Principles of Anatomy and

Physiology
Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson
Sixteenth Edition

Chapter 6
The Skeletal System: Bone Tissue

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Functions of Bone and the Skeletal
System

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 Bone
• Bone is an organ made up of
several different tissues (bone,
cartilage, dense connective tissue,
adipose, and nervous tissue)
• The entire framework of bones
and their cartilages constitute the
skeletal system
• The study of bones is termed
osteology

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Functions of the
Skeletal System
• Provides support
• Protects the internal organs (brain,
heart, lungs)
• Assists body movements (in
conjunction with muscles)
• Mineral homeostasis - stores and
releases calcium and phosphorus
• Participates in blood cell production
(hemopoiesis)
• RBCs, WBCs, and platelets
• Stores triglycerides in adipose cells of
yellow marrow

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Structure of Bone

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Structure of
Bone
•A long bone consists of several parts:
• Diaphysis (bone shaft)
• 2 epiphyses (both ends of the bone at
the joints)
• 2 metaphyses (region between
diaphysis and epiphysis)
• Articular cartilage covering both
epiphyses
• Periosteum (connective tissue
surrounding the diaphysis)
• Medullary cavity (hollow space within
diaphysis)
• Endosteum (thin membrane lining the
medullary cavity)
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Structure of Bone

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Structure of Bone

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Histology of Bone

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 Histology of
Bone
•Bone (osseous tissue) contains
an abundant extracellular matrix
that surrounds widely separated
cells
• The extracellular matrix is
about 15% water, 30%
collagen, and 55%
crystalized mineral salts
• Mineral salts calcium
phosphate and calcium
hydroxide combine to
form crystals called
hydroxyapatite
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Histology of Bone
Bone contains 4 types of cells:
• Osteoprogenitor cells (bone stem cells able to
differentiate into the other types of cells)
• Osteocytes (mature bone cells, helps to maintain
bone tissue)
• Osteoblasts (bone-building cells that secrete matrix;
initiate calcification, remember Blasts Build Bone)
• Osteoclasts (remodel bones and cause them to
release calcium; bone resorption, remember Clasts
Crush)
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Histology of Bone

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Histology of Bone

• Compact bone is good at

providing protection and
support; strongest, few
spaces in its composition,
resists strain placed by weight
and movement
• Spongy bone is lightweight
and provides tissue support;
also called trabecular or
cancellous bone, always on
the interior of a bone,
covered by compact bone

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 Histology of
Bone
• Compact bone has repeating units
called osteons (haversian system)
• The osteonic canals
represent growth rings like a
tree
• Contain mineralized
extracellular matrix that
increase in diameter
• Small blood vessels
innervate the bone tissue

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 Other Parts of Bone
• Spongy bone contains trabeculae that provides strength and transfers force away form the joint
• The Lamellae are the rings of the bone matrix and gives the bone its hardness and rigidity
• The lacunae encase the osteocytes and keep them functional and alive
• The canaliculi are canals running between the lacunae and provide nutrients and remove waste
from the bone

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Histology of Bone

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Histology of Bone

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Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone

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Bone Formation
• Ossification (osteogenesis) is the process of bone
formation.
• Bones form in 4 situations:
1) During embryological and fetal development
2) When bones grow before adulthood
3) When bones remodel
4) When fractures heal
Bone
Formation:
Types of
Ossification

• Types of ossification:
• Intramembranous –
bone forms directly
within the mesenchyme
 embryonic tissue
• Endochondral – bone
forms within hyaline
cartilage that develops
from mesenchyme
Bone Formation
• Intramembranous
ossification occurs in
flat bones (i.e., the
bones of the skull)
when a connective
tissue membrane is
replaced by bone.
Bone Formation
• Endochondral
ossification
replaces cartilage
with bone in the
developing embryo
and fetus (i.e.,
infants and youth
have “softer bones”
until full
calcification takes
place)
Bone Formation
• Endochondral ossification also
occurs in epiphyseal plates of
long bones as they grow in length
Bone Formation
• Bones thickens thanks to the cooperative action of
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bone Formation
• As osteoblasts deposit bone on the outer surface,
osteoclasts widen the medullary cavity from within
Bone Growth and Remodeling
Interactions Animation:
• Bone Growth and Remodeling:– necessary nutrients
• Bone Growth and Remodeling:– maintenance of bone
thickness
Bone Growth and Remodeling
• Bone remodeling – ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue
• Bone resorption – removal of minerals and collagen fibers from bone by osteoclasts
• Bone deposition – addition of minerals and collagen fibers to bone by osteoblasts
• At a given time about 5% of bone is being remolded
• Helps strengthen bones, can help to reshape bone
Factors Affecting Bone Growth and
Remodeling
• Minerals – calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, fluoride,
manganese
• Vitamins – Vitamins A, C, D, K and B12
• Hormones – IGFs (stimulated by GH), T3 and T4, sex
hormones (estrogen in females, testosterone in males)
• IGF – insulin like growth factors
• T3&4 – thyroid hormones
Fracture and Repair of Bone

