MEE 503 – MEE 703 Power Plants Engineering

Chapter 1 – Steam Power Plants (SPP)

N. Zakhia
Lebanese American University
Department of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering
School of Engineering

Objectives
Exploring Rankine power cycles, cycle mean temperature (𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 ), variation effect of steam condition on
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 , reheating, regeneration, optimum degree of regeneration, deaerator, supercritical pressure cycles,
efficiencies, availability-exergy, and cogeneration
Introduction to Steam Power Plants

Steam is an important medium of producing mechanical energy. It is most suitable to drive steam power station where
fossil fuel is in abundance. Out of total power developed worldwide, 60% is thermal (i.e. electrical power generation).
Nowadays, for a thermal power plant, the range of pressure vary from 1.0 MPa to super-critical pressures and the range
of temperature may vary from 250°C to 650 °C.
The desirable characteristic for a steam power plant are:

• Higher efficiency
• Lower cost
• Ability to burn coal especially of high ash content and inferior coals
• Reduced environmental impact in terms of air pollution. How to keep providing humankind with energy without
damaging the environment, affecting societal stability or threatening the wellbeing of future generation?
• Reduced water equipment.
• Higher reliability and availability
Design steps of a power plant:
There are various steps to be taken in the design of a power plant, namely:
• Selection of site
• Estimation of power station capacity
• Selection of turbines and their auxiliaries
• Selection of boilers (steam generators) and their auxiliaries
• Selection of fuel handling system.
• Design of cooling and circulating water system.
• Selection of electrical generator.
• Design and control of instruments
• Layout of the power plant.
Note that the quality of fuel (fuel exergy) used in power plant plays a major role in the overall design such as the
moisture content, the burning process of the fuel, the corrosive nature of ash (if coal is used), ... Therefore, when
selecting fuel, the factors considered are: moisture, the calorific value, and corrosive nature of ash.
Components of steam power plant
a) Major components
• A furnace to burn the fuel.
• Steam generator to convert water into steam.
• Turbine – prime mover
• Piping system including pumps to convey steam and water.
b) Auxiliaries and accessories
• Feed water Heaters and steam flow circuit.
• Coal and ash circuit.
• Air and gas circuit.
• Cooling water circuit.
The above components need to be designed and manufactured separately which requires wide experience.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the basic components of a steam power plant and its circuitry.
 Purpose: SPP converts Heat into Electrical energy

To Chimney (stack) Energy in Fossil fuel Mechanical Electrical

Coal Flue gas (i.e. coal, oil, LNG) Shaft Work Power
Storage
Coal and Ash Circuit Air
Preheater Air
(optional) Steam Generator
Coal plant 3-phase supply
(Furnace) Flue gas Prime Mover
Flue
gas Economizer Feed-water
Flue gas
Ash Main valve
Ash Handling Boiler Superheater Turbine Generator
Storage plant Flue
gas
Sat-steam
HP FWH Exhaust steam Flue gas path

Boiler Feed-pump Condensate water path

pump
Condenser
LP FWH
Feed Water circuit Cooling Water circuit
Circulation pump

Figure 2.1 Basic components of SPP Cooling Tower To river or sea

Energy analysis for steady operation:
T
• Turbine: 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2 C.P. 1
T1
• Pump: 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑠 ℎ4 − ℎ3 = 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣3 𝑃𝑃4 − 𝑃𝑃3 where 𝑣𝑣3 = 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑇𝑇3
Pb
• Boiler: 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ4 5 6
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑏𝑏 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑇𝑇
• Condenser:
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑠 ℎ2 − ℎ3
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
̇
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 4s
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴∆𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑝𝑝 Pc
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
3 2s
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑐
where ∆𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ≡ steam temp.
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 / 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Figure 2.2a: T-s diagram s
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 =
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
• Steam flow rate: 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑠 =
ℎ2 −ℎ3

• 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 → 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑃𝑃

𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑐
• 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = =1−
𝑄𝑄̇ 1 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑏𝑏
 P
T1 h
C.P. Pb

1
4s 1
Pb 6
5 6
Pc
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑏𝑏
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑃𝑃 C.P.
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑇𝑇
4s 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑏𝑏 2s
5
3
Pc
3 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑐 x2s
2s
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑐 s
v
Figure 2.2c. Mollier diagram
Figure 2.2b. P-v diagram

• Steam rate, SR: It is the capacity of steam needed for the plant → practically, it is the rate of steam needed to
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
produce a unit shaft output (1 kW-hr). It is expressed as: 𝑆𝑆. 𝑅𝑅 = ,
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
3600 𝑚𝑚̇ 3600 𝑚𝑚̇ 3600 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Since 1 kW-hr = 3600 kJ, the steam rate can be expressed as: 𝑆𝑆. 𝑅𝑅 = ≈ = ,
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑇𝑇 𝑤𝑤𝑇𝑇 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.ℎ

• Heat Rate, H.R: It is the rate of heat input (𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) needed to produce unit shaft output (1 kW-hr), given by:
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 3600 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 3600 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
H. 𝑅𝑅 = = or 𝐻𝐻. 𝑅𝑅 = ≈
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑇𝑇
STEAM GENERATOR COMPONENTS

Steam Generator Steam 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡

Flue Gas
Steam Electrical
Furnace Turbine Generator
Superheater
Condenser
C.W. (water source)
Evaporator Cooling Tower
Preheated River/sea
Fuel C.W.
(Oil or LNG) Air
Economiser
Pump
Exhaust Gas
To Chimney
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑝𝑝

Figure 2.3 Steam generator – Bulk Energy Convertor

Heat Recovery Steam Generators - HRSG
 STEAM GENERATOR ANALYSIS

The main components of a steam generator are: Economiser, Evaporator, and Superheater.

These components are the source of heat input to water prior to the prime mover (turbine).

