TOPIC 2: STEADY FLOW PROCESSES

1. Derivation of S. F. E. equation
The Steady Flow Energy (SFE) equation, often used in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, describes
the energy balance for a fluid flowing steadily through a control volume. It is derived from the first
law of thermodynamics, which is the principle of conservation of energy. Let's derive the SFE equation
step by step.

The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume

The first law of thermodynamics for a control volume states that the rate of energy entering the
control volume minus the rate of energy leaving the control volume equals the rate of change of
energy within the control volume. For a steady-state process (where conditions within the control
volume do not change with time), the rate of change of energy within the control volume is zero.
Therefore, the energy entering the control volume must equal the energy leaving it.

Components of the Energy Balance

The energy balance for a control volume involves several components:

1. Internal Energy (U): The energy associated with the internal state of the fluid.
2. Kinetic Energy (KE): The energy due to the fluid's motion.
3. Potential Energy (PE): The energy due to the fluid's position in a gravitational field.
4. Work (W): The work done on or by the control volume, including shaft work and flow work.
5. Heat Transfer (Q): The heat added to or removed from the control volume.

Energy Terms

For a fluid entering and leaving a control volume, the specific forms of these energies are:

 Internal Energy (U): 𝑢

 Kinetic Energy (KE): 𝑣2 /2
 Potential Energy (PE): 𝑔𝑧
 Flow Work: 𝑃𝑣 (where 𝑃 is pressure and 𝑣 is specific volume)

Steady Flow Energy Equation Derivation

Consider a control volume with mass flow entering and leaving. The first law of thermodynamics for
steady flow can be written as:

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 Where:

 𝑄˙ is the rate of heat transfer into the control volume.

 𝑊˙ is the rate of work done by the control volume (including shaft work and flow work).
 𝑚˙ is the mass flow rate.
 ℎ is the specific enthalpy (ℎ=𝑢+𝑃𝑣.
 𝑣 is the flow velocity.
 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
 𝑧 is the elevation above a reference level.

Simplifying Assumptions

For simplicity, we assume:

 One inlet and one outlet.

 Steady-state operation (no accumulation of energy in the control volume).

Equation Formulation

At steady state, the first law of thermodynamics becomes:

Dividing through by the mass flow rate 𝑚˙, we get:

Rewriting in terms of specific energy terms, the steady flow energy equation is:

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Summary

The steady flow energy (SFE) equation for a control volume in steady state is derived from the first law
of thermodynamics. It balances the heat added to the system, the work done by the system, and the
changes in enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy of the fluid as it flows through the control
volume. The final form of the SFE equation is:

This equation is fundamental in the analysis of energy changes in flowing fluids, particularly in
engineering applications involving turbines, compressors, heat exchangers, and nozzles.
Application of the S.F.E.E
1. Boilers

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 The Steady Flow Energy (SFE) equation is essential for analyzing various thermodynamic systems,
including boilers. A boiler is a device that converts water into steam by heating it with energy from
fuel combustion. In this application, we'll use the SFE equation to analyze the energy balance for a
boiler operating at steady state.

Steady Flow Energy Equation

The SFE equation for a control volume (in this case, the boiler) in steady state is given by:

where:

 𝑄˙ is the rate of heat transfer into the control volume.

 𝑊˙ is the rate of work done by the control volume (typically 0 for a boiler since it does not perform
work).
 𝑚˙ is the mass flow rate of the fluid.
 ℎ is the specific enthalpy.
 𝑣 is the flow velocity.
 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
 𝑧 is the elevation.

Assumptions for a Boiler

1. No Work Done: 𝑊˙=0 because boilers do not perform any shaft work.
2. Negligible Changes in Kinetic and Potential Energy: The changes in kinetic energy (𝑣2/2 ) and
potential energy (𝑔𝑧) are usually very small compared to the enthalpy change and can be neglected.

Thus, the SFE equation simplifies to:

𝑄˙=𝑚˙(ℎ2−ℎ1)

where:

 ℎ1 is the specific enthalpy of the feed water entering the boiler.

 ℎ2 is the specific enthalpy of the steam leaving the boiler.

