Energy Conversion Engineering

Steam Power Plants

General layout of steam power plant
 Schematic diagram of coal based steam power plant

To chimney

Coal storage
Flue gases

Coal Air preheater Air

handling
plant
Feed Main Super heated
To power grid
water valve Steam
Economizer

Ash handling Boil Super heater

Turbine
Generator
Ash storage er
plant Flue
gases

Steam Condensate
HP heater extraction pump
LEGEND
Boiler feed
pump
Condenser
Coal
LP heater
Ash
Air Circulating
water pump
Water
Cooling tower
Flue gases
Steam
River or Canal
Cooling water
 How coal power plants produce electricity
The conversion from coal to electricity takes place in three stages.

Stage 1

The first conversion of energy takes place in the boiler. Coal is burnt in the boiler
furnace to produce heat. Carbon in the coal and Oxygen in the air combine to
produce Carbon Dioxide and heat.

Stage 2

The second stage is the thermodynamic process. The heat from combustion of
the coal boils water in the boiler to produce steam. In modern power plant, boilers
produce steam at a high pressure and temperature. The steam is then piped to a
turbine. The high pressure steam impinges and expands across a number of sets
of blades in the turbine. The impulse and the thrust created rotates the turbine.
The steam is then condensed to water and pumped back into the boiler to repeat
the cycle.

Stage 3

In the third stage, rotation of the turbine rotates the generator rotor to produce
electricity based of Faraday’s Principle of electromagnetic induction.
 General layout of coal based steam power plant

The different types of systems and components used in steam

power plants are:
• High pressure boiler
• Prime mover
• Condensers and cooling towers
• Coal handling system
• Ash handling system
• Draught system
• Feed water treatment plant
• Pumping system
• Air preheater, super heater, feed water heater
 General layout of coal based steam power plant

Though each plant is unique in itself in terms of specific features

and functionalities, there are four main circuits in any thermal power
plant:

1. Coal & Ash Circuit – This circuit deals mainly with feeding the
boiler with coal for combustion purposes and taking care of the ash
that is generated during the combustion process and includes
equipment and peripherals that is used to handle the transfer and
storage of coal and ash.

2. Air & Gas Circuit – Since lots of coal is burnt inside the boiler it
needs a sufficient quantity of air which is supplied using either
forced draught or induced draught fans. The exhaust gases from the
combustion are in turn used to heat the incoming air and water
through heat exchangers before being let off in the atmosphere.
The equipment which handles all these processes fall under this
circuit.
 General layout of coal based steam power plant
3. Feed Water & Steam Circuit – This section deals with supplying
of steam generated from the boiler to the turbines and to handle
the outgoing steam from the turbine by cooling it to form water in
the condenser so that it can be reused in the boiler plus making
good any losses due to evaporation etc.

4. Cooling Water Circuit – This part of the thermal power plant

deals with handling of the cooling water required in the system.
Since the amount of water required to cool the outgoing steam
from the boiler is substantial, it is either taken from a nearby water
source such as a river, or it is done through evaporation if the
quantity of cooling water available is limited.

A power plant using steam as working substance works basically on

Rankine cycle. For plants operating with steam at subcritical pressures
(less than 221 bar) and steam temperatures of 570 °C, the Rankine cycle
efficiency is around 43 %. For the state of the art plants running at greater
than supercritical pressure and steam temperatures near to 600 °C, the
efficiency is around 47 %.
 Why is the efficiency low for thermal plant?
• The heating value or the energy available in the coal, is in the range of
10,500 kJ/kg to 27,000 kJ/kg. A heating value of 20,000 kJ/kg is equivalent
to 5.56 kwh of electrical energy. In practice the effective conversion is only
around 43% to 47% of the theoretically possible value.

