10, 2);
BEGIN
-- processing
radius := 9.5;
dia := radius * 2;
circumference := 2.0 * pi * radius;
area := pi * radius * radius;
-- output
dbms_output.put_line('Radius: ' || radius);
dbms_output.put_line('Diameter: ' || dia);
dbms_output.put_line('Circumference: ' || circumference);
dbms_output.put_line('Area: ' || area);
END;
/
The PL/SQL Literals

A literal is an explicit numeric, character, string, or Boolean value not represented by an identifier. For
example, TRUE, 786, NULL, 'tutorialspoint' are all literals of type Boolean, number, or string. PL/SQL,
literals are case-sensitive. PL/SQL supports the following kinds of literals −
 Numeric Literals
 Character Literals
 String Literals
 BOOLEAN Literals
 Date and Time Literals

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PL/SQL Basics

PL/SQL - Basic Syntax

The 'Hello World' Example

The PL/SQL Identifiers

The PL/SQL Comments

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL - Data Types

Large Object (LOB)

PL/SQL Scalar Data Types and Subtypes

Variable Declaration in PL/SQL

Initializing Variables in PL/SQL

Variable Scope in PL/SQL

The PL/SQL Literals

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