Applying the SFE Equation to a Boiler

1. Identify the Control Volume: The control volume is the boiler itself.
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2. Determine the Mass Flow Rate: 𝑚˙m˙, which is the mass flow rate of the steam (usually equal to the
mass flow rate of the feed water entering the boiler).
3. Determine Enthalpies:
 ℎ1: Specific enthalpy of the feed water entering the boiler.
 ℎ2 : Specific enthalpy of the steam leaving the boiler.

Practical Steps

1. Calculate the Heat Added (𝑄˙:

Using the simplified SFE equation:

𝑄˙=𝑚˙(ℎ2−ℎ1)

2. Determine Specific Enthalpies:

 Obtain ℎ1 from steam tables or a Mollier diagram for the feed water at its inlet conditions (pressure
and temperature).
 Obtain ℎ2 from steam tables or a Mollier diagram for the steam at its outlet conditions (pressure and
temperature).

3. Calculate the Required Heat Input:

 With known values of 𝑚˙, ℎ1 , and ℎ2 , calculate 𝑄˙ .

Example Calculation

Given:

 Mass flow rate of feed water, 𝑚˙=1 kg/s

 Inlet conditions: Feed water at 20°C and 1 bar (use steam tables to find ℎ1
 Outlet conditions: Steam at 200°C and 1 bar (use steam tables to find ℎ2 )

Steps:

1. Determine ℎ1 :

 From steam tables, for water at 20°C and 1 bar: ℎ1≈83.93 kJ/kg.

2. Determine ℎ2:

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 From steam tables, for steam at 200°C and 1 bar: ℎ2≈2776.2 kJ/kg.

3. Calculate 𝑄˙ :

Thus, the boiler requires a heat input of 2692.27 kW to convert the feed water at 20°C and 1 bar into
steam at 200°C and 1 bar.

Conclusion

The Steady Flow Energy equation is a powerful tool for analyzing energy transformations in boilers. By
accounting for the enthalpy changes of the working fluid (water/steam), engineers can determine the
necessary heat input to achieve desired operating conditions. This ensures efficient boiler operation
and helps in the design and optimization of thermal systems.

2.condensers

The Steady Flow Energy (SFE) equation is equally important for analyzing condensers, which are
devices used to condense steam or vapor into liquid by removing heat. This process is critical in
power plants, refrigeration systems, and other industrial applications. Let's apply the SFE equation to
understand the energy balance in a condenser operating under steady-state conditions.
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 Steady Flow Energy Equation

The SFE equation for a control volume in steady-state operation is given by:

where:

 𝑄˙ is the rate of heat transfer.

 𝑊˙ is the rate of work done by or on the control volume.
 𝑚˙ is the mass flow rate of the fluid.
 ℎ is the specific enthalpy.
 𝑣 is the flow velocity.
 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
 𝑧 is the elevation.

Assumptions for a Condenser

1. No Work Done: 𝑊˙=0 because condensers do not perform shaft work.

2. Negligible Changes in Kinetic and Potential Energy: Changes in kinetic energy (𝑣2/2 ) and potential
energy (𝑔𝑧) are usually small compared to enthalpy changes and can be neglected.

Thus, the SFE equation simplifies to:

𝑄˙=𝑚˙(ℎ1−ℎ2)

where:

 ℎ1 is the specific enthalpy of the vapor entering the condenser.

 ℎ2 is the specific enthalpy of the liquid leaving the condenser.

Applying the SFE Equation to a Condenser

1. Identify the Control Volume: The control volume is the condenser itself.
2. Determine the Mass Flow Rate: 𝑚˙, which is the mass flow rate of the steam/vapor entering and
leaving the condenser.
3. Determine Enthalpies:
 ℎ1 : Specific enthalpy of the vapor entering the condenser.
 ℎ2 : Specific enthalpy of the liquid leaving the condenser.
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 Practical Steps

1. Calculate the Heat Removed (𝑄˙):

Using the simplified SFE equation:

𝑄˙=𝑚˙(ℎ1−ℎ2)

2. Determine Specific Enthalpies:

 Obtain ℎ1 from steam tables or a Mollier diagram for the vapor at its inlet conditions (pressure and
temperature).
 Obtain ℎ2 from steam tables or a Mollier diagram for the liquid at its outlet conditions (pressure and
temperature).

3. Calculate the Heat Removed:

 With known values of 𝑚˙, ℎ1 , and ℎ2 , calculate 𝑄˙ .