• Economiser (4 → 5):

The feedwater is first heated sensibly by the exhaust gas, prior to stack, to become fully

saturated-liquid at the evaporator inlet. The sensible heat is 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ5 − ℎ4

• Evaporator (5 → 6):

This is where phase change occurs (boiling) → latent heat of vaporization, ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 . Thus, 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ6 − ℎ5 = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

• Superheater (6 → 1):

Further sensible heating to reach the allowable design temperature of the turbine blades: 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑆𝑆.𝐻𝐻 = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ1 − ℎ6
Effect of Exhaust gas (heat addition) on boiler pressure: Permissible inlet temp.
T
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆.𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑄𝑄̇ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 T1
1
C.P.
Figure 2.4 shows the heat fractions are:
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
=
ℎ5 −ℎ4
=
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4−5 5 Pb 6
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ℎ1 −ℎ4 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4−1

𝑄𝑄̇ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ℎ6 −ℎ5 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 5−6

= =
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ℎ1 −ℎ4 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4−1
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ℎ1 −ℎ6 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 6−1 4 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
= =
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ℎ1 −ℎ4 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4−1 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

If more heat, from the exhaust gas, is used in the economizer,

s
eventually, its pressure increases. Practically, this results in: Figure 2.4: Fraction of heat transferred to the economizer,
• Larger feedwater pump head evaporator and superheaters

• Decrease in the latent heat, ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 , in the evaporator → smaller evaporator

• The fraction of heat in the superheater increases as seen in figure 2.5.
Thus: if 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ↑ ⇒ ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ↓ ⇒ 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ↓ ⇒ 𝑞𝑞𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ↑
Note that 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 depends directly to the amount of the design inlet Tturbine
T
exhaust gas discharged from the superheater (already paid
1′ 1
for and does not consume any extra fuel). T1
C.P.
If all exhaust gas is used in the economiser ⇒ Pst.gen ↑ 5′ 6′
tremendously. This results in significant increase in 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 6
5
(this topic will be discussed separately). This is one of the
important role of using an economizer.
However, not all flue gases from the superheater are used 4′ 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
in the economizer because some should be used to preheat 4 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
the incoming air in the preheater as shown in figure 2.1.

In today’s high pressure boilers, more than 40% of 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is s

absorbed in the superheater. Figure 2.5: Fraction of Heat Transferred to the economizer,
evaporator and superheaters
 Irreversibilities in SPP (Rankine cycle)
There are 2 types of irreversibility in SPP:
1. Internal irreversibility: caused by
• Fluid friction in pipes
• Throttling in the turbine
converted into heat causing entropy increase → irreversibility
• Rapid compression in pumps
• Mixing of flow in evaporator (2-ϕ region)

However, experience shows that for large 𝑚𝑚,̇ the heat losses in turbines and pumps are small compared to losses due to
fluid friction and flow mixing. Thus, turbines and pumps are considered adiabatic in large SPP, but not isentropic since
fluid friction causes entropy increase. Thus:
𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ1 −ℎ2 𝑤𝑤𝑠𝑠 ℎ4𝑠𝑠 −ℎ3 𝑣𝑣3 𝑃𝑃4 −𝑃𝑃3
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡 = = & 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝 = = =
𝑤𝑤𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ4 −ℎ3 ℎ4 −ℎ3

Consequences of internal irreversibility:

The pump exit pressure must be higher than the turbine inlet pressure (𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 > 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) to accommodate for
fluid friction in pipes network and steam generator. Thus:
Let P4 = pump exit pressure
T P5
P5 = steam exit pressure of the steam generator P4
P1 = inlet design pressure of the turbine P1
At the exit of the evaporator, steam pressure drops to P5 due to internal
fluid mixing in the evaporator. Then steam pressure will further drop to
Pcond
the design inlet pressure of the turbine, P1, due to friction in pipes
4
network prior to entering the turbine.
3
2s
Do these pressure drops produce good or bad effects for the turbine and
s
the condenser?
Figure 2.6: ∆P across steam generator
2. External irreversibility - due to ∆T across:
• Combustion gases and the working fluid of steam generator (source side).
• Condensing working fluid and the cooling water in the condenser (sink side).
a – d: temp drop of the flue gases across the steam generator a
T 1st pinch pt.
e – f : temp rise of the cooling water in the condenser coils b 1
Flue Gases
a – 1 ≡ 1st pinch point (∆T1) f – 2 ≡ 2nd pinch point (∆T2)
c
• Small pinch points (small ∆T) requires large pipe surface Evap.
areas resulting in small irreversibility → 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ↑ ⇒ 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 ↑. d 5 6

This results in an expensive st. gen.

• Large pinch points (large ∆T) results in large irreversibility 4

and less expensive steam generator ⇒ 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 ↓
3 2 nd
2 pinch pt.
• The most economical pinch-points can be obtained by f

optimizing the capital cost and operating cost (i.e. Fuel cost,
𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 , ηth and condenser type) ← choice of a term project s
e
Figure 2.7 External irreversibility
 Effects of condenser and boiler pressures on thermal efficiency
𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 T
The maximum 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 (Carnot efficiency), 𝜼𝜼𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟏𝟏 − where 𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 is 1
𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
the mean temp of the heat supply. To improve the 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 of a heat engine, =
𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚
the ratio must decrease → 3 implications: =
𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
1. 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 must decrease Tcond 4
However, 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 & 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 depend directly 3 2
2. 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 must increase s
3. Or both on 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 & 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 , respectively.
Figure 2.8. 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 of a Rankine cycle
Case 1 - Decreasing 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 : Since 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 → 𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 must
T
decrease. However, how far can 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 be lowered?
1
• It was seen that 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 can be improved if 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 < 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 . However, to =
= 𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎
avoid air leaking to condenser, practice shows that 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 > 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 . 𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎 = 4
= 3 2
This condition fixes 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 . 100°C
4″
3″ 2″
• Since 𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝑷𝑷𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕,𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 then ∆ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ↑ ⇒ 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡 ↑ and ηth ↑. Tatm 2a″
• All condensers operate at vacuum pressure. This is a primary reason to s
3 3′ 2′
have a condenser in a SPP. Figure 2.9 Effects of condenser pressure on the cycle
Proof (read on your own):
Consider two cycles with the same boiler pressure but two different condenser pressures. One condenser operates at
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and the other at 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 < 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 as shown in figure 2.9.
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄̇ 23
Cycle 1-2-3-4 𝑃𝑃23 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 → 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 1 − =1− where 𝑄𝑄̇ 23 = the heat rejected = area under the curve 2 → 3
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑄𝑄̇ 14
𝑄𝑄̇
Cycle 1-2″-3″-4″ 𝑃𝑃2″3″ = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 → 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 1 − ″″
2 3
where 𝑄𝑄̇ 2″3″ = the heat rejected = area under the curve 2″ → 3″
𝑄𝑄̇ 14

