EELE 3331 – Electromagnetic I

Chapter 3

Vector Calculus
Islamic University of Gaza
Electrical Engineering Department
Dr. Talal Skaik
Source: http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/tskaik/courses-2/electromagnetic-ii-eele3332/

2012
1
 Divergence of a vector and Divergence Theorem
The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit
volume as the volume shrinks about P.

 A  dS
div A=  A= lim S
v 0 v
∆v→is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is
located.
The divergence at a given point is a measure of how much the field
diverges from or converges to that point.

2
 Divergence of a vector

Illustration of the divergence of a vector field at P:

(a) positive divergence (source point), example: positive charges.
(b) negative divergence (sink point), example: negative charges.
(c) zero divergence. There is neither sink nor source.

3
Divergence of a vector

4
 Divergence of a vector
To find the divergence of a vector A at point P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) :
 Let the point be enclosed by the differential volume.
 
S A  dS   front
  back  left  right
  top  bottom
   A  dS
 

5
 Divergence of a vector
Three dimensional Taylor series expansion of Ax about P is:
A x A x
A x ( x, y , z )  A x ( x0 , y0 , z0 )   x  x0    y  y0 
x P y P

A x
  z  z0  + higher order terms
z P
Note: One dimensional Taylor series:
f ( x )  f ( a )  f '  a  x  a 
f ''  a 
 x  a 
2

2!
Evaluate x near point a

6
 Divergence of a vector
dx
 For the front side, x  x0  , dS=dy dz a x (y  y0 , z  z0 )
2
 dx Ax 
 A  dS=dy dz  A x  x 0 , y0 , z0   2 x P 
front
 higher order terms
dx
 For the back side, x  x0  , dS=dy dz (  a x )
2
 dx Ax 
back A  dS=  dy dz  A x  x 0 , y0 , z0   2 x P   h.o. terms
Ax
Hence 
front
A  dS   
back
A  dS=dx dy dz
x P
 h.o. terms

7
 Divergence of a vector
By taking similar steps, we obtain:
Ay

left
A  dS+   A  dS=dx dy dz
right
y
 higher order terms
P

Az
and 
top
A  dS+   A  dS=dx dy dz
bottom
z P
 higher order terms

Noting that v  dx dy dz,

 A  dS  Ax Ay Az 

 lim S
   
v 0 v  x  y z  at P
The higher order terms will vanish as v  0 8
 Divergence of a vector
 Thus the divergence of A at point P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) is:
Ax Ay Az
  A=   Cartesian
x y z
 Ax  cos   sin  0  A 
Since  Ay    sin  cos  0  A 
    
 Az   0 0 1  Az 
  sin     cos  
and  cos   ,  sin  
x    y   
1  1 A Az
   A=
 
  A  
 

z
Cylindrical

and in spherical coordinates:

1  2  1 A
   A= 2  r Ar  
1
 A sin    Spherical
r r r sin   r sin   9
 Divergence of a vector
Cartesian
Ax Ay Az
  A=  
x y z

Cylindrical
1  1 A Az
  A=
 
  A   
  z

Spherical
1  2  1 A
  A= 2  r Ar  
1
 A sin   
r r r sin   r sin  
10
 The Divergence Theorem
Divergence Theorem: (Guass-Ostrogradsky)
The total flux of a vector field A through the closed surface S is the
same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

 A  dS     A dv
S v

* Volume integrals are easier than surface integrals.

Properties of divergence:
 produces a scalar field.
    A+B     A+  B
   VA   V   A+A  V (V scalar)
11
 The Divergence Theorem

 A  dS     A dv
S v

Explanation: Let the volume v bounded by the surface S subdivided

into a number of small cells. Each cell has a volume ∆vk and bounded
by a surface Sk.
• Since the outward flux to one cell is inward to some neighbouring
cells, there is cancellation on every interior surface.
• As a result, the divergence of the flux density throughout the
volume leads to the same result as determining the net flux crossing the
closing surface.
12
 Example 3.6
Determine the divergence of the vector fields:
P=x 2 yz a x + xz a z (b) Q   sin a  + 2 z a  +z cos a z
(c) T  (1 / r 2 ) cos  a r  r sin  cos  a   cos  a 

  
(a)   P= Px  Py  Pz
x y z
 2  
  x yz    0    xy   2 xyz  x
x y z
1  1 Q Qz
(b)   Q=
 
