Unit 2 Bronze Age Civilizations I

INTRODUCTION
 Urban revolutions of Egypt, Mesopotamia, & India based on same set of discoveries in
metallurgy, transportation, etc.
 Key developments like smelting of copper, wheeled cart, & alphabet invented only once but
subsequently learnt & utilized by several groups.
 In this way, forces of civilization spread from Egypt & Mesopotamia to Mediterranean &
S.Europe, & ultimately to W.Europe.
 Most tribal societies in world not develop a Bronze Age; also, in S.Asia there was a reversion,
after Bronze Age, to tribal life.

EGYPT, THE GIFT OF THE NILE

 Egyptian culture region: north of Aswan to Delta, divided into Lower (Delta) & Upper Egypt.
 Inhabitants of the western desert depicted with curly hair and feathers; eastern desert rich in
metals and stones.
 Nile floods from Ethiopia; Upper Egypt fertile with silt, while Delta floods last longer.
 Agriculture: wheat, barley, beans, gram, flax for linen; local basin-based irrigation.
 State & kingship not linked to irrigation; Egypt highly productive, supplied Rome with wheat.
 High population density led to pyramid construction; land scarcity resulted in conflicts.
 Centers of political importance: Nekhen and Maadi facilitated trade with Palestine.
 Political unification marked by kings wearing crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt.
 Technological advances in copper metallurgy; writing emerged.
 Old Kingdom innovation: pyramids near Delta apex; Memphis founded, early pharaohs
crowned there.
 Cultural emphasis on mastabas, Abydos, and contacts with Nubia, Sinai, Palestine, and
Mediterranean islands.

MESOPOTAMIA AND ITS CITIES

 Mesopotamia known for cuneiform literature and meticulous record-keeping on clay tablets.
 Cylinder seals used for impressions on wet clay tablets, extending literacy.
 Major contributions in mathematics and astronomy.
 Region between Euphrates and Tigris rivers; Euphrates considered the lifeline of ancient
civilization.
 Southern plains, known as Sumer, home to the Sumerians, the first city dwellers.
 Sumer characterized by semi-arid desert, sparsely vegetated, with marshy areas connected by
boats.
 Fishing and hunting birds and wild pigs essential to the economy.
 Earliest Sumerian settlements were in the southern marsh region, initially inhabited by
hunters and fisherfolk.
 Sumer's rainfall below 200 mm, inadequate for staple crops; agriculture included lentils, peas,
beans, onions, garlic, cucumber, lettuce, and date cultivation.
 Agriculture dependent on Euphrates' rhythm; irrigation and seeder plough contributed to high
yields.
 Unlike the Nile, Euphrates brought down dissolved salts.
 Pastoralism complemented agriculture; wool, the chief export, contributed to enormous
animal wealth.
 Mesopotamia's wood came from Zagros and Lebanon; metals were imported from Zagros,
Anatolian, and Iranian plateaus.
  System of irrigation led to conflicts between agricultural communities.
 Warfare not due to land scarcity but instability in the ecosystem.
 Small fishing settlements initially, but agriculture soon dominated.
 Material culture limited during the Ubaid period (c. 6500 to 3800 BC), marked by
Mesopotamian ventures into the Gulf and the development of simple temple shrines.
 The Uruk period (about 4000 to 3100 BC) saw population growth, the emergence of more
villages, the advent of the plough and wheel, and the first written records.
 Late Uruk period at Uruk (Warka) witnessed the invention of the cylinder seal and
experiments with large temple construction.
 Mesopotamian temple architecture, writing, & pottery influenced peoples beyond Sumer.
 Archaeological evidence challenges a straightforward interpretation as 'trade.'
 In Egypt, multiple developments, including rulers and city life, occurred during the Late Uruk
phase (around 3300 to 3100 BC).
 Jamdat Nasr period (3100–2900 BC) saw development in the writing system and seal carving.
 Early Dynastic period marked the rise of city-states with temples and fortified palaces; Uruk
surpassed by city-states like Lagash.