However, 𝐴𝐴2″→ 3″ < 𝐴𝐴2→3 → 𝑄𝑄̇ 2″3″ < 𝑄𝑄̇ 23 → 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 1−2″−3″−4″ > 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 1−2−3−4 . Hence, 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 ↑ & 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ↑. The
amount of increase in 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 is the area 3-2-2’’-3’’.

• Today condensers operate at a pressure ≈ 8.0 kPa

• Furthermore, the condenser allows water to flow in a closed loop which permits continual circulation of water resulting in
less corrosive water than tap water. This is a major advantage of lowering 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 .
As a conclusion: lowering 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 results in 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ↑ & 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 ↑ and water in the condenser becomes purified (less corrosive) and
consequently, water in the cooling tower becomes purified.
How does water become purified in the condenser? (HWK)
The disadvantages are:
• Decreasing 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 to match 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 results in decrease of x𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 → more water content in the steam at
the end of the turbine. This will damage the blades of the turbine. Thus, the expansion of steam in the turbine must be
ended. Practically, x𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≥ 0.88 to minimize blade damages.
• Decreasing 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 will also increase the specific volume of exhausted steam, which requires larger and flatter
blades in last rows of L.P. stage of the turbine.
How do designers solve the above 2 limitations? (HWK)
Further, if 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 falls below 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , air may leak inside the condenser causing:
• A considerable reduction in heat transfer between the cooling water and the steam in the condenser. (Justification: as
air-steam mixture approaches the cold tube surface, water vapor condenses. However, air, being non-condensable,
forms an air-film around the condensate film. Since air has a lower thermal conductivity, the heat transfer is greatly
reduced. Air bubbles may collapse inside the condenser blocking the distribution of steam in the condenser shell.
• 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 is reduced. This increases the turbine exhaust pressure and as a result, reducing the turbine output ⇒ ηth ↓ ,
corrosion will occur and condensate becomes less purified (covered thoroughly in the condenser chapter).

Thus, 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is fixed 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 > 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , then any further increase in 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 will only depend on 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 → 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 . This is
the approach of second case.
 T
Case 2: increasing 𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 . This can be done by:
Pb 1
• Superheating the steam by installing a superheater
• Increasing boiler pressure = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚
5 6
𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 =? =
4
From figure 2.8: area under the curve 4 → 1 = area under the curve 5 → 6 Pc
Tc
Meaning, 𝑞𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = ℎ1 − ℎ4 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠1 − 𝑠𝑠4 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠1 − 𝑠𝑠5 : 3 2
s
𝒉𝒉𝟏𝟏 −𝒉𝒉𝟒𝟒
𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎 = Figure 2.8 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 of a Rankine cycle
𝒔𝒔𝟏𝟏 −𝒔𝒔𝟒𝟒
T T1′
1. Superheating: 1′
= Superheater
𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎 can be increased by “superheating” above 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 of the steam using the flue 1
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚′
gas directed from the boiler to reach the design inlet temp of the turbine, 𝑇𝑇1′ . =
= 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚
Figure 2.10 shows 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚′ of the new cycle 1′-2′-3-4 → 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚′ > 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 ↑ =

However, 𝑇𝑇1′ depends greatly on the metallurgical limit of the turbine blades. 4 Pc
Tc
Thus, it is fixed (≈ 620°C) maintaining x2′ > 88% 3 2 2′

s
Figure 2.10 Effect of a superheat
Advantages of superheating

• Superheating → pinch point gets smaller (a′ → 1’) < (a → 1) → Less external irreversibility. However, 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 can
not go beyond the inlet turbine temperature (𝑇𝑇1′ ≈ 620℃). Further, the turbine exhaust should always be 𝑥𝑥2′ > 0.88.
• It decreases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit.

Disadvantages of superheating
a′ Less external
• The heat rejection in the condenser increases resulting in a irreversibility
larger condenser → More cooling water is needed from the 1′
1
cooling tower.
e

4
3 2 2′

Figure 2.11 Effect of superheat on external irreversibility

2. Increasing boiler pressure – Fig 2.12 T
5 1
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 can further be increased by using more flue gas in the T1= fixed

economizer. So, 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 is increased from 𝑃𝑃1 to 𝑃𝑃2 → 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚′ > 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 𝑃𝑃2
resulting in 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 ↗ . However, the turbine expansion line 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚′ 𝑃𝑃1
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚
shifts to the left resulting in moisture increase in the
turbine discharge → 𝑥𝑥2 ↘ to 𝑥𝑥6 . This causes 3 hostile 7

phenomena: 4
3 6 2
 The water particles act as solids and strike the blades
x6 x2= 88%
due to high k.E, and, consequently, erode the rotor s
Figure 2.12 Effect of increase of the Pboiler
blades of the last stage.
 The increase of moisture will corrode the blades

 An increase in "𝑣𝑣𝑣 ending up with flatter and larger blade surface area resulting in large size of the last turbine stage.
The first 2 phenomena decrease dramatically the performance of the turbine ⇒ ηturb ↓. Thus, a frequent maintenance of the
turbine is required. These 2 problems can be minimized by using a reheat system.
Conclusion: 𝜼𝜼𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = 𝒇𝒇 𝑻𝑻𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
 1
Reheat system – Fig 2.13
a
• Reheat was first introduced in 1920,
Flue Gas
S.H. Evap.
then in 1940 when high pressure boiler
H.P.T. L.P.T.
was first used. 7 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡
2 4
• Double reheat was introduced in 1950

Eco.
Exhaust
R.H. 3
when higher pressure cycle is used
b
Condenser
Purposes:
1. maintaining the turbine exhaust quality greater
5
than 88% to avoid blades damage
2. To reduce the exhaust specific volume in the LPT Pump
6 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑝𝑝
for smaller blade surfaces in the last rows.

