2.4.

The Language of Relations and Functions

In this lesson, you will learn the concepts of relations and functions which are useful for
solving many application problems in Mathematics.
2.4.1. Relations
Objects in mathematics may be related in various ways. A set A may be said to be related to a set B. For example: A is a
2 2
number y. For example, x < y, x is a factor of y, or + = 1.
subset of B, A and B have at least one common element, or A and B have the same elements. A number x may also be related to a

A relation is a correspondence between two things or quantities. It is a set of ordered pairs

(x, y). Two important factors connected with a relation are the domain and range. The set of all
values of x is called the domain while the set of values of y is called the range. A relation may also
be expressed as a statement, arrow diagram, table, equation, set-builder notation and graph.
For example, the relation is given by
R= {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10), …}
The given relation R can be described as follows:
a. By Statement
R is the set of ordered pairs where the second elements is twice of the
first elements.
b. By Arrow Diagram

5
.

c. By Table
X 1 2 3 4 5 . . .
Y 2 4 6 8 10 . . .

d. By Set-builder Notation
 R = {(x, y)|y = 2x, x ∈ N}
e. By a Graph

(5, 10)

(4, 8)

(3, 6)

(2, 4)

(1, 2)

A relation may be formed from two sets A and B. To understand this, let us introduce the
concepts of Cartesian Product.
Cartesian Product
Consider two arbitrary sets M and N. The set of all ordered pairs (m, n) where: m ∈ and n ∈ N is called the Cartesian Product. By notation,
M x N = {(m, n)| ∈ and n ∈ }
Example 17.
Let M = {1, 2} and N = {1, 2, 3}. Find M x N.
Solution:
M x N = {(1,1), (1,2), (1, 3), (2,1), (2, 2), (2,3)}

Example 18.
Let M = {a, b, c} and N = {1, 7}. a.) Find M x N and b.) Find N x M.

Solution:
a.) M x N = {(a, 1), (a, 7), (b, 1), (b, 7), (c, 1), (c, 7)}
 b.) N x M = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (7, a), (7, b), (7, c)}

Example 19.
Let J = {0, 1, 2} and K = {1, 2, 3}. Find J x K.
Solution:
J x K = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}

Example 20.
In J x K, can you identify a relation R = {( , ) | < }?

Solution:

Examine the ordered pairs in J x K where the value of the first element is less than
the second element. Hence, we have
R = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}

Now, we give a formal definition of a relation.

Definition:
Let A and B be sets. A relation from A to B is a subset of A x B. Given an ordered pair (x,
y) in A x B, x is related to y by R, if and only if (x, y) is in R. To find a relation from A to B,
follow these steps:
st
1 step: Define A x B
nd
2 step: Examine each ordered pair that satisfies the given relation.

Example 21.
Find a relation R such that y is twice of x if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6}.
Solution:
st
1 step: Define A x B.
A x B = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2,4), (2, 6), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3,6)}
nd
2 step: Examine each ordered pair.
R = {(1, 2), (2,4), (3,6)}

Example 22.
Find a relation R such that is an integer if A = {1, 2,} and B = {1, 2, 3}.2
−

Solution:
st
1 step: Define A x B
A x B = {(1,1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}
nd
2 step: Examine each ordered pair.
R = {(1,1), (1, 3), (2, 2)}
since: (1,1) → 1 −1
= 0
= 0, which is an integer
(1,3) → = 2 = −1,
2 2
1 −3 −2
2 which is an integer
 2 −2 0
(2,2) → 2 = 2 = 0, which is an integer
All the other three ordered pairs cannot be part of the relation because the results are not integers. For example, (1, 2) → =
1 −2 −1
2 2 which is NOT an integer.