THE HARAPPAN WORLD

 Indus plains cultivated barley, wheat, peas, gram, sesame, & mustard; cotton grown for fiber.
 Animal husbandry included sheep, goats, and cattle (both western Asiatic and Indian humped
varieties).
 Millets in Kutch, rice husk impressions at Lothal; irrigation crucial for winter crops.
 Mohenjo-daro had 700 wells; Hakra river sites near springs or artesian wells; Allahdino
utilized artesian well.
 Dholavira used bunds and reservoirs for seasonal flow; winter crops grown where floodwater
soaked.
 Irrigation labor-intensive; lift irrigation required animal power, leading to a high cattle
population.
 Wood from shisham in northern Punjab, teak in Gujarat; access to cedar from Shivaliks for
Mohenjo-daro.
 Copper-producing tribes near Mitathal and Rakhi Garhi in northern Rajasthan.
 Shells obtained off the coast of Saurashtra; chert stone used in Rohri for household tools.
 Harappa civilization (2600-1800 BC) contemporary with Egyptian Old Kingdom and Sumer's
Early Dynastic to Isin-Larsa period.
 From 3300 to 2600 BC, agricultural settlements spread across the Indus plains, cultivating
crops and animals.
 Formative period saw brick buildings, well use, copper work, stone shaping, plough use, and
contacts across highlands.
 Evidence of inter-community warfare, including perimeter walls.
 Frontier villages Mehrgarh and Rahman Dheri grew large, featuring craft activities and
managing relationships between agriculturists and nomadic pastoralists.
 Evidence of gradual development and abrupt changes in settlement patterns.
 Rahman Dheri and Mehrgarh lacked urban Harappan material despite flourishing
contemporaneously with Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.
 Sea trade with Oman, Bahrain, and southern Sumer developed.
 Craftsmanship included ivory carving, faience use for ornaments and seals, carnelian bead
production, stamp seals with wild animal emblems, silver containers, gold ornaments, large
brick structures for storage, and the introduction of writing.

THE SHANG CIVILIZATION OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL CHINA

 China last regions to see Bronze Age.
 Neolithic cultures in China date back to 6000 BC, with the Erhlitou phase marking the first
Bronze Age (2200-1760 BC) during the Hsia/Xia dynasty.
  Erhlitou, a major settlement in Shanxi, characterized by rammed earth walls; Shang dynasty
succeeded Hsia.
 Shang rulers established Chengchou around 1500 BC, marked by human sacrifice and
writing.
 Shang civilization named after the ruling dynasty; Anyang served as the capital for the last
twelve Shang kings.
 Western Chou defeated Shang around 1122 BC; evidence of neolithic villages on Huang Ho
and Yangtze.
 Foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, and rice cultivation; hemp used for coarse clothing; bone
and stone tools.
 Limited specialized pastoralism; buffalo, cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs kept; grain stored in
sunken pits.
 Longshan neolithic culture featured wheel-made grey pottery; jade carving began in neolithic
cultures.
 Little evidence of a chalcolithic stage in China; Bronze Age sites spread along Huang Ho and
its tributaries.
 Erhlitou marked transition between neolithic and Shang China, with rammed earth
construction.
 Language continuity from Hsia to Western Chou times; tenth Shang king moved capital to
Chengchou.
 Shang period characterized by widespread use of bronze, horse and chariot warfare, walled
settlements, and writing.
 Anyang, the capital built by the nineteenth Shang king, featured elite graves with ritual
bronzes and jade.
 Hsaio Tun area in Anyang revealed pit houses, craft workshops, elite graves with chariot
trappings, and wooden chambers.
 Two-horse, two-wheeled chariot fully developed around 1200 BC; fine white pottery,
lacquered wooden furniture, hemp and silk clothing, marine cowrie shells, and jade used for
ornaments and ritual objects.

THE USE OF COPPER AND BRONZE

 Copper Copper was the first metal used globally, followed by the alloy bronze, made with
arsenic, lead, or tin.
 Copper and bronze were advantageous for toolmaking, being malleable and meltable into
various shapes.
 Metallurgy was specialized work, often passed down through generations.
 Mobile societies exploited dispersed copper, lead, and tin ores; metallurgy served various
purposes, from rituals to urban workshops.
 Copper usage began around 7000 BC in West Asia, with northern Mesopotamian farming
villages using native copper around 5000 BC.
 Tin bronze, a harder material, gained popularity around 2500 BC in Mesopotamia.
 Copper sources included Oman, Anatolia, Iran, Sinai, and Cyprus; Egypt also used native
copper and arsenic bronze.
 Tin bronze became prevalent after 2000 BC in Egypt.
 South Asian sites like Mohenjodaro and Harappa initially used little metal; later, copper tools
were used for various industries.
 Bronze drills were used for perforating carnelian beads, and metal tools were employed in
stone and leather work.
 Metal fishing hooks, razors, and large vessels were crafted from copper.
 Harappan metallurgical techniques included cold hammering, casting, and lost wax methods,
with various alloys in use.
 In China, the Erhlitou phase saw copper alloyed with tin or lead, and multiple-piece moulds
used for casting.
 Shang China procured copper from the Yangtze and North Shensi, and tin from South Shensi.
 Bronze casting in China had royal associations, symbolizing power and legitimacy.
 Shang ritual vessels served various purposes, featuring decorative schemes depicting
mythological elements.
 Tools made of bronze were found in Shang China, along with stone or clay moulds for
various objects.
 A Shang queen's tomb contained numerous sacrificial vessels, bronze weapons, jade objects,
and cowries.
 Jade use in China dates back to neolithic cultures, with tools made from slate and quartz sand
abrasives.