Figure 2.13 Reheat system/cycle

 h 3 T1 = T3
a
1
T f
g
1 3
e
Pb
2s
b 7
Prh 2s Pb

6s 6s 7
Pc Pc 4s
4′s
5 4′s 4s 5 x4′s x4s
X4s ≥ 0.88 s s

Figure 2.14: T-s and Molier diagrams for a reheat system

𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ℎ1 − ℎ6𝑠𝑠 + ℎ3 − ℎ2𝑠𝑠 𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = ℎ4𝑠𝑠 − ℎ5 𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 = ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠𝑠 + ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑠𝑠

𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 −𝑤𝑤𝑝𝑝
𝑤𝑤𝑝𝑝 = ℎ6𝑠𝑠 − ℎ5 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
What will happen to steam rate (S.R.) in case of reheat?
The work net:
• Without reheat: 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑤𝑤/𝑜𝑜 = area of the cycle 1-4′s-5-6s
Compare ⇒ 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑤𝑤 > 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑤𝑤/𝑜𝑜
• With reheat: 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑤𝑤 = area of the cycle 1-4′s-5-6s + additional area of 2s-3-4s-4′s

𝑚𝑚̇
Therefore, for constant 𝑚𝑚,̇ an increase in 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 implies a decrease in steam rate 𝑆𝑆. 𝑅𝑅 = .
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑤𝑤

What would happen to 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 , the Heat Rate, and the external irreversibility?

Number of reheats:

Theoretically, more than a single reheat can be used depending on turbine inlet pressure (boiler pressure). High boiler
pressure may require more than a single reheat. However, practice shows that the use of more than two reheat stages is
not practical. The improvement in efficiency from the second reheat is about half of that which results from a single
reheat. If the turbine inlet pressure is not high enough, double reheat would result in superheated turbine exhaust. This is
undesirable as it would cause 𝑇𝑇�𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 to increase and thus 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 to decrease. Therefore, double reheat is usually used for
supercritical pressure SPP. A third reheat stage would increase 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 by about half of the improvement attained by the
second reheat. This gain is too small to justify the added cost and complexity.
What would be the optimum pressure for a single reheat?
Figure 2. 15 shows the effect of 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟 ⁄𝑃𝑃1 , for a single reheat, on 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 for a turbine with initial steam at 172 bar, 538°C
where steam is reheated to ∼ 538°C. While maintaining the exhaust turbine quality greater than 88%, data show that the
𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
optimum % of ∆η occurs at a reheat pressure ratio: ≈ 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 → 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 maintaiing 𝒙𝒙𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 ≈ 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 and 𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ≈ 𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏
𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏

+4 1.0 538 °C
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 % 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
+3 0.9 427 °C
0.88

𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 % +2 𝐱𝐱𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 0.8 316 °C

+1 0.7 205 °C

0 𝑿𝑿𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆
𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ℃
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ⁄𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏
Figure 2.15: 𝜟𝜟𝜟𝜟 % - vs - 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ⁄𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏

HWK: State the consequences and the limitations when the ratio 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟 ⁄𝑃𝑃1 gets lower or greater than the optimum value?
Is there any other approach to further improve 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 ? Meaning, is there any other way to increase 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ?
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 of SPP using fossil fuel typically varies from 25% to about 40%. Suppose a plant has a relatively high efficiency, say 38% ⇒
meaning that for every 1BTU of fuel produces 0.38 BTU of electrical energy. The other 62% of the fuel energy is wasted.

Figure 2.16 provides a rough accounting of fuel energy distribution:

950 BTU/hr
9500 (10%)
∼ 10% out from the stack as heat losses

Stack
BTU/hr
Boiler
FUEL
∼ 3% for plant auxiliary electrical loads 90% eff.

∼ 36% for generator electrical output to the grid Steam

8550 BTU/hr 3413 BTU/hr
(1 kWH)
∼ 51% discharged to cooling tower or river from the condenser Turbine (36%)
Generator
88% eff.
This experiment shows that over half of the energy supplied is lost in the condenser,
4837 BTU/hr 300 BTU/hr
where heat appears as an increase in the temperature of the cooling water flowing (low pressure) (Plant loads)
(3%)

through the condenser tubes.

Cooling 4837 BTU/hr
Condenser water (51%)
Therefore, there should be a way to recover the heat loss in the condenser and use

it to increase 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 . Figure 2.16 Heat Rate Losses

Since it is undesirable to eliminate the condenser, then it becomes imperative to minimize the losses in the condenser. i.e.

When steam is condensed in the condenser, a large amount of enthalpy, ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 , is being removed from the steam by the

cooling water. This energy will be lost in the cooling tower. Therefore, this lost energy should be recovered.

This is where feedwater heaters come in. It is called REGENERATION. Feedwater heaters are installed prior to pump so

the feedwater will be preheated by a hot stream bled from the turbine. This will result in increase in 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 which,

consequently, increases the plant efficiency, 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 . As a result:

• The heat loss, ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 , in the condenser is reduced.

• 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 is increased resulting in an increase of 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡

• less flow rate in the condenser (smaller condenser).

See figure 2.17 on next slide.