Reasons for low thermal efficiency:

• Due to practical limitations in heat transfer, all the heat produced by

combustion is not transferred to the water; some is lost to the atmosphere
as hot gases. Moisture in coal vapourises taking latent heat from the
combustion heat and exits the boiler along with the hot gases. This is a loss.
• The steam is condensed for re-use. During this process the latent heat of
condensation is lost to the cooling water. This is the major loss and is
almost 40 % of the energy input. Losses in the turbine blades and exit
losses at turbine end are some of the other losses.
• The Rankine cycle efficiency is dictated by the maximum temperature of
steam that can be admitted into the turbine. Due to metallurgical constraints
steam temperatures are at present limited to slightly more than 600 °C.
• Various auxiliary equipment like pulverizers, fans, pumps and precipitators
in large power plants consume around 6 % of the generator output for
internal consumption.
 Fuels used for steam generation
• The primary fuels which are burned to release heat and generate
steam in boilers are the fossil fuels – coal, fuel oil and natural
gas.
• Besides these, industrial wastes like blast furnace gas, coke
oven gas, refinery gas, bagasse, saw mill wood dust, rice husk
etc. are also used to boost primary fossil fuels in the form of
combination firing.
Coal
• In India, coal is the main source of energy because of its large
deposits and availability.
• Coal originates from millions of years old vegetable matter
transformed by subterranean heat and soil pressure. The
vegetable decay first produces peat bogs, which after distillation
of its moisture by subterranean forces hardens to brown coal
or lignite. Continuing metamorphosis produces higher grade
coals.
 Fuels used for steam generation
Coal (contd..)
• According to geological order of formation, coal may be of the
following types with increasing carbon content:
• Peat
• Lignite
• Sub-bituminous
• Bituminous
• Sub-anthracite
• Anthracite
• Graphite
• Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which are
mostly controlled by moisture, volatile content (in terms of aliphatic or
aromatic hydrocarbons) and carbon content.
• Peat contains up to 90% moisture and is not attractive as a utility fuel.
Coal ‘Ranking’ is a measure of carbon content in the coal. Lignite is
considered to be low rank and anthracite to be high rank.
 Coal analysis
• Coal ranking is made based on coal analysis. Basically there are two
types of coal analysis:
• Proximate analysis
• Ultimate analysis
Proximate analysis
• The objective of coal proximate analysis is to determine the amount of
fixed carbon (FC), volatile matters (VM), moisture (M), and ash (A)
within the coal sample.
FC +
VM + M + A = 100% by mass
• The variables are measured in weight percent (wt. %) and are calculated
in several different bases as follows.
• As Received (AR)
• Air Dried (AD)
• Dry Basis (DB)
• Dry Ash Free (DAF)
• Dry Mineral Matter Free (DMMF)
 Coal analysis
• AR (as-received) basis is the most widely used basis in industrial applications.
It takes all variables into consideration and uses the total weight as the basis of
measurement.
• AD (air-dried) basis neglects the presence of moisture other than inherent
moisture.
• DB (dry-basis) leaves out all moistures, including inherent moisture.
• DAF (dry, ash free) basis neglects all moisture and ash constituent in coal
• DMMF (dry, mineral-matter-free) basis leaves out the presence of moisture and
mineral matters in coal like quartz, pyrite, calcite, etc.
• A typical proximate analysis of coal looks like this:

Proximate analysis Unit AR AD DB DAF

Moisture (wt. %) 3.30 2.70

Ash (wt. %) 22.10 22.20 22.80

Volatile Matter (wt. %) 27.30 27.50 28.30 36.60

Fixed Carbon (wt. %) 47.30 47.60 48.90 63.40

 Coal analysis
• Figure below shows the trend in moisture, volatile matter and fixed
carbon expressed on DAF basis.
• With increasing rank, there is an increase of heating value and carbon
content with a corresponding decrease of moisture and VM.
• Lower rank coals also contain greater oxygen, which helps combustion

Coal rank compared with proximate analysis

 Coal analysis
Ultimate analysis
• Similar to coal proximate analysis, the objective of coal ultimate
analysis is to determine the constituent of coal, but in a form of its basic
chemical elements.
• The ultimate analysis determines the amount of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), oxygen (O), sulphur (S), and other elements within the coal sample.
These variables are also measured in weight percent (wt. %) and are
calculated in the bases explained above.
C+H
+ O + N + S + M + A = 100% by mass
• A typical ultimate analysis of coal looks like this:

Ultimate analysis Unit AR AD DB DAF

Carbon (C) (wt. %) 61.1 61.5 63.2 81.90

Hydrogen (H) (wt. %) 3.00 3.02 3.10 4.02

Nitrogen (N) (wt. %) 1.35 1.36 1.40 1.81

Total Sulphur (S) (wt. %) 0.40 0.39 0.39

Oxygen (O) (wt. %) 8.80 8.80 9.10

 Coal ranking

Fixed Volatile
Rank of Coal Carbon* Matter* Moisture*
Lignite 29 26 46
Subbituminous 42 34 23
Low-rank/volatile
bituminous 47 41 12
Medium-rank/volatile
bituminous 54 41 5
High-rank/volatile
bituminous 65 32 3
Low-rank/volatile
semibituminous 75 22 3
Semianthracite 86 12 3
Anthracite 96 1.2 3

* Figures indicate weight by percentage

 Boilers

• Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy

released by combustion of fuel is transferred to water, which
vapourises and gets converted to steam at the desired
temperature and pressure.
• The performance of a boiler is measured in terms of its
evaporative capacity which is also called as “Boiler Power”. It is
defined as the amount of steam produced in kg/hour. It may
also be expressed in kg of steam per kg of fuel burnt or
kg/hr/m2 of heating surface.
• Boilers are classified according to the following criteria:
• According to flow of water and hot gases.
• Water tube
• Fire tube
 Boilers
• According to flow of water and hot gases.
• Water tube
• Fire tube
• According to position of furnace
• Internally fired
• Externally fired
• According to the position of the principle axis
• Vertical
• Horizontal
• Inclined
• According to application
• Stationary
• Mobile (Marine, Locomotive…)
• According to circulating water
• Natural circulation
• Forced circulation
• According to steam pressure
• Low pressure
• Medium pressure
• High pressure
 Water Tube Boilers
In water tube boilers, water is circulated through tubes and hot
products of combustion flow over these tubes
 Water Tube Boilers
Water tube boilers can further be classified as follows:
• Horizontal straight tube boilers
• Bent tube boilers
• Cyclone fired boilers
Water tube boilers have the following advantages:
• High pressures (about 140 kg/cm2) can be
obtained
• Large heating surfaces can be obtained by use of
large number of tubes – therefore steam can be
generated easily.
• Efficiency is higher because of high velocity of
water in tubes which improves heat transfer.
 Fire Tube Boilers

In fire tube boilers, the hot combustion gases pass through the
tubes, which are surrounded by water.
Fire Tube Boilers
 Fire Tube Boilers
Fire tube boilers can further be classified as follows:
• External furnace
• Internal furnace
Fire tube boilers have the following advantages:
• Low cost
• Fluctuations of steam demand can be easily met
• Compact in size
Disadvantage of fire tube boilers is that they contain
more water in the drum and if the flue gas circulation is
poor, they can not quickly meet the steam demand. For
the same output, the outer shell of fire tube boiler is
much larger than the shell of a water tube boiler.
 Combustion equipment for burning coal
Coal burning methods are classified into two types:
• Stoker firing – used for solid coal
• Pulverized fuel firing – used for pulverized coal
Selection of one of the above methods depends upon
• Characteristics of the coal available
• Capacity of the plant
• Load fluctuations
• Efficiency / Reliability of combustion equipments
The boiler furnaces that burn coal can be classified as follows:
• Fuel bed furnaces (coarse particles)
• Pulverized coal furnaces (fine particles)
• Cyclone furnaces (crushed particles)
• Fluidized bed furnaces (crushed small particles)
 Stoker firing

In small boilers, coal is fed manually on to a

stationary grate. But in large boilers, to attain
uniform operating condition, higher burning rate and
better efficiency, mechanical stokers are employed.
A stoker consists of a power operated coal feeding
mechanism and grate.
Mechanical stokers are of two types:
1. Overfeed stoker
2. Underfeed stoker
 Overfeed stoker
Overfeed stokers are used for large capacity boilers where coal
is burnt as lumps (i.e., without pulverization). In this type of
stoker, the fuel bed receives fresh coal on top surface; ignition
plane lies between green coal and incandescent coke.
 Overfeed stoker - Processes