Example Calculation

Given:

 Mass flow rate of steam, 𝑚˙=2 kg/s

 Inlet conditions: Steam at 100°C and 1 bar (use steam tables to find ℎ1 )
 Outlet conditions: Condensed water at 100°C and 1 bar (use steam tables to find ℎ2 )

Steps:

1. Determine ℎ1 :

 From steam tables, for steam at 100°C and 1 bar: ℎ1≈2676 kJ/kg.

2. Determine ℎ2 :

 From steam tables, for water at 100°C and 1 bar: ℎ2≈419 kJ/kg.

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3. Calculate 𝑄˙ :

Thus, the condenser removes 4514 kW of heat from the steam to condense it into water.

Conclusion

The Steady Flow Energy equation provides a framework to analyze the energy transformations in a
condenser. By focusing on the enthalpy changes of the working fluid (steam/water), we can calculate
the rate of heat removal necessary for the condensation process. This ensures efficient operation and
helps in designing and optimizing condenser performance in various thermal systems.
3.compressors

The Steady Flow Energy (SFE) equation is crucial for analyzing the performance of compressors, which
are devices used to increase the pressure of a gas by doing work on it. In this context, the SFE
equation helps determine the work required to compress the gas, accounting for changes in enthalpy,
kinetic energy, and potential energy.

Steady Flow Energy Equation

The SFE equation for a control volume in steady-state operation is given by:

where:

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 𝑄˙ is the rate of heat transfer into or out of the control volume.
 𝑊˙ is the rate of work done by or on the control volume.
 𝑚˙ is the mass flow rate of the gas.
 ℎ is the specific enthalpy.
 𝑣 is the flow velocity.
 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
 𝑧 is the elevation.

Assumptions for a Compressor

1. Negligible Changes in Potential Energy: The change in potential energy (𝑔𝑧) is usually very small
compared to the enthalpy change and can be neglected.
2. Considerable Changes in Kinetic Energy: In some cases, changes in kinetic energy (𝑣2/2) can be
significant, especially for high-speed flows, but often they can also be neglected for simplicity.

Thus, the SFE equation simplifies to:

Applying the SFE Equation to a Compressor

1. Identify the Control Volume: The control volume is the compressor.

2. Determine the Mass Flow Rate: 𝑚˙, which is the mass flow rate of the gas being compressed.
3. Determine Enthalpies and Velocities:
 ℎ1 : Specific enthalpy of the gas entering the compressor.
 ℎ2 : Specific enthalpy of the gas leaving the compressor.
 𝑣1 : Velocity of the gas entering the compressor.
 𝑣2 : Velocity of the gas leaving the compressor.

Practical Steps

1. Calculate the Work Done (𝑊˙W˙):

Using the simplified SFE equation:

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 If there is no heat transfer (𝑄˙=0

2. Determine Specific Enthalpies:

 Obtain ℎ1 and ℎ2 from thermodynamic tables or equations of state for the gas at the inlet and outlet
conditions (pressure and temperature).

3. Account for Kinetic Energy Changes:

 Measure or estimate the velocities 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 .

Example Calculation

Given:

 Mass flow rate of gas, 𝑚˙=1 kg/s

 Inlet conditions: Gas at 300 K and 1 bar (use thermodynamic tables to find ℎ1 )
 Outlet conditions: Gas at 500 K and 5 bar (use thermodynamic tables to find ℎ2 )
 Negligible kinetic energy changes (𝑣1≈𝑣2 )

Steps:

1. Determine ℎ1 :

 From thermodynamic tables, for gas at 300 K and 1 bar: ℎ1≈300 kJ/kg.

2. Determine ℎ2 :

 From thermodynamic tables, for gas at 500 K and 5 bar: ℎ2≈520 kJ/kg.

3. Calculate 𝑊˙ assuming 𝑄˙=0 and 𝑣1≈𝑣2:

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 Thus, the work required to compress the gas is 220 kW.

Conclusion

The Steady Flow Energy equation is essential for determining the work input required for a
compressor. By considering the changes in specific enthalpy and accounting for any kinetic energy
changes, engineers can accurately evaluate compressor performance, ensuring efficient design and
operation. This approach is crucial for optimizing energy use and maintaining reliable operation in
various industrial applications.