 7 → 1 : heat supply
T
1
=
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚
=
7
6 2

Cooling tower
5

4 3
s
Feed Condensate
pump pump
Figure 2.17 - Regeneration

𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 is increased by preheating the feeding water before entering the economizer. The feedwater exiting from the
OFWH (state 6) is saturated liquid at much higher temperature than state 5 ⇒ 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ↑ ⇒ 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 ↑
An example of SPP with 2 OFWH: 1kg

• Energy balance around heater 1 and 2: 1

ℎ9 −ℎ8 ℎ7 −ℎ6 Turbine
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑦𝑦2 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦1

Boiler
ℎ2 −ℎ8 ℎ3 −ℎ6 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
• Comparison of mean temperatures: 𝑦𝑦1 2 4
3
ℎ1 −ℎ10 ℎ1 −ℎ6
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟. = , 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟. = 𝑦𝑦2 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2
𝑠𝑠1 −𝑠𝑠10 𝑠𝑠1 −𝑠𝑠6

• Energy balance: condenser

Heater 1

Heater 2
𝑤𝑤𝑇𝑇 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 + 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 ℎ2 − ℎ3 + 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ3 − ℎ4

𝑤𝑤𝑃𝑃 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ6 − ℎ5 + 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 ℎ8 − ℎ7 + ℎ10 − ℎ9 9 8 7 6 5

10
𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏 = ℎ1 − ℎ10
Pump 3 Pump 2 Pump 1
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ4 − ℎ5 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 𝐶𝐶 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 Figure 2.18 Regeneration with 2 OFWH
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴∆𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 −𝑇𝑇
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑤𝑤𝑇𝑇 −𝑤𝑤𝑃𝑃 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏 −𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐

The thermal efficiency is: 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 = =
𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏
Consequences of regeneration - Effect of bleeding on turbine expansion:

T
h
P1 P1
1
P2 1 kg 1 Heat Loss caused
from bleeding
P3 P2 ( Loss in 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 )
10 2′ 2
2 P3
10 9
P4 8
3 3″ 3
8 9 P4
7 3′
6 6 1 kg
7
5 4 5 4′ 4
s
s
Figure 2.19 h-s (Mollier) diagram Figure 2.20. T – s diagram showing the bleeding effects
Actual expansion

𝑤𝑤𝑇𝑇 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 + 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 ℎ2 − ℎ3 + 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ3 − ℎ4 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 + ℎ2′ − ℎ3′ + ℎ3 − ℎ4′

Hence, 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 ℎ2 − ℎ3 = ℎ2′ − ℎ3′ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ3 − ℎ4 = ℎ3 − ℎ4′ where:

• ℎ2 − ℎ2′ ≡ heat released by the steam to heat up the water in the 1st FWH (from 8 to 9) ⇒ meaning,

1(ℎ2 − ℎ2′ ) ≡ 1(ℎ9 − ℎ8 ) ← energy balance around 1st FWH

• (ℎ3′ − ℎ3″ ) ≡ heat released by the steam to heat up the water in the 2nd FWH (from 6 to 7) ⇒ meaning,

1(ℎ3′ − ℎ3″ ) = 1(ℎ7 − ℎ6 ). ← energy balance around 2nd FWH

Therefore, 𝑤𝑤𝑇𝑇 = ℎ1 − ℎ4′ − ℎ2 − ℎ2′ + ℎ3′ − ℎ3

Heat released from the turbine to heat the FWHs

= ℎ1 − ℎ4′ − ℎ9 − ℎ8 + ℎ7 − ℎ6 ← this is the actual 𝑤𝑤𝑇𝑇 (a slight decrease)

• Further, the heat given off by extracted steam = heat gained in the feedwaters. Thus,

𝑦𝑦1 ℎ2 − ℎ9 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 ℎ9 − ℎ8 and 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ3 − ℎ7 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ7 − ℎ6

Effect of bleeding on condenser:
Hence, the heat rejected in the condenser, 𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , will decrease from (ℎ4 − ℎ5 ) to (ℎ4′ − ℎ5 ) ⇒ smaller condenser.

Note that 𝑚𝑚̇ is large in SPP ⇒ feedwater heaters are considered adiabatic but not isentropic
Summary of regeneration:
 Significant increases of ηth because 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ↑ tremendously. This reduces the heat rate and consequently the
operation cost (vital advantage)
 Reduces the steam flow in the condenser (smaller condenser) ⇒ (advantage)
 Steam rate (SR) will increase. Meaning more steam is needed to produce 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 . This requires bigger boiler ⇒ more
expensive ⇒ capital cost increases.
 Turbine output drops slightly.
Feedwater heaters - 2 types: a) Closed feedwater heaters, CFWH b) Open feedwater heaters, OFWH
1. CFWH:
In general, steam enters a heater as superheated. Therefore, a CFWH includes a desuperheating zone where steam is
cooled to its saturation temperature then followed by a condensing zone where steam is condensed to a saturated liquid
rejecting the latent heat of condensation. This liquid (called heater drain) is then cooled below its saturation temperature in
a subcooling zone (called drain cooling zone). The drain is then cascaded backward or pumped forward. Therefore, a CFWH
consists of the following zones:
Desuperheating Zone (optional):
The incoming steam enters this zone, giving up most of its superheat to the feedwater exiting from the heater
Condensing Zone:
All FWH have this zone. All of the steam is condensed in this area where a large percentage of the heat is transferred to FW.
During condensation, non condensable gases will be formed and purged.
Subcooling Zone/Drain cooler (optional):
The condensed steam enters this zone at the saturation temperature and cooled by convective heat transfer from the
incoming feedwater.
 Inlet of Bled steam
Feedwater outlet to boiler at
from turbine
higher temperature

Condensing zone De-superheating zone

Drain outlet

Bundle of Feedwater pipes Subcooling zone Trap

Control water level (Drain cooler)
Feedwater inlet
From condenser
Only liquid to next heater. (low temperature)
Most non-condensable
Figure 2.21a Schematic Zones of CFWH gases will be purged
Drain inlet
(from other FWH)

Figure 2.21b Schematic Zones of CFWH

A CFWH is a shell-and-tubes heat exchanger where feedwater 1kg

passes through the tubes and the bleeding steam condenses in the 1
Turbine
shell across the tubes bundle. Thus, both streams do not mix
𝑦𝑦1
allowing each stream to having different pressure. The condensate 4
𝑦𝑦2 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2
2
may also be called “heater drip or simply drip”.