• In the first layer (top layer), fresh coal is added

• Second layer is the drying zone, where coal loses
moisture
• Third layer is distillation zone, where coal loses
volatile matter
• Fourth layer is the combustion zone, where the fixed
carbon in coal is consumed.
• Fifth layer is the ash cooling zone.
 Underfeed stoker
In the case of underfeed stoker, the coal is fed into the grate
below the point of air admission, or air entering the stoker
comes in contact with fresh coal before reaching the
incandescent coke.
 Types of stokers

Stokers

Overfeed Underfeed

Conveyor Stoker Spreader Stoker Single Retort Stoker Multi-Retort Stoker

Travelling Grate
Chain Grate Stoker
Stoker
 Travelling or Chain Grate stokers

• Traveling or chain grate stokers feed coal out onto a

rotating metal belt that supports the fire.
• Coal is fed from a hopper.
• Grate speed is automatically controlled to maintain
desired steam pressure.
• Burning progresses as the belt moves from front to back
of furnace.
• Combustion is essentially complete at the back end of
belt, and ash is dumped off into an ash pit.
• Can burn all coals, except strongly caking bituminous
coal. Caking coals tend to block the flow of air through
fuel bed and cause loss of carbon in ash.
Chain Grate stokers
Chain Grate stokers
 Spreader stokers
• Coal from hopper is fed into the path of a rotor by a conveyor, and
is thrown into the furnace by the rotor and the coal is burnt in
suspension.
• Spreader stokers can burn any type of coal
 Single retort stokers
• A screw conveyor or a ram transfers coal to the furnace.
Surrounding the conveyor or ram is the primary air duct.
 Multi retort stokers
• The stoker consists of a series of sloping parallel troughs called
retorts. Reciprocating rams push the coal into the retort.
 Pulverized coal firing system
• In the pulverized coal firing
system, the coal is reduced to a
fine powder with the help of
grinding mill and then admitted
into the combustion chamber with
the help of primary hot air.
• The primary air also helps to dry
the coal before entering the
combustion chamber.
• Secondary air required to
complete the combustion process
is supplied separately to the
combustion chamber.
• The resulting turbulence in the
combustion chamber helps in Elements of a pulverized coal firing system

uniform mixing of fuel and air and

good combustion.
 Pulverized coal
• Coal is pulverized (powdered) to increase its surface area (and
therefore exposure) thus permitting rapid combustion.
• The pulverized coal is obtained by grinding the raw coal in
pulverizing mills. Various types of pulverizing mills are:
• Ball mill
• Ball and race mill
• Hammer mill
• Bowl mill
• Essential functions of pulverizing mills are:
• Drying of the coal
• Grinding
• Separation of particles of a desired size.
Coal pulverizing mills reduce coal to powder by any (or all) action such as
Impact, Abrasion and Crushing
Ball and race mill for pulverizing coal
 Advantages of Pulverized coal firing system
• Any grade of coal can be used because coal is powdered before
use.
• Rate of feed of fuel can be easily regulated – better fuel economy.
• Since there is almost complete combustion of fuel, there is
increased rate of evaporation and hence better boiler efficiency.
• Greater capacity to meet peak load.
• System is free from sagging and clinkering troubles associated
with lump coal.
• Practically no ash handling problems.
• No moving parts within the furnace that is subjected to high
temperatures.
• This system works successfully in combination with gas and oil.
• Requires much less air compared to stoker firing
• Furnace volume is considerably small.
Disadvantages of Pulverized coal firing system

• High capital cost.

• Lot of fly-ash in the exhaust – removal of fine dust is expensive.
• Possibility of explosion is high because pulverized coal burns like
gas.
• Maintenance of furnace brickwork is costly because of high
temperatures.
• Special equipments required to start the system.
• Skilled operators are required.
• Separate coal preparation plant is necessary.
• Periodic maintenance of pulverized coal dispensing system is
needed.
 Pulverized coal firing
• Basically, pulverized fuel plants may be
divided into two systems based on the
method used for firing the coal:
• Unit System or Direct System SECONDARY
AIR
RAW COAL BUNKER FURNACE
• Bin System or Central System
PRIMARY AIR + COAL
Unit or Direct System: This system works
as follows: FEEDER
BURNER

• Coal from bunker drops on to the feeder.

