Economic Geology Lab 5

Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud

Non-Metallic Minerals
THE MINERAL QUARTZ
 Chemistry: SiO2 , Silicon dioxide
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Tectosilicates
 Group: Quartz
 Uses: silica for glass, electrical
components, optical lenses, abrasives,
gemstones, ornamental stone, building
stone, etc.
 Additional variety specimens include:
o Amethyst
o Citrine
o Rock Crystal
o Rose Quartz
o Smoky Quartz

 Quartz is the most common mineral on the face of the Earth. It is found in nearly every
geological environment and is at least a component of almost every rock type. It frequently
is the primary mineral, >98%.
 Amethyst is the purple gemstone variety.
 Citrine is a yellow to orange gemstone variety that is rare in nature but is often created by
heating Amethyst.
 Milky Quartz is the cloudy white variety.
 Rock crystal is the clear variety that is also used as a gemstone.
 Rose quartz is a pink to reddish pink variety.
 Smoky quartz is the brown to gray variety.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is as variable as the spectrum, but clear quartz is by far the most common color
followed by white or cloudy (milky quartz). Purple (Amethyst), pink (Rose Quartz), gray or
brown to black (Smoky Quartz) are also common. Cryptocrystalline varieties can be
multicolored.
 Luster is glassy to vitreous as crystals, while cryptocrystalline forms are usually waxy to
dull but can be vitreous.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent, cryptocrystalline forms can be
translucent or opaque.
 Crystal System is trigonal; 3 2.
 Crystal Habits are again widely variable but the most common habit is hexagonal prisms
terminated with a six sided pyramid (actually two rhombohedrons). Three of the six sides
of the pyramid may dominate causing the pyramid to be or look three sided. Left and right
handed crystals are possible and identifiable only if minor trigonal pyramidal faces are
present. Druse forms (crystal lined rock with just the pyramids showing) are also common.
Massive forms can be just about any type but common forms include botryoidal, globular,
stalactitic, crusts of agate such as lining the interior of a geode and many many more.
 Cleavage is very weak in three directions (rhombohedral).
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 7, less in cryptocrystalline forms.
 Specific Gravity is 2.65 or less if cryptocrystalline. (average)
 Streak is white.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals
 Other Characteristics: Striations on prism faces run perpendicular to C axis, piezoelectric
(see tourmaline) and index of refraction is 1.55.
 Associated Minerals are numerous and varied but here are some of the more classic
associations of quartz (although any list of associated minerals of quartz is only a partial
list): amazonite a variety of microcline, tourmalines especially elbaite, wolframite,
pyrite, rutile, zeolites, fluorite, calcite, gold, muscovite, topaz, beryl, hematite and
spodumene.
 Notable Occurrences of amethyst are Brazil, Uraguay, Mexico, Russia, Thunder Bay area
of Canada, and some locallities in the USA. For Smoky Quartz; Brazil, Colorado, Scotland,
Swiss Alps among many others. Rose Quartz is also wide spread but large quantities come
from brazil as do the only large find of Rose Quartz prisms. Natural citrine is found with
many amethyst deposits but in very rare quantities. Fine examples of Rock crystal come
from Brazil (again), Arkansas, many locallities in Africa, etc. Fine Agates are found in, of
course, Brazil, Lake Superior region, Montana, Mexico and Germany.
 Best Field Indicators are first the fact that it is very common (always assume transparent
clear crystals may be quartz), crystal habit, hardness, striations, good conchoidal fracture
and lack of good cleavage.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals

THE MINERALOID OPAL

Chemistry: SiO2 - nH2O; Hydrated Silicon Dioxide.

 Class: Mineraloids
 Group: Some minerologists place Opal in the Quartz
Group.
 Uses: As a gemstone and ornamental stone.

Opal has been a popular gem for many centuries and has a very
interesting structure. Opal is considered a mineraloid because this
structure is not truly crystalline. The chemistry of Opal is primarily
SiO2 and varying amounts of water. The amount of water varies
from 5 -10% and greater. This water can help geologists determine
the temperature of the host rock at the time the opal formed.
Although there is no crystal structure, (meaning a regular
arrangement of atoms) opal does possess a structure nonetheless.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is white, colorless, pale yellow, pale red, gray or

black when impurities are common. Diffraction can cause
flashes of any color of the rainbow (opalescent).
 Luster is vitreous to pearly.
 Transparency: Specimens are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System: Does not apply because opal is amorphous.
 Habits include massive, cavity-fillings such as in fractures and geodes, nodular, reniform or
as a replacement of other minerals and wood.
 Cleavage is absent.
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 5.5 - 6
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2 - 2.5 (light)
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Most specimens will fluoresce white or pale green, some
phosphoresce and all specimens can be very sensitive to impacts and low temperatures.
 Associated rocks are chert (a form of microcrystalline quartz), volcanic rocks and many
others.
 Notable Occurrences include many Western USA localities; Mexico; Australia; England;
Czech Republic and many other localities around the world.
 Best Field Indicators are color play (opalescence), low density, fluorescence, fracture
filling tendency and lack of cleavage or crystal faces.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals

THE MINERAL OLIVINE

 Chemistry: (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, Magnesium Iron Silicate.
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Nesosilicates
 Group: Olivine
 Uses: As gemstones, industrial uses as refractory sands
and abrasives, an ore of magnesium.

Olivine is actually a name for a series between two end members,

fayalite and forsterite. Fayalite is the iron rich member with a pure
formula of Fe2SiO4. Forsterite is the magnesium rich member with a
pure formula of Mg2SiO4. The two minerals form a series where the
iron and magnesium are substituted for each other without much
effect on the crystal structure.
Olivine is found in ultramafic igneous rocks and marbles that formed from metamorphosed
impure limestones. Mafic is a word that is used to define igneous rocks with a high iron and
magnesium content. The early crystallization of olivine is the reason that molten lavas can contain
already crystallized grains of olivine. Some ultramafic rocks can be composed of almost all olivine
and these are called dunites or peridotites. Peridotites contain the same chemical makeup as the
molten magma in the Earth's mantle. Olivine is also found in many iron-nickel meteorites.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is a light near emerald green to the more common pale yellowish green; also found
colorless, greenish brown to black.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is orthorhombic; 2/m 2/m 2/m.
 Crystal Habits include flatten tabular to box shaped crystals, but good crystals are rare.
More commonly found as grains in alluvial gravels and as granular xenoliths in magnesium
rich volcanic rock. Also massive. Twinning is rare, but has produced star shaped trillings.
 Cleavage is poor in two directions at 90 degrees, is more distinct in fayalite.
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 6.5 - 7.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3.2 for forsterite - 4.3 for fayalite (above average for
non-metallic minerals).
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Index of refraction is 1.64 - 1.70 and has double refraction.
 Associated Minerals are diopside, spinel, plagioclase feldspars, chromite, hornblende,
serpentine, iron-nickel meteorites and augite.
 Notable Occurrences are numerous and include the ancient source of Zagbargad Island in
the Red Sea off the coast of Egypt; Mogok, Myanmar (formerly known as Burma); South
Africa; Ural Mountains, Russia; Kohistan, Pakistan; Norway; Sweden; France; Minas
Gerais, Brazil; Eifel, Germany; Chihuahua,
 Best Field Indicators are color, hardness, mafic igneous or metamorphic environment of
formation, lack of good cleavage and density.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals

THE MINERAL BERYL

 Chemistry: Be3Al2(SiO3)6, Beryllium
Aluminum Silicate
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Cyclosilicates
 Uses: Gemstone, mineral specimens and
source of beryllium
Beryl is often unknown to the general public, even the
gemstone-buying public. However, it is one of the most
important gem minerals. Beryl is colorless in pure form;
it is the many different impurities that give beryl its varied
coloration. Without these splendid color varieties, beryl would be a rather ordinary gemstone with
only average fire and brilliance. Emerald is the green variety and
Aquamarine is the blue variety of beryl.
- Other colors of beryl are also used as gemstones but are not as
well known.
 The greenish-yellow variety is called Heliodor.
 The pink variety is called Morganite.
 The colorless variety is called Goshenite.
 The name beryl is used for the red and golden varieties, which are
simply called red beryl and golden beryl, respectively.
Emerald is highly prized and is one of the most valued
gemstones. Its green color is peerless and all other green gemstones are
compared to its intensity.
Aquamarine is also a popular gem although it does not command nearly as high a price as its
green cousin. Uncut aquamarines are plentiful but relatively
expensive, as would be expected of crystalline gemstone specimens. Large
crystals of aquamarine are available on the open market and represent perhaps
the largest raw gemstone specimens.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is varied and includes emerald green, blue to blue- green,
yellow, greenish-gold, red, colorless and pink.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is hexagonal; 6/m 2/m 2/m
 Crystal Habits typically include the hexagonal prism with pincoid
terminations.
 Cleavage is imperfect in one direction (basal).
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 7.5 - 8.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2.6 - 2.9 (average)
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Faces on large crystals are often pitted, striated lengthwise and
rough.
 Associated Minerals include micas, quartz, euclase, calcite, tourmalines and some
feldspars.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals
 Notable Occurrences include Colombia and some African localities for emerald; Brazil,
Russia and Pakistan for aquamarine; California, Brazil, Africa
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, lack of good cleavage, hardness and color.