Boiler
Mixing condenser
3
chamber
For instance, figure 2.22 shows the drip in the LP heater goes
5
through a trap allowing only liquid to pass to a mixing chamber H.P. L.P.
CFWH
12 CFWH 10 7 Condensate
using a small pump called “drip pump”. The FW discharges from pump
6
the mixing chamber with T10 > T7 owing to the increase in internal 11 8
Trap Trap
energy (increase in enthalpy). The FW then passes to the next
𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2 T9 > T7
heater. Note that the drip could have been directed back to
Figure 2.22 9 Drip pump
condenser, however, the heat remained in the drip would be lost
in the condenser. This will further reduce the 𝑚𝑚̇ of the steam required by the next heater.
Types of CFWH - 2 types of CFWH:
• Low-pressure FWH
• High-pressure FWH

LP-CFWH: It receives steam from LPT. Thus, it is located on the right side of the OPWH.
• If the bled wet steam upon condensation gets subcooled (x < 10%) → then a “Drain cooler zone” is added to
accumulate the subcooled water. If not (x > 10%), then no need for a “drain cooler zone”.

HP-CFWH: It receives steam from HPT. Thus, it is located on the left side of the OPWH.
• The bled superheated steam is first desuperheated then condensed and finally subcooled. If the subcooled water
discharges with low quality, x < 10%, a drain cooler will be needed.
Note: the drain cooler can be located outside instead of being a part of the shell.

CFWH mounting Orientation : CFWH can be mounted horizontally or vertically.

― Horizontal orientation: most heaters are of this configuration. These are the most stable in regard to level control,
although they occupy more floor space.
― Vertical orientation: Although these conserve floor space, the amount of control area available for liquid level
fluctuation is less. Installation and removal may be more difficult than for horizontal heaters
 Bleeding
steam
inlet
Feedwater
outlet to
boiler

Drain
outlet

Feedwater
inlet from
condenser

Figure 2.23 LP CFWH - horizontal

Figure 2.24 Low Pressure Heater (LP- CFWH)
Figure 2.24 LP CFWH - vertical
 Drain inlet

Condensing zone
Desuperheating zone

Inlet of bleeding steam

FW outlet

Drain cooler zone

Drain outlet

Figure 2.25 - High Pressure CFWH FW inlet

Figure 2.26 HP-CFWH
 Energy balance around the CFWH:
1kg

1
T P1
Boiler Turbine
1
𝑦𝑦1
4 1 kg
𝑦𝑦2 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 P2
2
12 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 2
Mixing condenser 11 P3
3
chamber
5 9 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
10 P4
L.P. 7 8 3
H.P. 6
CFWH (𝟏𝟏 − 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 −𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 )
12 CFWH 10 7 Condensate
pump 5 4
6 s
11 8
Trap Trap

𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2 For HP FWH: 1 ℎ2 − ℎ11 = 1 ℎ12 − ℎ10 = 1𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑤𝑤 𝑇𝑇12 − 𝑇𝑇10

9 Drip pump For LP FWH : 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ3 − ℎ8 + 𝑦𝑦1 ℎ11 − ℎ8 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ℎ7 − ℎ6

Figure 2.27 Rankine cycle with HP and LP CFWH = 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑤𝑤 𝑇𝑇7 − 𝑇𝑇6
 Analysis of CFWH

The key indicators to measure the heat transfer performance of heaters are:

1. Terminal Temperature Difference, TTD: 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 = 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔,𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝑻𝑻𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆, 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭

𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 and 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 both depend on 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

2. Drains Cooler Approach, DCA: 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = 𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐,𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 − 𝑻𝑻𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊,𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭

𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐,𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ≡ shell drain outlet temperature. It is the exit temperature of the shell

3. Feedwater Temperature Rise, FWTR: 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = 𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐,𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 − 𝑻𝑻𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊,𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭

 Figure 2.28 Temperature profile for LP CFWH TTD = Tsat, bled steam – Texit, FW > 0 TTD ≈ 0 to 5°C

Xdrain > 10% ⇒ No subcooled zone Xdrain < 10% ⇒ condensation ⇒ subcooled zone is needed
T T
Steam Steam

FW FW FW

+ TTD
C DC C FW

+ TTD
Drain Condensate Bled steam 3
Drain 8 Sat Bled steam 3
7
7
Drain
8

DCA
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 DCA

6
6 FW inlet
FW inlet C C
L or H L or H

• Small TTD → large pipes/ large condenser zone → better ηth

• Large TTD → smaller pipes/ small condenser zone → Lesser ηth
Figure 2.29 Temperature profile for HP CFWH TTD = Tsat, bled steam – Texit, FW < 0 TTD ≈ 0 to -5°C

T Superheated-vapor
Steam

FW FW Inlet bleeding Steam from turbine

DC C DS
2 Exit FW temperature
Condensate
12
Bled steam, Tsat at P2 ― TTD

Drain
11 TTD = Terminal Temperature Difference
FW
DC = Drain-cooler zone
DS = Desuperheater zone
DCA C = Condenser zone

10
FW
DC C

L or H
 Optimum locations of Heaters
A crucial question arises as to where to place a CFWH in the Rankine cycle. In other words, what would be the optimum
pressure of the bleeding steam that will result in a maximum increase of 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 and maximum reduction in heat rate. This
question requires a complete optimization of the cycle by applying and differentiating the energy balance for the whole
cycle. It is a complex procedure. Hence, the results of this optimization (El-Wakil, Burghardt and Harbach, Srinivas et al.,
Bejan et al.,...,) are as follows:

• The optimum temperature rise of each heater for max 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 is:
∆𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 −𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶
∆𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = = where n = number of heaters B = boiler C = condenser
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛+1

• The total temperature rise of feedwater for max 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 is:

𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,𝑛𝑛 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶 ← law of diminishing return
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛+1

Therefore for:
1
n = 1 → ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,1 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶
2
2
n = 2 → ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,2 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶
3
3
n = 3 → ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,3 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶 and so on …
4
Therefore:
1 1 1
• By the use of the 1st heater, the gain is: ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,1 − ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,0 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 0 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶
2 2 2

• By the use of the 2nd heater, the gain over the 1st heater is:

2 1 1 1
∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,2 − ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,1 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶
3 2 6 6

• By the use of the 3rd heater, the gain over the 2nd heater is:

3 2 1 1
∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,3 − ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,2 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶
4 3 12 12

• By the use of the 4th heater, the gain over the 3rd heater is:

4 3 1 1
∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,4 − ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,3 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐵𝐵 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,𝐶𝐶 and so on…
5 4 20 20

When the cost of adding another heater does not justify the saving/cost in heat supply or the marginal increase in ηth ,
then we stop. Practice shows and recommends using five to seven heaters with one OFWH. In fact, the greatest
efficiency gain occurs in the 1st heater. Then the gain successively begins to diminish. This shows that the gain in ηth
depends directly on the gain in FWH temperature (∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ). See next slide.
 Effect of number of heaters on ηth

0.05

0.45

0.40
∆𝜂𝜂4
Efficiency gain, ∆𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡

∆𝜂𝜂3
0.35
∆𝜂𝜂2
0.30 ∆𝜂𝜂1
0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of Heaters, n
Figure 2.30 Efficiency gain, ∆η, successively diminishes with the increase in the number of heaters
 10.2% Figure 2.31 shows the reduction in HR – vs the
9.0% feed water temperature rise, ∆TFW . Hence:
6.8% 11.1% 13.2%
• For a single heater (n=1), ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,1 = 120°𝐶𝐶.
15 𝑛𝑛 1
∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,1 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 120℃
𝑛𝑛+1 2
10
Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 2 × 120℃ = 240℃ ← this fixes the
Reduction in heat rate, %

pressure range of the whole cycle. It also

10 4
estimates the 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 for a single heater.
3
• For 2 heater2 (n=2), ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,2 = 142°𝐶𝐶. Thus,
2 2
∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,2 = Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 142℃
5 3
3 3
1 Δ𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓,2 = 142 = 213℃
2 2
0 And so on...
0 50 100 150 200 250
Number of Heaters
Total temperature rise in FW, ∆TFW (°C)
----- max reduction in HR
Figure 2.31 Effect of number of heaters on Heat Rates
2. Open Feedwater Heater, OFWH – Deaerator:
It is a mixing chamber with a direct heat exchange between the bleeding superheated steam from the turbine and the
FW from the condensate pump. It operates at constant-pressure and serves to:

a) Increase the discharge temperature of feedwater prior to boiler feed pump or the HP-CFWH

b) Ensure that purified water is always available to feed the boiler at peak conditions.

c) Deaerate the incoming FW from LP-CFWHs:

• Purging all dissolved and non-condensable gases resulting from condensation such O2, CO2, … These gases
make water very corrosive since they react with the metal to form iron oxide. Henry's Law states “the solubility
of these gases decreases when FW temperature increases and becomes zero at saturation temperature”. This is
a crucial reason of having an OFWH as a deaerator.

• Purging air bubbles resulting from start-up or shut-down of any part of the plant. These air bubbles form an
insulating film inside FWH, the condenser, and the boiler which reduces the heat transfer efficiency.

• Also, air decreases the temperature of the steam.

See file on blackboard concerning the “deaerator and the effect of dissolved gases”.
 Air, O2 and CO2 gases Vented out

FW From LP heaters
Vent containing dissolved gases
Condenser

O2 , CO2 H2O vapor • The feedwater, after passing through heat exchanger,
called “vent condenser”, is sprayed from the top while
Water spray
bled hot steam from the turbine is fed from the bottom.

• The steam condenses and the feedwater is heated to

Extracted steam
from turbine sat. temp. As a result, dissolved gases get released
from water and vented out.

• The condensate becomes purified and collected in a

storage tank.

Deaerator
storage Tank

Water level
indicator
Injection of N2H4 ≡ Hydrazine O2 reducing agents
Na2SO3 or N2H4 Na2SO3≡ Sodium Sulfate
To HP heater
BFP = Boiler Feed Pump Pressure = Psat + ρf g H
 Gas Release Mechanism in SPRAY type Deaerator
FW coming from LP-FWH

Steam line from turbine

 Open feedwater heater – Tray type Deaerator

Deaerating process

Purified hot
feedwater
storage tank
https://youtu.be/3Ix2U4dEGG0
https://youtu.be/M_jOsTWVIH8
https://youtu.be/67p66oSnWBM
https://youtu.be/W2BSMT09sKM

Location of OFWH:
It is recommended that the best location of the deaerator is usually placed near the middle of the feedwater system
where the temperature is most conducive to the release of noncondensables. This makes the total pressure difference
between the condenser and the boiler is shared equitably between the condensate pump and the boiler feed pump.
However, practice recommends that the deaerator pressure should always be 20 to 30 kPa above atmospheric pressure
to avoid air leakage and the water temperature of the storage section be about 5°C above the boiling point of water at
the altitude of the installation to prevent oxygen retention.

