April 24: The Divergence Theorem

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem
Given a vector field F, the divergence of F at a point P measures the flux per
unit volume at the point P.

The divergence of F at P is defined by the equation:

1
Z Z
div F(P) = lim F · dS
vol(S)→0 vol(S) S

where the limit is taken over any sequence of closed surfaces containing P
whose volumes tend to 0.
How do we calculate div F?
Answer:The calculation depends upon the coordinate system.In rectangular
coordinates,
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
div F(P) = (P) + (P) + (P).
∂x ∂y ∂z

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem
Here is one of the Main Theorems of our course.
The Divergence Theorem. Let S be a closed (piece-wise smooth) surface that
bounds the solid W in R3 . If the first order partial derivatives of the
component functions of F are continuous on W , then
Z Z Z Z Z
F · dS = div F dV .
S w

Note that the integral on the right is a standard triple integral of a scalar
function over a solid in R3 , while the integral on the left is a surface integral of
the the vector field F(x, y, z).

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

Example A. F = xi + yj + zk and S is the sphere of radius R centered at the

origin. Calculate both terms in the Divergence Theorem.
Solution. For the sphere, with the usual parametrization G(φ, θ),
F(G(φ, θ)) = (R sin(φ) cos(θ), R sin(φ) sin(θ), R cos(φ))
Tφ × Tθ = R 2 sin(φ)(sin(φ) cos(θ), sin(φ) sin(θ), cos(φ)), the outward normal
vector.
F(G(u, v)) · Tu × Tv = R 3 sin φ.
Z Z Z 2π Z π
F · dS = F(G(φ, θ)) · Tφ × Tθ dφdθ
S 0 0
Z 2π Z π
= R 3 sin(φ) dφdθ
0 0
Z π
= 2πR 3 sin(φ) dφ
0

= 4πR 3 .

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

On the other hand: div F = ∂x

∂x
+ ∂y
∂y
+ ∂z
∂z
= 3.
Z Z Z Z Z Z
div F dV = 3 dV
w w
= 3 · vol(W )
4
= 3 · πR 3
3
= 4πR 3 .

Much easier than calculating F · dS !

RR
S

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

1
In this example, suppose we take F0 = R
· F instead of F.
Then F0 = n on the sphere. Thus F0 · n = 1 on S.
Then F · n dS = dS = surface area(S).
RR RR
S 0 S

Using the Divergence Theorem:

Z Z
surface area(S) = F0 · n dS
Z ZS Z
= div F0 dV
Z Z Zw
= ∇ · F0 dV
Z Z Zw
3
= dV
w R
= 4πR 2 ,

so the surface area looks like a derivative of a volume.

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

Example B. Calculate F · dS, for F = xz 2 i + yx 2 j + zy 2 k and S the sphere

RR
S
of radius R centered at the origin.
Solution. We can set up the surface integral by regarding it as F · n dS.For
RR
S
a point P = (x, y, z) on S, the unit normal at P is R1 (x, y, z).
x 2 z 2 +y 2 x 2 +z 2 y 2
Thus F · n on S equals (xz 2 , yx 2 , zy 2 ) · R1 (x, y, z) = R
.
Z Z Z Z
F · dS = F · n dS
S S

x 2z 2 + y 2x 2 + z 2y 2
Z Z
= dS,
S R
Which is doable, but not pleasant.
Better: Use the Divergence Theorem.

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

div F = z 2 + +x 2 + y 2 . For W the solid sphere,

Z Z Z Z Z Z
div F dV = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 dV ,
w w

which can easily be calculated using spherical coordinates.

Z Z Z Z Z Z
div F dV = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 dV
w w
Z 2π Z π Z R
= ρ2 · ρ2 sin(φ) dρdφdθ
0 0 0
Z πZ R
= 2π ρ4 sin(φ) dρdφ
0 0
2 π
Z
= πR 5 sin(φ) dφ
5 0
4
= πR 5 .
5

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

2 2
Example C. Calculate F · dS for F = yz 3 i + e x +z j + cos( x 2 + y 2 )k and
RR p
S
S torus obtained by revolving the circle (y − 3)2 + z 2 = 4 in the yz-plane about
the y-axis,

A parametrization for S is: x = (3 + 2 cos(v)) sin(u), y = (3 + 2 cos(v)) cos(u),

z = 2 sin(v), with 0 ≤ u, v ≤ 2π and 0 ≤ w ≤ 2.
No worries: div F = 0, so
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
F · dS = div F dV = 0 dV = 0,
S w w

where W is the solid enclosed by S.

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem
Why does the Divergence Theorem work?