PRIMARY
• Coal is dried in the feeder by passage of hot AIR
air. FAN
PULVERIZING
• The coal then moves to a mill for pulverizing. MILL

• A fan supplies primary air to the pulverizing HOT AIR

mill.
• Pulverized coal and primary air are mixed and
sent to a burner where secondary air is
added.

It is called Unit System because each burner or a group of burners and pulverizer constitute a unit.
 Pulverized coal firing
Bin or Central System:
• Coal from bunker is fed by gravity to a dryer where hot air is admitted to
dry the coal.
• Dry coal is then transferred to the pulverizing mill.
• Pulverized coal then moves to a cyclone separator where transporting air
is separated from coal.
• Primary air is mixed with coal at the feeder and supplied to the burner.
• Secondary air is supplied separately to complete the combustion.

CYCLONE
RAW COAL BUNKER SEPARATOR
RETURN AIR

EXHAUST
FAN
SECONDARY
VENT Dryer AIR
CONVEYOR FURNACE

PRIMARY AIR +
COAL
FAN

PULVERIZING PRIMARY FEEDER BURNER

MILL AIR FAN

HOT AIR
Equipments for Unit and Bin Systems
RAW COAL

PRIMARY CRUSHER

MAGNETIC
SEPARATOR

COAL DRYER

COAL BUNKERS
UNIT SYSTEM BIN SYSTEM

SCALE SCALE

PULVERIZER PULVERIZER

BURNERS CENTRAL BIN

FEEDER

BURNERS
 Pulverized Coal Burners

Burners are used to burn pulverized coal. Burner configurations

differ in the rapidity with which air-coal mixing (turbulence) takes
place.
Requirements of pulverized coal burners:
• Mix coal and primary air thoroughly before secondary air is added.
• Deliver air to the furnace in the right proportion and maintain
stable ignition of coal-air mixture.
• Control the shape and travel of flame within the furnace. The flame
shape is controlled by the secondary air vanes and their control
adjustments incorporated into the burner. Too much of secondary
air may cool the mixture and prevent ignition.
• Control the rate of travel of coal-air mixture away from the burner
to avoid flash back into the burner.
 Types of Burners for Pulverized Coal
Various types of burners are used for combustion of pulverized
coal.
• Long Flame (U-Flame) Burner: In this burner, air and coal mixture
travels a considerable distance thus providing sufficient time
for complete combustion.

Primary air+Coal
Flame

Primary air+Coal

Flame

Secondary air

Secondary air

Long Flame Burners

 Types of Burners for Pulverized Coal
• Short Flame (Turbulent) Burner: The burner is fitted in the
furnace wall and the flame enters the furnace horizontally with
great turbulence.

FLAME
COAL AND
PRIMARY AIR

FLOW
CONTROL

FURNACE

SECONDARY
AIR

Short Flame Burner

 Types of Burners for Pulverized Coal

• Tangential Burner: In this system, one burner is attached at each

corner of the furnace. The inclination of the burners is so made
that the flame produced is tangential to an imaginary circle at
the centre.
 Types of Burners for Pulverized Coal
• Cyclone Burner: In this system, the cyclonic action whirls coal and
air against the wall of the furnace to facilitate thorough mixing of
coal and air. Advantage of this burner is that it can also use
crushed coal in addition to pulverized coal thus providing an
option. When crushed coal is used, ash is collected in molten form
for easy disposal.
Typical Pulverized Coal Boiler
 Oil and Gas Burners