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Fracture and
Repair of Bone

•A fracture is a break in a bone. Many

different types of fractures may occur.
The healing process involves 3
different phases in 4 steps:
• 1. The reactive phase is an early
inflammatory phase.
• 2. The reparative phase includes
formation of a fibrocartilaginous
callus first and a bony callus
second.
• 3. The bone remodeling phase is
the last step as the bony callus is
remodeled.
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Fracture and Repair of Bone

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Fracture and Repair of Bone
Some common fractures include:

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Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis

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Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis
• Bones store 99% of the body’s calcium.
• The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone
(PTH) when calcium levels drop.
• Osteoclasts are stimulated to increase bone resorption
and calcium is released.
• Recall that the osteoclasts crush bone and release its
contents such as calcium
• PTH also stimulates the production of calcitriol by the
kidneys to increase calcium absorption in the
intestines.
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Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis

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Exercise and Aging in Bone Tissue

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Exercise and Bone Tissue
Interactions Animation:
Effect of Exercise on
Bone
:
• Osteocytes
communicate to
the osteoblasts to
increase the
synthesis of the
osteoid and
promote bone
growth
• Appositional
growth = growth
in the thickness of
the bone Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 37
Aging and Bone Tissue
• From birth through adolescence, more bone is produced than is lost
during remodeling.
• In adults, the rates are the same.
• Older individuals, especially post-menopausal women, experience a
decrease in bone mass when resorption outpaces deposition.

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Summary of Factors That Affect Bone
Growth: Minerals
Factor Comment
Calcium and phosphorus Make bone extracellular matrix hard.
Magnesium Helps form bone extracellular matrix.
Fluoride Helps strengthen bone extracellular matrix.
Manganese Activates enzymes involved in synthesis of bone
extracellular matrix.

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Summary of Factors That Affect Bone
Growth: Vitamins
Factor Comment
Vitamin A Needed for the activity of osteoblasts during remodeling of bone; deficiency
stunts bone growth; toxic in high doses.
Vitamin C Needed for synthesis of collagen, the main bone protein; deficiency leads to
decreased collagen production, which slows down bone growth and delays
repair of broken bones.
Vitamin D Active form (calcitriol) is produced by the kidneys; helps build bone by
increasing absorption of calcium from digestive canal into blood; deficiency
causes faulty calcification and slows down bone growth; may reduce the risk of
osteoporosis but is toxic if taken in high doses. People who have minimal
exposure to ultraviolet rays or do not take vitamin D supplements may not have
sufficient vitamin D to absorb calcium. This interferes with calcium metabolism.
Vitamins K and B12 Needed for synthesis of bone proteins; deficiency leads to abnormal protein
production in bone extracellular matrix and decreased bone density.

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Summary of Factors That Affect Bone
Growth: Hormones
Factor Comment
Growth hormone Secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; promotes
(GH) general growth of all body tissues, including bone, mainly by
stimulating production of insulin-like growth factors.
Insulin-like growth Secreted by the liver, bones, and other tissues on stimulation by
factors (IGFs) growth hormone; promotes normal bone growth by stimulating
osteoblasts and by increasing the synthesis of proteins needed to
build new bone.
Thyroid hormones Secreted by thyroid gland; promote normal bone growth by
(T3 and T4) stimulating osteoblasts.
Insulin Secreted by the pancreas; promotes normal bone growth by
increasing the synthesis of bone proteins.

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Summary of Factors That Affect Bone
Growth: Hormones
Factor Comment
Sex hormones Secreted by the ovaries in women (estrogens) and by the testes in
(estrogens and men (testosterone); stimulate osteoblasts and promote the sudden
testosterone) “growth spurt” that occurs during the teenage years; shut down
growth at the epiphyseal plates around age 18–21, causing lengthwise
growth of bone to end; contribute to bone remodeling during
adulthood by slowing bone resorption by osteoclasts and promoting
bone deposition by osteoblasts.
Parathyroid Secreted by the parathyroid glands; promotes bone resorption by
hormone (PTH) osteoclasts; enhances recovery of calcium ions from urine; promotes
formation of the active form of vitamin D (calcitriol).
Calcitonin (CT) Secreted by the thyroid gland; inhibits bone resorption by osteoclasts.

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Summary of Factors That Affect Bone
Growth: Exercise and Aging
Factor Comment
Exercise Weight-bearing activities stimulate osteoblasts and, consequently, help
build thicker, stronger bones and retard loss of bone mass that occurs as
people age.
Aging As the level of sex hormones diminishes during middle age to older
adulthood, especially in women after menopause, bone resorption by
osteoclasts outpaces bone deposition by osteoblasts, which leads to a
decrease in bone mass and an increased risk of osteoporosis.

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Disorders:
Homeostatic
Imbalances

• Osteoporosis – bone resorption

outpaces formation, 80% of those
affected are women
• Rickets and Osteomalacia –
inadequate calcification of
extracellular bone matrix.
• Rickets affects children and
leads to bowed legs and
deformations in skull, rib cage,
or pelvis due to bones being
“soft”.
• Osteomalacia affects adults
and causes painful/tender
bones and fractures with
minor trauma. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 44
Medical
Terminology

• Osteoarthritis –
degeneration of articular
cartilage, leads to friction of
bone against bone
• Osteomyelitis – infection of
bone
• Osteopenia – reduced bone
mass below normal
• Osteosarcoma – bone
cancer that primarily affects
osteoblasts

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Copyright
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