We want to compare div F dV and F · dS.

RRR RR
w S

Step 1. We subdivide W into small solids solids Vi that are approximately

cubes, each with volume ∆V .
Step 2. Which take a point Pi in each Vi .
1
Step 3. div F(Pi ) ≈ vol(V F · n dS, where Si is the boundary of Vi .
RR
i)
· Si

Step 4. div F(Pi ) · vol(Vi ) ≈ F · n dS.

RR
Si

Summing the left hand side we get:

div F(Pi ) · vol(Vi ) = div F(Pi )∆V ,

X X

i i

a Riemman sum. Passing to the limit as ∆V → 0 we get:

Z Z Z
div F dV .
w

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem

Something interesting happens when we sum the terms belonging to the right
hand side of Step 4.

When we integrate F over the boundaries of adjacent Vi , the surface integrals

over common faces cancel.
Why: We integrate twice over the common face, once for S1 and again for S2 ,
but once with a normal vector n and again with −n.

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem

For the common face S0 :

F · n1 dS = F · −n2 dS. Thus when we add

RR RR
S0 S0
Z Z Z Z
F · n dS + F · n dS,
S1 S2

the components over S0 cancel and the sum becomes F · n dS, where S̃ is
RR
S̃
the combined outer shell of S1 and S2 .
Thus, the sum of the terms in the RHS in Step 4 approximates F · dS, and
RR
S
equals it in the limit.
April 24: The Divergence Theorem
Examples of the Divergence Theorem

Example D. Verify the Divergence Theorem for F = x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2 k, and W

the solid rectangle 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, 0 ≤ z ≤ c.

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

Examples of the Divergence Theorem

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem
An application of the Divergence Theorem.

Gauss’ Law (Physics Version). The net electric flux through any hypothetical
closed surface is equal to 1 0 times the net electric charge within that closed
surface, where 0 is the electric constant.
Gauss’ Law (Math Version). Let M be a solid in R3 with a smooth boundary
∂M.Assumep(0,0,0) is not on the boundary ∂M. Set r = xi + yj + zk, and
r = ||r|| = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 . Then:

1 4π, if (0, 0, 0) ∈ M
Z Z (
( 3 r) · n dS = .
∂M r 0, if (0, 0, 0) 6∈ M

In the second case, the vector field r13 r is defined throughout M, so that if we
show its divergence is zero, then by the Divergence Theorem,
1
Z Z
( 3 r) · n dS = 0.
∂M r

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem

1 x
The i component of r3
r is 3 . DIfferentiating with respect to x we get:
(x 2 +y 2 +z 2 ) 2

3 1
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 − x · 32 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 (2x)
=
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3

1 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 3x 2
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 · =
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3

−2x 2 + y 2 + z 2
5 .
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
Similarly, the corresponding partials of the j and k components are:

x 2 − 2y 2 + z 2 x 2 + y 2 − 2z 2
5 and 5 .
(x 2 + y2 + z 2) 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2

Adding these three terms shows div( r13 r) = 0.

Now, suppose (0, 0, 0) ∈ M.

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem

Let N be a sphere of radius  centered at (0,0,0) contained in M. Let W be

the complement of N in M.The boundary of W is ∂N ∪ ∂M.

Since div r13 r = 0 over W , 1

· n dS = 0.Therefore,
r
RR
∂N∪∂M r 3

1 1
Z Z Z Z
r · n dS = − r · n dS.
∂M r3 ∂N r
3

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem

Note that the outward normal for ∂N as part of the boundary of W is the
inward normal for N. Thus,

1 1
Z Z Z Z
r · n dS = r · n dS,
∂M r ∂N r
3 3

where now n is the outward normal for the sphere N.

On the sphere ∂N, the sphere of radius  centered at the origin, n = 1 r and
r = . Then:
1 1 1 2 1
r · n = r · r = = 2.
r3 3  4 
Thus:
1 1
Z Z Z Z
r · n dS = r · n dS
∂M r 3 r 3
Z Z∂N
1
= 2
dS
∂N 
1 1
= 2 · area(∂N) = 2 · 4π2
 
= 4π.

April 24: The Divergence Theorem

The Divergence Theorem

Final Comment: If we use the symbol ∂W to denote the boundary of the solid
in the Divergence Theorem, and the ∇ · F for div F, then the Divergence
Theorem becomes:
Z Z Z Z Z
F · dS = ∇ · F dV .
∂W w

Note how the differential operator on the domain of integration on the left
hand side of the equation, moves up to the integrand on the right hand side of
the equation.

April 24: The Divergence Theorem