2.4.2. Functions
The concept of function provides the essential tool in applying mathematical
formulations in solving problems. For example, the distance (d) a car travels is related to the
product of its speed (s) and the time (t) of travel in the equation d = st.
Definition:
Let D and R be two sets. A function from D to R is a rule that associates or assigns to
each element in D a single element in R. We then say that a quantity y is a function of another
quantity x if a rule exists such that a unique value of y is assigned a corresponding value of x. To
denote this relationship, we use the functional notation:
y = f(x)
where f indicates that a function exists between variables x and y.
For instance, the statement “the area (A) of a circle depends on its radius (r)” can be
denoted as A= f(r), where A represents the area and r, the radius. This is read as “Area is a
function of its radius”. In fact, the area of a circle is given by the formula:
A= 2
. Hence, a function may be considered as a formula or equation. In the equation y

= 2x – 3, every value of x gives only one value of y. Then y is a function of x. this may be
written as
f(x) = 2x – 3
The functional notation y = f(x) allows us to denote specific values of a function. To
evaluate a function is to substitute the specified values of the independent variable in the formula
and simplify.

Example 23. When f(x) = 2x – 3, find

a. f(0)

b. f(1)

c. f(-1)

d. f(5-x) Solution:
 a. f(0) = 2(0) –3 =0–3=–3

b. f(1) = 2(1) –3 = 2–3=–1

c. f(-1) = 2(-1) – 3 = – 2 – 3 = – 5

d. f(5-x) = 2(5 – x) – 3 = 10 – 2x – 3 = – 2x + 7

For a given function y = f(x), we can set up ordered pairs of values (x, y) or (x, f(x)).
These ordered pair can be plotted in the xy- plane to show how the relation looks like.

1. Take representative values of x in the domain of the function and solve for f(x). Then
construct a table of values for x and f(x).
2. Plot the points whose coordinates are the ordered pairs (x, f(x)) from the table of values.
3. Join the plotted points in the plane with a straight line or smooth curve. Label the graph.
Example 24.
2
Illustrate the graph of f(x) = x + 2x – 8

You should be able to recognize that the given function is a quadratic function whose
graph is represented by a parabola.
Construct a table of values as follows
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
f(x) -5 -8 -9 -8 -5 0 7

Then, plot each point (x, f(x)) from the table above.
Operations on Functions
This deals with the basic operations on functions and their effects on the domain of
functions.
The sum, difference, product and quotients of two functions are also functions.
Let f and g be two functions:
a. The sum of two functions, f + g, is the function defined by (f
+ g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

b. The difference of two functions, f - g, is the function defined by

(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
c. The product of two functions, f. g, is the function defined by
(f. g)(x) = f(x) . g(x)
d. The quotient of two functions, f /g, is the function defined by
(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)
 The domain of the first three new functions: f + g, f – g, and f.g is defined as the
intersection of the domains of f and g. The domain of the quotient f/g excludes those numbers
that will make the denominator g(x) zero.
Example 25. Let f(x) = 5x – 2 and g(x) = x – 1. Find the following:
1. (f + g)(x)
2. (f - g)(x)
3. (f . g)(x)
4. (f / g)(x)
Solution:
1. (f + g)(x) = (5x – 2) + (x – 1) = 5x – 2 + x – 1 = 6x – 3
2. (f - g)(x) = (5x – 2) – (x – 1) = 5x – 2 – x + 1 = 4x – 1
2 2
3. (f . g)(x) = (5x – 2)(x – 1) = 5x – 5x – 2x + 2 = 5x – 7x + 2
4. (f / g)(x) = (5x – 2)/(x – 1)

This pertains to the combinations of two or more functions. The new function is called a
composite function.
Let two functions be f and g. The composition of f with g, denoted by f ₒ g (read as “f
circle g”), is the function defined by
(f ₒ g)(x)= f(g(x))
where the domain of f ₒ g consists of all numbers x in the domain of g for which g(x) is in
the domain of f.
Example 26. Let f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = 1 – x.
a. Find (f ₒ g) (x)
b. Find (g ₒ f) (x)
Solution:
a. (f ₒ g)(x) = f(g(x))
= f (1 – x)
= 3(1 – x) + 2
= 3 – 3x + 2
= 5 – 3x
 b. (g ₒ f)(x) = g(f(x))
= g(3x + 2)
= 1 – (3x + 2)
= 1 – 3x – 2
= – 3x – 1