Thermal power plants can also be operated on oil and gas in

addition to coal. Highly volatile petroleum fuels are too expensive
for boiler firing. Therefore, heavy fuel oils (left after refining of
crude petroleum) are used. Schematic of an oil burning system is
depicted below:
 Combustion of fuel oil
• Because of high viscosity of fuel oil, steam heating coils
are installed in the oil tank to reduce viscosity and
facilitate pumping.
• Reciprocating type pumps receive oil from filters and
discharge it to the burners through heaters and a flow
measuring system.
• Oil temperature is generally controlled between 65°C and
115°C for obtaining a good spray pattern. Higher
temperatures may cause vapourization of oil or may lead
to decomposition of oil.
• Recirculation of oil is necessary initially to purge the
pipe lines so that heavy oil does not collect and plug the
passages. Usually a light oil is used for some time
during starting and stopping the boiler to wash the
pipes clean of heavy oil.
 Oil Burners
• The major parts of an oil burner are:
• Atomizer
• Air register
• Oil lines with filters and valves
• Atomization of fuel oil exposes more surface area per unit mass,
thus promoting ignition and complete combustion.
• Atomization of fuel oil is accomplished mechanically or with
steam or air.
• In twin-fluid burners, high pressure steam or air is used to break
up oil drops to fine droplets, enabling better mixing with air for
combustion.
• For large boilers, oil burners with pressure atomization are
suitable. Oil under pressure (6 – 20bar) is atomized by ejecting the
oil through very small oil injector orifices.
 Oil Burners

Typical configurations of Steam or Air atomized oil burners

 Gas Burners

Burning of gas is easy and clean. There is no need for

atomization. Combustion of 1m3 of natural gas requires about
20m3 of hot air. Proper mixing of gas and air can be achieved by
introducing gas into a swirling air flow in the form of thin jets.

Furnace
 Ash Handling
• Large power plants produce a huge quantity of ash, sometimes as
much as 10 to 20% of the coal burnt per day. Therefore,
mechanical devices are used for effective collection and disposal
of ash.
• Ash handling includes:
• Removal of ash from furnace
• Loading to conveyors and delivery to fill or dump from where
it can be disposed off.
• Handling of ash is a problem because it is too hot when it comes
out of furnace, dusty and sometimes poisonous and corrosive.
Ash needs to be quenched before handling due to following
reasons:
• Quenching reduces corrosive action of ash
• It reduces the dust accompanying the ash
• It reduces the temperature of ash
• Fused clinkers will disintegrate making it easier to handle
 Ash Handling Equipment
A good ash handling equipment should have the following
characteristics:
• It should have enough capacity to cope with the volume of ash that
may be produced in a station.
• It should be able to handle large clinkers, boiler refuse, soot etc.,
with little attention from workers.
• It should be able to handle hot and wet ash effectively and with
good speed.
• It should be possible to minimise the corrosive or abrasive action
of ash.
• Operation of the plant should be easy, economical, simple and
noiseless.
• It should be able to operate effectively under all variable load
conditions.
• It should also remove fly ash and smoke to control air pollution.
 Ash Handling Equipment

The commonly used equipment for ash handling in large and

medium size plants may comprise of:
• Bucket elevator
• Bucket conveyor
• Belt conveyor
• Pneumatic conveyor
• Hydraulic sluicing equipment
• Trollies and Rail cars etc.
• These are mainly classified into:
• Mechanical handling systems
• Hydraulic systems
• Pneumatic systems
• Steam jet systems
Ash Collection and Transportation
 Coal Handling System
Equipments
Rail
Trucks Coal delivery
Lift trucks
Ships
Cranes
Unloading Unloading towers
Buckets
Preparation Crushers
Mills
Driers
Transfer
Screw Conveyors
Belt conveyors
Outdoor storage Bucket conveyors / elevators

Bins
Covered storage
Bunkers

In-plant handling

Scales
Weighing & Measuring
Coal meters

Furnace firing
Coal Handling System

Screw Conveyor

Belt Conveyor
Coal Handling System

Bucket Elevator
Typical input and output for a 500 MW boiler

• 225 tons/hr coal

• 5400 tons/day coal (54 rail cars)
• Bottom Ash – 108 tons/hr
• Fly Ash – 432 tons/hr
• SOx – 228 tons/day
• NOx – 20 tons/day
• Steam – 2000 tons/hr
Coal and Ash handling in a typical coal fired
power plant
 High Pressure Boilers
• In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are
invariably used due to their inherent advantages.
• If high pressure steam is used, plant efficiency is increased because
lesser quantity of steam is required for generating a given power;
i.e., work done per unit mass of steam is higher.
• Forced circulation of water can be used which helps arrangement of
furnace and water surfaces and reduction of heat exchange area.
• Tendency for scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
• Danger of overheating id reduced as all parts are more uniformly
heated.
• Differential expansion is less due to more uniform temperature
distribution thus reducing possibility of gas and air leakages.
• Following types of high pressure boilers are generally used:
• La Mont Boiler
• Benson Boiler
• Loeffler Boiler
• Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler
 Water Circulation in Boilers
WATER IN
DRUM