  Q  
 

z
1  1  
=
 
  sin   
2

 
  z    z cos  
2

z
 2sin   cos  13
 Example 3.6 - continued
(c) T  (1 / r 2 ) cos  a r  r sin  cos  a   cos  a 

1  2  
  T= 2  r Tr    T 
1 1
T sin   
r r r sin   r sin  
1   
= 2  cos   
r r
1
r sin  
 r sin  cos   
2 1
r sin  
 cos 
1
 0 2r sin  cos  cos   0
r sin 

   T=2 cos  cos 

14
 Example 3.7
If G(r)=10e-2 z   a  a z  , determine the flux of G out of the
entire surface of the cylinder  =1, 0  z  1. Confirm the result
by using the divergence theorem.

Total flux:    G  dS  
S
t  b   s

 t  flux through top

 b  flux through bottom
 s  flux through sides (curved surface)
For  t , z=1, dS   d  d a z
2 1
 t    G  dS    10e 2  d  d 
0 0 15
 Example 3.7 - continued
2 1

  t  10e 2
 2   10 e 2
2 0

For  b , z=0, dS   d  d (  a z )
2 1
 b    G  dS    10e0  d  d
0 0

2 1

 b  10  2   10
2 0

For  S ,  =1, dS   dz d a 
2 1 2 z 1
 10 1  e 2 
e
 S    G  dS    10e 2 z
 dz d  10  2 
2

0 z 0
2 0

 Thus,    t   b   S  0 16
 Example 3.7 - continued
Alternatively , Since S is a closed surface, we can apply
the divergence theorem:

 =  G  dS=     G  dv
S v

1  1  
G 
 
  G  
 
G  Gz
z
1  
G 
 
  10 e 2 z
 
z
10 e 2 z

 20e 2 z  20e 2 z  0

 G has no outward flux.

17
 Divergence
Fields with zero divergence are called Solenoidal Fields.
(They obey the rule: what goes in, must come out).
Example: magnetic fields.

18
 Curl of a vector and Stoke’s Theorem
The curl of A is a rotational vector whose magnitude is the
maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to
zero, and whose direction is the normal direction of the area
when the area is oriented to make the circulation maximum.


  A  dl 
curl A=  A=  lim L
 an

S  0 S 
  max
• The area ∆S is bounded by the curve L.
• an is a unit vector normal to the surface ∆S, determined by right
hand rule. The direction of the curl, an, is the axis of rotation. 19
 Curl of a vector
To obtain expression for   A:
 Consider the differential area
in the yz plane.
 
L A  dl=  ab bc cd  da A  dl

Taylor series expansion about the centre point P( x0 , y0 , z0 )

Ay Ay
Ay ( x, y, z )  Ay ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  ( x  x0 )  ( y  y0 )
x P
y P

Ay
 ( z  z0 )  higher order terms
z P
20
 Curl of a vector
Similarly,
Az Az
Az ( x, y, z )  Az ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  ( x  x0 )  ( y  y0 )
x P y P

Ay
 ( z  z0 )  h. o. terms
z P

dz
on side ab, dl=dy a y , z  z0  ,
2
x  x0 , y  y0 , A=Ax a x +Ay a y  Az a z

 dz Ay 
  A  dl  dy  Ay ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  
ab  2 z P
 21
 Curl of a vector

dy
on side bc, dl=dz a z , y  y0  ,
2
x  x0 , z  z0 , A=Ax a x +Ay a y  Az a z
 dy Az 
  A  dl  dz  Az ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  
bc  2 y P 
dz
on side cd, dl=  dy a y , z  z0  ,
2
x  x0 , y  y0 , A=Ax a x +Ay a y  Az a z
 dz Ay 
  A  dl  dy  Ay ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  
cd  2 z P  22
 Curl of a vector

dy
on side da, dl=  dz a z , y  y0  ,
2
x  x0 , z  z0 , A=Ax a x +Ay a y  Az a z
 dy Az 
  A  dl  dz  Az ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  
da  2 y P 
23
 Curl of a vector
 dz Ay 
on side ab :  A  dl  dy  Ay ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  
ab  2 z P 
 dy Az 
on side bc:  A  dl  dz  Az ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  
bc  2 y P 
 dz Ay 
on side cd:  A  dl  dy  Ay ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  
cd  2 z P 
 dy Az 
on side da :  A  dl  dz  Az ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  
da  2 y P 
Noting that S=dy dz, Add 4 equations:

 A  dl Az Ay Az Ay

 lim L
  or  curl A  x  
S 0 S y z y z 24
 Curl of a vector
The y and z components of curl A are found in similar way:
Ax Az
 curl A  y  
z x
Ay Ax
 curl A  z  
x y
ax ay az
  
 In Cartesian:   A=
x y z
Ax Ay Az

 Az Ay   Ax Az   Ay Ax 

or   A=    ax     ay     az
 y z   z x   x y  25
 Curl of a vector
In Cylindrical:
a  a a
1   
  A=
   z
A  A Az
or
 1 Az A   A Az 
  A=    a     a
   z   z  

1     A  A 
    az
    
 26
 Curl of a vector
In Spherical:
ar r a rsin a 
1   
  A= 2
r sin  r  
Ar rA r sin  A
or

1    A sin   A  1  1 Ar   rA  

  A=     ar     a
r sin      r  sin   r 
 
1    rA  Ar 
    a
r  r  
27
 Properties of Curl
 The curl of a vecor field is another vector field.
    A+B    A    B
    A  B  A    B  B    A    B    A   A    B
   VA   V   A  V  A

 The divergence of the curl of a vector field vanishes,

that is      A  =0

 The curl of the gradient of a scalar field vanishes,

that is   V  0 28
 The curl of field A at point P
The curl of field A at point P is a measure of the circulation, or
how much the field curls around P.

Illustration of a curl: (a) curl at P points out of the page,

(b) curl at P is zero.
29
 Stoke’s Theorem
Stoke’s Theorem: The circulation of a vector field A around a closed
path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open
surface S bounded by L, provided A and   A are continuous on S.

 A  dl      A   dS
L S

To find direction of dS, use right-

hand rule.
→Fingers in the direction of dl,
thumb indicates direction of dS.
30
 Stoke’s Theorem
• Surface is subdivided into large number of cells.
• If the kth cell has surface area ∆Sk and is bounded by path Lk.
• There is cancellation on every interior path, so the sum of line
integrals around the Lk’s is the same as the line integrals around the
bounding curve L.

 A  dl      A   dS
L S

31
 Example 3.8
Determine the curl of the vector fields:
(a) P=x 2 yz a x + xz a z
(b) Q   sin a  + 2 z a  +z cos a z
(c) T  (1 / r 2 ) cos  a r  r sin  cos  a   cos  a 

 Pz Py   Px Pz 

(a)   P=    ax     ay
 y z   z x 
 Py Px 
   az
 x y 
  P  0  0 a x   x2 y  z  a y  0  x 2 z  a z
  P   x2 y  z  a y  x2 z a z
32
 Example 3.8 - continued
(b) Q   sin a  + 2 z a  +z cos a z
 1 Qz Q   Q Qz 
  Q=    a     a
   z   z  

1     Q  Q 
    az
    

 z 2
  sin     a    0  0  a    3 2 z   cos   a z
1
   

   z sin    3  a    3 z  cos   a z
1


33
 Example 3.8 - continued
1    A sin   A 
(c)   A=     ar
r sin     

1  1 Ar   rA   1    rA  Ar 
    a    
r  sin   r  r  r  
 
1    

r sin     cos  sin      r sin  cos   a r
 
1  1   cos    
      r cos   a 
r  sin    r 2  r 
1  2   cos  
   r sin  cos      a
r  r   r 2 
 cos 2  cos   1
  sin   a r  a   2 cos   3  sin  a 
 r sin   r  r  34
 Example 3.9
If A   cos a  +sin a , evaluate  A.dl around the path
L

shown in the figure. Confirm this by using Stoke's theorem.

b c d a 
L A  dl   a  b  c  d  A  dl
Along ab,   2, dl   d  a
b   30

 A  dl   
a  60
 sin  d

 2   cos   60  
30
 3 1 
35
 Example 3.9 - continued
Along bc,   30, dl  d  a
c 5
A   cos a  +sin a
 A  dl  
b 2
 cos  d 

2 5
 21 3
 cos 30 
2 2
4
Along cd,   5, dl   d a
d 60

 A  dl  
c 30
 sin  d

 5   cos   30
60

5
2
 
3 1
36
 Example 3.9 - continued
Along da,   60, dl  d  a
a 2 A   cos a  +sin a
 A  dl  
d 5
 cos  d 