4.Turbines

The Steady Flow Energy (SFE) equation is essential for analyzing the performance of turbines, which
are devices that convert the energy of a fluid (usually steam, gas, or water) into mechanical work. In
this context, the SFE equation helps determine the work output from the turbine, accounting for
changes in enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.

Steady Flow Energy Equation

The SFE equation for a control volume in steady-state operation is given by:

where:

 𝑄˙ is the rate of heat transfer into or out of the control volume.

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 𝑊˙ is the rate of work done by or on the control volume.
 𝑚˙ is the mass flow rate of the fluid.
 ℎ is the specific enthalpy.
 𝑣 is the flow velocity.
 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
 𝑧 is the elevation.

Assumptions for a Turbine

1. Negligible Heat Transfer: For an ideal adiabatic turbine, 𝑄˙=0. In reality, some heat loss may occur,
but it is often small compared to the work output.
2. Negligible Changes in Potential Energy: The change in potential energy (𝑔𝑧) is usually very small
compared to the enthalpy change and can be neglected.
3. Considerable Changes in Kinetic Energy: Changes in kinetic energy (𝑣2/2) can sometimes be
significant, especially for high-speed flows.

Thus, the SFE equation simplifies to:

Applying the SFE Equation to a Turbine

1. Identify the Control Volume: The control volume is the turbine.

2. Determine the Mass Flow Rate: 𝑚˙, which is the mass flow rate of the fluid passing through the
turbine.
3. Determine Enthalpies and Velocities:
 ℎ1 : Specific enthalpy of the fluid entering the turbine.
 ℎ2 : Specific enthalpy of the fluid leaving the turbine.
 𝑣1 : Velocity of the fluid entering the turbine.
 𝑣2 : Velocity of the fluid leaving the turbine.

Practical Steps

1. Calculate the Work Output (𝑊˙):

Using the simplified SFE equation:

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2. Determine Specific Enthalpies:

 Obtain ℎ1 and ℎ2 from thermodynamic tables or equations of state for the fluid at the inlet and
outlet conditions (pressure and temperature).

3. Account for Kinetic Energy Changes:

 Measure or estimate the velocities 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 .

Example Calculation

Given:

 Mass flow rate of steam, 𝑚˙=5 kg/s

 Inlet conditions: Steam at 400°C and 3 MPa (use steam tables to find ℎ1 )
 Outlet conditions: Steam at 200°C and 1 MPa (use steam tables to find ℎ2 )

 Negligible kinetic energy changes (𝑣1≈𝑣2

 Steps:

1. Determine ℎ1h1:

 From steam tables, for steam at 400°C and 3 MPa: ℎ1≈3231 kJ/kg.

2. Determine ℎ2 :

 From steam tables, for steam at 200°C and 1 MPa: ℎ2≈2790 kJ/kg.

3. Calculate 𝑊˙ assuming 𝑄˙=0 and 𝑣1≈𝑣2

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 Thus, the turbine produces 2205 kW of work from the steam.

Conclusion

The Steady Flow Energy equation is essential for determining the work output from a turbine. By
considering the changes in specific enthalpy and accounting for any kinetic energy changes,
engineers can accurately evaluate turbine performance, ensuring efficient design and operation. This
approach is crucial for optimizing energy use and maintaining reliable operation in various power
generation and mechanical systems.

5.Nozzles

The Steady Flow Energy (SFE) equation is instrumental in analyzing the performance of nozzles, which
are devices designed to accelerate fluid flow, converting pressure energy into kinetic energy.
Understanding the energy transformations in nozzles is crucial for applications in jet engines, rockets,
and various industrial processes.

Steady Flow Energy Equation

The SFE equation for a control volume in steady-state operation is given by:

where:

 𝑄˙ is the rate of heat transfer into or out of the control volume.

 𝑊˙ is the rate of work done by or on the control volume.
 𝑚˙ is the mass flow rate of the fluid.
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 ℎ is the specific enthalpy.
 𝑣 is the flow velocity.
 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
 𝑧 is the elevation.