WATER IN TO CHIMNEY

PUMP
ECONOMISER

WATER OUT

EVAPORATOR
HEAT

SUPER HEATER
SUPER
HEATED
STEAM
Once through circulation
FLUE GAS

WATER IN
STEAM OUT
CHIMNEY

Forced circulation
EVAPORATOR
SUPERHEATER

Forced circulation
ECONOMISER
BOILER

FLUE
GAS is generally used
in
high pressure
boilers
Natural circulation
 La Mont Boiler

• Feed water is supplied to the boiler

Flue gas
drum through an economiser.
• A pump circulates water at 8 to 10
times the mass of steam evaporated.
Air
• The large quantity of water circulated
Water
prevents overheating of tubes.
• The pump delivers water to headers
at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the
drum pressure and the distribution
Super
headers distribute the water through heated
nozzles into the evaporators. steam

• The steam separated in the boiler is

further passed through the super
heater.
• This type of boiler can generate 45 to Circulation
pump
50 tonnes of superheated steam at Primary evaporator

120 bar and 500°C Schematic representation of La Mont Boiler

 La Mont Boiler

Flow schematic of La Mont boiler

The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and
attachment of bubbles on the inner surface of tubes. These bubbles reduce
the heat flow and steam generation as it offers higher thermal resistance
compared to water film.
 Benson Boiler
• It is a water tube boiler capable of
producing steam at super critical
pressure (> 225 bar).
• At super critical pressure, water flashes
Feed water
into steam without any latent heat pump
requirement. Therefore steam
generation is faster.
• Above critical point, water transforms
into steam without boiling and without
change in volume. i.e., same density.
• Super critical steam generation does
not have bubble formation and
consequent pulsations.
• Materials of construction should be
strong to withstand high pressure and
temperature.
• 130 – 135 tonnes of steam per hour is
Schematic representation of Benson boiler
generated at > 225 bar and ~90% thermal
efficiency.
 Benson Boiler

Flow schematic of Benson boiler

The main drawback of Benson boiler is deposition of salt and sediment on the
inner surface of water tubes which offers high thermal resistance.
 Loeffler Boiler

Schematic representation of Loeffler boiler

 Loeffler Boiler

• The limitation of Benson boiler is the deposition of salts on water

tube walls. This is solved in Loeffler boiler by evaporation of
feed water by means of superheated steam from the super
heater.
• Loeffler boiler uses forced circulation and the hot gases from the
furnace are primarily used for superheating purposes.
• The high pressure feed pump draws water through the
economiser and delivers it to the evaporating drum.
• The steam circulating pump draws saturated steam from the drum
and passes it through convective and radiative superheaters
where steam is heated to required temperature.
• From the superheater, about 35% of the superheated steam goes
to the turbine and the remaining 65% passes through water in
the evaporating drum to evaporate feed water.
 Loeffler Boiler

Flow schematic of Loeffler boiler

 Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler
• There are two pressure circuits in this
boiler
• Primary circuit
• Secondary circuit
• Primary circuit uses distilled water that DRUM
goes from the drum to primary
WATER LINE
evaporator kept at the furnace. Steam
generated is passed through a SUPER HEATER
submerged heating coil kept inside the

CONDENSATE COOLER
drum. It loses heat to water in secondary

HEATING SURFACE
circuit and condenses. A condensate SUPER HEATED
pump maintains primary water STEAM

circulation.
• In the secondary circuit, normal water is
PUMP
pumped to evaporator drum which picks FIRE GRATE
up heat from steam in submerged coils.
• Steam thus produced is superheated
and passed on to the turbines.
 Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler

Bfw : Boiler feed water

NRV : Non Return Valve

Flow schematic of Loeffler boiler