Examples 2.1 & 2.2

 Types of Efficiencies in a steam power plant

M
M

Exhaust gas

4 T 3
Q1 Q2
Heat supply B C Heat rejection
Furnace Sink
Sink
(heat source)
1 P 2

Fuel Air Break output

GG

Power consumed Gross Power (MWe)

To drive the auxiliaries
Net Power (MWe)
 Typical efficiencies in Thermal Power Plant
𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ4 −ℎ3
1. 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝑤𝑤𝑠𝑠
=
ℎ4 −ℎ3𝑠𝑠
𝑤𝑤𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠𝑠
2. 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
=
ℎ1 −ℎ2

𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
3. 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 −ℎ4
4. 𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = 𝐶𝐶. 𝑉𝑉. ≡ fuel calorific values
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 × 𝐶𝐶.𝑉𝑉.

𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒 ×103

5. 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = =
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ4 − ℎ3
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
6. 𝜂𝜂𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑀𝑀𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒 ×103

7. 𝜂𝜂𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = = = 𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 × 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 × 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 × 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 × 𝜂𝜂𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ×𝐶𝐶.𝑉𝑉.

In today’s power plants, typical efficiencies are: ηboiler = 0.92, ηturbine = 0.95, ηgen = 0.93, ηcycle = 0.44 & ηoverall = 0.34.
What percentage of the total electricity is consumed to run the auxiliaries?
𝜂𝜂𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = 0.95 → 1 – 0.95 = 5% of total electricity needed to run auxiliaries.
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 × 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ×𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 × 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
Heat Rates:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 1
1. Net Cycle Heat Rate: 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = = =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
2. Gross Cycle Heat Rate: 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
3. Net Station Heat Rate: 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

HOMEWORK.
Describe Cogeneration Power Plant including:
• Purpose and applications
• Define back-pressure and pass-out turbines
• Combined efficiency.
Exergy (Availability)
The concept of Exergy was first developed by J. Willard Gibbs (American scientist) in 1873, then analyzed by Zoran Rant
(Yugoslavian chemical engineer) in 1956 who invented the term Exergy.

Difference between Energy and Exergy: Energy is the result of the First law of thermodynamics measuring the QUANTITY of
the system power while Exergy, a concept obtained from Second law of Thermodynamics, takes into account the QUALITY
of energy → Exergy is the energy that is available to be used which is related directly to entropy production.

Definition of Exergy:
Exergy is the maximum useful work, Wmax, that can be obtained to bring the system into equilibrium with its environment. It
can be regarded as the magnitude of the minimum theoretical work input required to bring the system from the dead state
to any given state.
Dead state: system operates at Tsurr and Psurr → no heat interaction between system and its environment. It is assumed that
Tsurr ≡ T0 = 25 °C and Psurr ≡ P0 = Patm
Exergy analysis helps us to:
1. Determine the magnitude of the energy losses in the system.
2. Find a means to reduce these losses and consequently, making the system more efficient.
 • Exergy transfer accompanies heat transfer, work and mass flow.
• Like entropy, exergy is not conserved. Exergy is destroyed within systems whenever internal irreversibilities are present.
• Exergy destruction corresponds to Entropy production and each component in the power plant has its exergetic
efficiency.

Availability/Exergy of a steady state control volume:

𝑑𝑑𝑋𝑋cv 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉

= ∑𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑊𝑊̇ cv − 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 cv + ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒f𝑖𝑖 − ∑𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒f𝑒𝑒 − 𝑋𝑋̇ 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Rate of exergy transfer Rate of exergy destruction

Time rate of exergy change Across the boundary

𝑑𝑑𝑋𝑋cv 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉

= ∑𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑊𝑊̇ cv − 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 cv + ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒f𝑖𝑖 − ∑𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒f𝑒𝑒 − 𝑋𝑋̇ 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Rate of exergy transfer Rate of exergy Rate of exergy transfer

Rate of exergy destruction
at the boundary Transfer due to between inlets and exits
flow work

Rate of exergy change due to shaft work

Forms of Exergy (availability) for Steady flow:
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
0 = ∑𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑊𝑊̇ cv + ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒f𝑖𝑖 − ∑𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒f𝑒𝑒 − 𝑋𝑋̇ 𝑑𝑑 ← Eq. 1
𝑇𝑇𝑗𝑗

𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
= ∑𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑊𝑊̇ cv + 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒 − 𝑋𝑋̇ 𝑑𝑑 ← For a single inlet and a single exit
𝑇𝑇𝑗𝑗

𝑉𝑉 2
From thermodynamics, 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ℎ − ℎ0 − 𝑇𝑇0 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠0 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
2

𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖2 −𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒2
The difference in specific flow exergy: 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒 = ℎ𝑖𝑖 − ℎ𝑒𝑒 − 𝑇𝑇0 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 − 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒 + + 𝑔𝑔 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖 − 𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒
2
Substitute all above equations into equation 1 neglecting ∆K.E. and ∆P.E. :

ℎ𝑒𝑒 − ℎ𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇0 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒 − 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖

𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = �∑ 1 − 𝑇𝑇0 𝑞𝑞 − 𝑤𝑤 − x
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑

𝑋𝑋̇ 𝑑𝑑
Exergy loss due To Exergy Destruction, x𝑑𝑑 = = 𝑇𝑇0 𝑠𝑠𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑚𝑚̇
boundary heat loss
Exergetic efficiencies or second-law efficiencies:
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Recall: 𝜀𝜀 =
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑇𝑇 /𝑚𝑚̇
a) Turbine effectiveness: 𝜀𝜀 =
𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓
b) Exergetic pump/compressor efficiency: 𝜀𝜀 =
−𝑊𝑊̇ cv /𝑚𝑚̇

𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓

c) Exergetic counter-flow heat exchanger efficiency: 𝜀𝜀 =
𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓

d) Exergetic direct contact heat exchanger efficiency: 𝜀𝜀 =
𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓

Hot stream, 𝒎𝒎̇ 𝟏𝟏

Hot stream
𝒎𝒎̇ 𝒉𝒉

Mixed stream, 𝒎𝒎̇ 𝟑𝟑 Cold stream, 𝒎𝒎̇ 𝟐𝟐

Cold stream
𝒎𝒎̇ 𝑪𝑪
OFWH
Direct-contact H.E.
Example 1.3 CFWH
Counter-flow H.E.