Assumptions for a Nozzle

1. No Work Done: 𝑊˙=0 because nozzles do not perform work.

2. Adiabatic Process: 𝑄˙=0 since nozzles typically do not exchange heat with their surroundings (ideal
assumption).
3. Negligible Changes in Potential Energy: The change in potential energy (𝑔𝑧) is usually very small
compared to the changes in enthalpy and kinetic energy and can be neglected.

Thus, the SFE equation simplifies to:

Applying the SFE Equation to a Nozzle

1. Identify the Control Volume: The control volume is the nozzle.

2. Determine the Mass Flow Rate: 𝑚˙, which is the mass flow rate of the fluid passing through the
nozzle.
3. Determine Enthalpies and Velocities:
 ℎ1 : Specific enthalpy of the fluid entering the nozzle.
 ℎ2 : Specific enthalpy of the fluid leaving the nozzle.
 𝑣1 : Velocity of the fluid entering the nozzle.
 𝑣2 : Velocity of the fluid leaving the nozzle.

Practical Steps

1. Calculate the Exit Velocity (𝑣2):

Using the simplified SFE equation:

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2. Determine Specific Enthalpies:

 Obtain ℎ1and ℎ2 from thermodynamic tables or equations of state for the fluid at the inlet and outlet
conditions (pressure and temperature).

3. Measure or Estimate the Inlet Velocity (𝑣1):

 In many practical cases, 𝑣1 may be small compared to 𝑣2 and can be approximated as negligible.

Example Calculation

Given:

 Inlet conditions: Steam at 400°C and 3 MPa (use steam tables to find ℎ1 )
 Outlet conditions: Steam at 200°C and 1 MPa (use steam tables to find ℎ2 )
 Inlet velocity: 𝑣1=50 m/s

Steps:

1. Determine ℎ1

 From steam tables, for steam at 400°C and 3 MPa: ℎ1≈3231 kJ/kg.

2. Determine ℎ2 :

 From steam tables, for steam at 200°C and 1 MPa: ℎ2≈2790 kJ/kg.

3. Calculate 𝑣2 assuming 𝑄˙=0 and 𝑊˙=0:

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Thus, the exit velocity of the steam from the nozzle is approximately 940.5 m/s.

Conclusion

The Steady Flow Energy equation is crucial for determining the velocity of the fluid exiting a nozzle. By
accounting for the changes in specific enthalpy and kinetic energy, engineers can accurately evaluate
nozzle performance, ensuring efficient design and operation. This approach is vital for optimizing fluid
dynamics in various applications, such as jet propulsion, industrial processes, and power generation
systems.

6.Throttling process

The Steady Flow Energy (SFE) equation is essential for analyzing throttling processes, which are
common in various engineering applications such as refrigeration systems, gas pipelines, and other
fluid flow systems. Throttling processes involve a fluid passing through a restriction, such as a valve,
orifice, or porous plug, resulting in a significant pressure drop without any work done by or on the
system. Understanding this process helps in designing and optimizing systems for efficient operation.

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 Steady Flow Energy Equation

The SFE equation for a control volume in steady-state operation is given by:

where:

 𝑄˙ is the rate of heat transfer into or out of the control volume.

 𝑊˙ is the rate of work done by or on the control volume.
 𝑚˙ is the mass flow rate of the fluid.
 ℎ is the specific enthalpy.
 𝑣 is the flow velocity.
 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
 𝑧 is the elevation.

Assumptions for a Throttling Process

1. No Work Done: 𝑊˙=0 because throttling devices do not perform any work.
2. Adiabatic Process: 𝑄˙=0 since throttling processes typically occur rapidly, allowing little to no heat
transfer.
3. Negligible Changes in Kinetic and Potential Energy: Changes in kinetic energy (𝑣2/2 ) and potential
energy (𝑔𝑧) are usually very small compared to the changes in enthalpy and can be neglected.

Thus, the SFE equation simplifies to:

ℎ1=ℎ2

Applying the SFE Equation to a Throttling Process

1. Identify the Control Volume: The control volume includes the fluid before and after the throttling
device.
2. Determine the Mass Flow Rate: 𝑚˙, which is the mass flow rate of the fluid passing through the
throttling device.
3. Determine Specific Enthalpies:
 ℎ1 : Specific enthalpy of the fluid before throttling.
 ℎ2 : Specific enthalpy of the fluid after throttling.