2.4.3. Domain of a Function

For the function y = f(x), we call the set from which we take values of the independent
variable x the Domain of the function. The set of all possible values of y as x varies over the
domain is called the Range of the function.
When we define functions, we should be aware of two restrictions.
The first restriction concerns rational expressions: we should never divide by zero. The
domain of functions involving rational expressions excludes those values of the independent
variable that will make the denominator zero.
The second restriction involves radical expressions: we never take the square root of a
negative number. Therefore, the domain of this type of function does not include those values of
the independent variable that will make the radicand negative.
Example 27. Discuss the domain of each function:
a. f(x) = 2x + 1
2
b. g(x) = x 3

k(x) = √ + 3
c. h(x) = +4
d.

Solution:
a. f(x) = 2x + 1 is a linear function. Its domain is the set of real numbers.
2
b. g(x) = x is a quadratic function. Its domain is the set of real numbers.
3
c. h(x) = + 4

denominator equal to zero. The only exemption to the domain of the function is x = − 4 since x + 4 = − 4 + 4 = 0.
is a rational function. Note that x can not assume a value of x that makes the

d. k(x) = √ + 3 is a square root function. Note that x cannot assume values of x that make the radicand less than zero. To find the domain are the values of x that satisfy the quality + 3 ≥ 0 → x ≥ −3. Hence, the
domain is the set {x ≥ −3}.
2.4. The Language of Logic
This lesson introduces the basic concepts of elementary logic to determine the truth or
falsity of statements.
2.4.1. Logic
Logic is the study of correct thinking and reasoning. It uses principles and
methods to distinguish valid arguments from those that are not. It is the foundation for
expressing logical methods used to prove theorems, design computer software, and to solve
mathematical problems.
Logic is a tool for working with complicated statements. It illustrates the importance of
precision and conciseness. It allows us to determine the validity of an argument in and out of
mathematics. For lawyers, they use logic to communicate more effectively, construct arguments,
analyze legal contracts, and make decisions.
In logic, assertions are made by combining words and symbols in the form of sentences.
Such assertions are called statements or propositions, which are declarative sentences that are
either true or false – but not both.
A statement or proposition may be denoted by a variable like P, Q, R,
… Example 28.
P: University of Northern Philippines is in Vigan City.
Q: Light travels faster than sound.
R: 1+3=4.
S: 7 is an even number.

Simple and Compound Statements

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a
statement that conveys two or more ideas. It is formed by connecting simple statements with
words and phrases such as and, or, if…then, if and only if, etc.
Example 29.
1. 20 is divisible by 4.
2. Taylor Swift is a singer and Stephen Curry is a basketball player.
3. If a polygon has three sides, then it is a triangle.
4. Mark goes to gym or stays at home every Friday.
Statement 1 is a simple statement while statements 2, 3, and 4 are examples of
compound statements.
 2.4.2. Logical Connectives
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if…then, and if
and only if create a compound statement. For instance, “My mother attends a meeting or buys in
a grocery store”. The word or is a connective for the two simple statements.
Logical connective is a word or symbol that joins two sentences to produce a new one.
George Boole uses symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols
˄, ˅, , →, ↔ to represent connectives.
Logical Connectives and Symbols
Type
Statements Connective Symbolic Form
of Statement

not p Not p negation

p and q And p˄q conjunction

p or q Or p˅q disjunction

If p, then q If…then p→q implication/conditional

p if and only if q if and only if p↔q biconditional

Example 30.
Let p: I review my lessons.
q: I play video games.
r: I go to the beach.
s: I get a reward.
The following are compound statements formed by using logical connectives. Write
the following statements:
a. q ˄ p
b. q ˅ r
c. r
d. p → s
e. s ↔ p