2 2
 21
 cos 60 
2 5
4

Hence   A  dl 
L

b c d a 
         A  dl  4.941
a b c d  37
 Example 3.9 - continued
Using Stoke's Theorem (because L is a closed path)

 A  dl=     A   dS
L S
A   cos a  +sin a
dS   d d  a z
 1 Az A 
  A=    a
   z 
 A Az 
   a
 z  

1     A  A 
    az
    

  A=  0  0  a    0  0  a   1 /  1    sin  a z 38
 Example 3.9 - continued

A   cos a  +sin a

dS   d d  a z

  A= 1 /  1    sin  a z
60 5
     A   dS    1 /  1    sin   d  d
S  
30  2
5

    
 
2
27
=  cos  30     3  1  4.941
60

 2 2 4 39
 Example 3.10
For a vector field, show that     A=0, that is, the
divergence of the curl of any vector is zero.
Assume A in Cartesian coordinates,

      Az Ay   Az Ax   Ay Ax  

    A=  , ,      ,  ,  
 x y z   y z   x z   x y 
  Az Ay    Az Ax    Ay Ax 
         
x  y z  y  x z  z  x y 
 2 Az  Ay  2 Az  2 Ax  Ay  2 Ax
2 2

      0
xy xz yx yz zx zy
40
 Laplacian of a scalar
The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as V
2 , is the
divergence of the gradient of V.

In Cartesian, Laplacian V    V   2V
     V V V 
 V   ax  a y  az   
2
ax  ay  az 
 x y z   x y z 
 2
V  2
V  2
V
 V  2  2  2
2
(scalar)
x y z
In Cylindrical coordinates,
1   V  1  2V  2V
V 
2
     2  2  z 2
     41
 Laplacian of a scalar
 2
V  2
V  2
V
In Cartesian, V  2  2  2
2

x y z
In Cylindrical,

1   V  1  2V  2V
V 
2
     2  2  z 2
    
In Spherical,
1   2 V  1   V 
 V  2 r  2  sin 
2

r r  r  r sin     
1  2V
 2 2
r sin   2 42
 Laplacian
For charge free region:
2V  0  (Laplace equation)
will be solved in Chapter 6

Laplacian of a vector:
 applies to a vector and returns a vector
 For vector A, 2 A=    A       A

In Cartesian:
2 A  2 Ax a x  2 Ay a y   2 Az a z
43
 Example 3.11
Find the Laplacian of the following scalar fields:
(a) V  e  z sin 2 x cosh y
(b) U   2 z cos2
(c) W  10 r sin 2  cos

 2
V  2
V  2
V
(a)  V  2  2  2
2

x y z
  z
  2e cos 2 x cosh y    e sin 2 x sin h y 
z

x y

  e  z sin 2 x cosh y 
z
 4e  z sin 2 x cosh y  e  z sin 2 x cosh y  e - z sin 2 x cosh y 44
 Example 3.11
(b) U   2 z cos2 (c) W  10r sin 2  cos
1   U  1  2
U  2
U
(b)  U 
2
    2  2
       2
z
1 
U 
2

 
 2  2
z cos 2  
1
 2
4  2
z cos 2  0

2U  4 z cos 2  4 z cos   0

1   2 W  1   W 
(c)  W  2  r  2  sin 
2

r r  r  r sin     
1  2W
 2 2
r sin   2
10cos 
 W 
2
1  2 cos 2 
r 45
 Classification of Vector Fields

  A=0 A  0   A=0 A  0

  A=0   A=0 A  0 A  0

46
 Classification of Vector Fields
A vector field A is said to be solenoidal (or divergenceless) if:
  A=0

Such field has neither source nor sink of flux.

 A  dS=   Adv  0
S v
• Flux lines of A entering any closed surface must leave it.
Examples: magnetic fields, conduction current density under steady
state conditions.
• A solenoidal field A can always be expressed in terms of another
vector F, A    F,   A=     F   0 47
 Classification of Vector Fields
A vector field A is said to be irrotational (or conservative) if:
  A=0
A curl-free vector is irrotational.

 A  dl=    A   dS  0
L S
Example: electrostatic field.

• An irrotational field A can always be expressed in terms of a

scalar field V, A  V ,   A=   V   0

(Negative sign for physical reasons….Chapter 4) 48