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 Practical Steps

1. Enthalpy Conservation: Since ℎ1=ℎ2 , the specific enthalpy before and after throttling remains
constant.

2. Determine Inlet and Outlet Conditions:

 Measure or obtain the conditions (pressure, temperature) of the fluid before and after the throttling
process.
 Use thermodynamic tables or software to find ℎ1 and ℎ2 .

Example Calculation

Given:

 Inlet conditions: Refrigerant-134a at 1.6 MPa and 40°C.

 Outlet conditions: Refrigerant-134a at 0.8 MPa (after throttling).

Steps:

1. Determine ℎ1 :

 From thermodynamic tables for Refrigerant-134a at 1.6 MPa and 40°C, ℎ1≈267.5 kJ/kg

2. Determine ℎ2 :

 After throttling, the pressure is 0.8 MPa. Because ℎ1=ℎ2, ℎ2 is also 267.5 kJ/kg.
 Using thermodynamic tables, find the temperature corresponding to ℎ2=267.5 kJ/kg at 0.8 MPa.
This gives the temperature after throttling.

Conclusion

The Steady Flow Energy equation simplifies significantly for a throttling process, leading to the key
result that the specific enthalpy remains constant (ℎ1=ℎ2 ). This principle is vital for analyzing and
designing throttling devices, ensuring that they function correctly within systems such as refrigeration
cycles and fluid distribution networks. By understanding and applying the SFE equation, engineers can
predict the behavior of fluids undergoing throttling and optimize system performance accordingly.

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 CALCULATIONS
The calculation of work, heat transfer, changes in internal energy, and changes in enthalpy involves
the application of the First Law of Thermodynamics and various specific thermodynamic relations.
Here's a step-by-step guide to performing these calculations for different processes in a
thermodynamic system.

First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System

For a closed system, the First Law of Thermodynamics is expressed as:

Δ𝑈=𝑄−𝑊

where:

 Δ𝑈 is the change in internal energy.

 𝑄 is the heat added to the system.
 𝑊 is the work done by the system.

Work (𝑊)

The work done by the system depends on the type of process:

1. Isothermal Process (constant temperature):

For an ideal gas:

where 𝑛 is the number of moles, 𝑅 is the universal gas constant, 𝑇 is the absolute temperature, 𝑉𝑓 is
the final volume, and 𝑉𝑖 is the initial volume.

2. Isobaric Process (constant pressure):

where 𝑃 is the constant pressure, 𝑉𝑓 is the final volume, and 𝑉𝑖 is the initial volume.

3. Isochoric Process (constant volume):

𝑊=0

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 because the volume does not change, so no work is done.

4. Adiabatic Process (no heat transfer):

For an ideal gas:

where 𝑃𝑖 and 𝑃𝑓 are the initial and final pressures, 𝑉𝑖 and 𝑉𝑓 are the initial and final volumes, and 𝛾
is the specific heat ratio (𝛾=𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑣 ).

Heat Transfer (𝑄)

The heat transfer depends on the process:

1. Isothermal Process:

For an ideal gas:

𝑄=𝑊

because Δ𝑈=0 in an isothermal process for an ideal gas.

2. Isobaric Process:

𝑄=Δ𝐻=𝑛𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

where Δ𝐻 is the change in enthalpy, 𝐶𝑝 is the specific heat at constant pressure, and Δ𝑇 is the
change in temperature.

3. Isochoric Process:

𝑄=Δ𝑈=𝑛𝐶𝑣Δ𝑇

where 𝐶𝑣 is the specific heat at constant volume.

4. Adiabatic Process:

𝑄=0

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Change in Internal Energy (Δ𝑈)

The change in internal energy for an ideal gas is given by:

Δ𝑈=𝑛𝐶𝑣Δ𝑇

where 𝐶𝑣 is the specific heat at constant volume and Δ𝑇 is the change in temperature.

Change in Enthalpy (Δ𝐻)

The change in enthalpy is given by:

Δ𝐻=𝑛𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

where 𝐶𝑝 is the specific heat at constant pressure and Δ𝑇 is the change in temperature.

Example Calculation

Consider a system of 1 mole of an ideal gas undergoing an isobaric expansion from an initial state of
2 L and 300 K to a final state of 4 L. The pressure remains constant at 1 atm throughout the process.

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1.

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