Solution:
 a. I play video games and review my lessons.
b. I play video games or go to the beach.
c. I do not go to the beach.
d. If I review my lessons, then I get a reward.
e. I get a reward if and only if I review my lessons.
Example 31. Indicate the simple statements by p and q and express the compound
statement in symbolic form of the following compound statements.
a. John can program in C++ and he can program in Java.
b. If x is an even number then it is a multiple of 2.
Solution:
a. p: John can program in C++.
q: John can program in Java. p ˄ q
b. p: x is an even number.
q: x is a multiple of 2.
p→s

2.4.3. The Truth Table

The truth values of a compound statement are respectively determined by the truth values
of the original statements and the connectives used to form them. The decision of accepting or
rejecting a statement depends on the truth values of a proposition. An acceptable statement is
given a truth value “true” and unacceptable statement is given a truth value “false”
a. Negation.
If a proposition p is true, then the proposition p is false. However, if p is false, then p
is true.
For example:
Let p: “I study at University of Northern Philippines.” be a true statement. Then, p is
stated as “I do not study at the University of Northern Philippines.” or “It is false that I study at
the University of Northern Philippines.” Which is a negation of the original proposition p.
b. Conjunction
 The conjunction of two statements p and q denoted by p ⋀ q is defined by the following truth table.

p q p⋀

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
The only condition for p ⋀ q to be a true statement is when both p and q are true.

c. Disjunction
The disjunction of two statements p and q denoted by p q is defined by the following truth
table.
p q p⋁

T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

This means that the disjunction of two statements is true if and only if at least one of the
statements is true.
d. Implication or Conditional

(or be false) is when p is true while q is false. The truth table of p → q is given in the following table.
In a conditional statement, the truth of p implies the truth of q. If p is true, then q must be true. The only way that this can fail

p q p→q

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

e. Biconditional
The biconditional statement p ↔ , is defined by the following truth table.

p q p↔

T T T
T F F
 F T F
F F T

Summary of truth values of compound statements using logical connectives

p Q p⋀q p⋁q p→q p↔

T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T

Example 32. Given the truth values of the propositions A, B, C, and D. If A is true, B
is false, C is true, and D is false, give the truth value of the following:
a. [( A ⋀ B) → C] ⋁ D
b. [(A → B) → C] ↔ [ B → (C ⋀ D)]

Solution:
We simply substitute the truth value of each proposition, i.e.
a. [( T ⋀ F) → T] ⋁ F
[(F⋀F)→T]⋁F
T⋁F
(F→T)⋁F

T
b. [(A → B) → C] ↔ [ B → (C ⋀ D)]
[(T→F)→ T]↔[ F→ (T⋀F)]

(F→F)↔(T→ F)
T ↔(T→T) T ↔ T

T
Example 33. Construct a truth table for
a. [ p → ( p ⋀ q)]
b. [ (p ↔ q) ⋁ (p → r)] → (q ⋀ r)
 Solution:
a. [ p → ( p ⋀ q)]

Since it involves 2 propositions, there are 4 combinations.

P Q p p⋀q [ p → ( p ⋀ q)]

T T F T T
T F F F T
F T T F F
F F T F F
b. [(p ↔ q) ⋁ (p → r)] → (q ⋀ r)

Since it involves 3 propositions, there are 8 combinations.

p Q r (p↔q) (p→r) (p ↔ q)⋁(p→r) (q⋀r) (q⋀r) [(p↔q)⋁(p→r)]→ (q⋀r)

T T T T T T T F F
T T F T F T F T T
T F T F T T F T T
T F F F F F F T T
F T T F T T T F F
F T F F T T F T T
F F T T T T F T T
F F F T T T F T T