THE MINERAL TOPAZ

 Chemistry: Al 2 SiO 4 (F, OH) 3, Aluminum
silicate fluoride hydroxide.
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Nesosilicates
 Uses: gemstones and optical properties are
useful in industry.

Topaz is a common gemstone that has been used

for centuries in jewelry. Its golden brown to yellow color is classic but is confused with the less
valuable citrine, which is sold under the name topaz. The blue topaz that is often confused with
aquamarine is rarely natural and is produced by irradiating and then heating clear crystals.

The structure of Topaz is controlled by a chain like structure of connected irregular octahedrons.
These octahedrons have an aluminum in the middle surrounded by four oxygens. Above and below
the aluminum are the hydroxide or fluoride ions. The chains of octahedrons are held together by
individual silicate tetrahedrons but it is the octahedron chains that give topaz its crystalline shape.
Topaz is the hardest silicate mineral and one of the hardest minerals in nature. However it has a
perfect cleavage which is perpendicular to the chains and is caused by planes that break the weaker
Al-O, Al-OH and Al-F bonds. None of the stronger Si-O bonds cross these planes. Topaz crystals
can reach incredible size of several houndred pounds. Topaz can make very attractive mineral
specimens due to their high luster, nice colors and well formed and multifaceted crystals.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is clear, yellow, orange, red, blue and green.

 Luster is adamantine to vitreous.
 Transparency crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is orthorhombic; 2/m 2/m 2/m
 Crystal Habits include a prismatic crystal with usually two different prisms that produce a
rounded or sharp diamond-shaped cross-section. Topaz can be granular and massive.
 Cleavage is perfect in one direction, basal.
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 8.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3.4 - 3.5+ (above average)
 Streak is white.
 Associated Minerals include quartz, tourmalines, micas, brookite, cassiterite and
fluorite.
 Other Characteristics: index of refraction is 1.61 - 1.64. Prism faces maybe striated
lengthwise.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals
 Notable Occurrences include Minas Gerias, Brazil; Pakistan; San Diego Co, California;
Ural Mountains, Russia; Mexico and the Thomas Range, Utah.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, color, density and hardness.

The Tourmaline Group of Minerals

The four most common and well known tourmalines are distinguished by
their color and transparencies. Elbaite is the gemstone tourmaline and comes
in many varied and beautiful colors. It is transparent to translucent and is
highly prized as minerals specimens and as gemstones. Elbaite is easily the
most colorful of all the gemstones.
The iron rich schorl is the most abundant tourmaline and is black and opaque.
It is a common accessory mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks and can
form nice crystals. Although too opaque to be used as a gemstone, schorl is
used as an ornamental stone when found as inclusions in quartz, a stone is
called "tourmalinated quartz". Usually when someone refers to tourmaline they
are referring to either elbaite or schorl.
The two other more common tourmalines; dravite and uvite are much less
common than elbaite or schorl, but they are getting noticed for their beautiful
specimens. Some of dravite's crystals are nicely formed, translucent brown and
they can reach a rather large size. Uvite is a green translucent to opaque
tourmaline that is growing in popularity and is being cut as a gemstone.

ELBAITE DRAVITE

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals

THE MINERAL ELBAITE

 Chemistry: Na(Li,Al)3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3 (OH)4, Sodium
Lithium Aluminum Boro-Silicate Hydroxide
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Cyclosilicates
 Group: Tourmalines
 Uses: as Gemstones, ornamental stone.

Elbaite belongs to the group of minerals known as the

Tourmalines. It is the most colorful member of this group. Elbaite is
often cut as a gemstone, sliced into colorful cross-sections or simply
appreciated as natural specimens by millions of rock collectors. The
many varied colors of Elbaite make it arguably the most colorful of
the precious stones. Elbaite contains many variety names based on color. A beautiful blue
variety is called indicolite (also known as indigolite), the pink to red variety is called rubellite,
the green variety is known as verdelite, while the most famous variety is a pink and green
combination called watermelon tourmaline. Often a specimen can have more than one color
zone in the same crystal. These zones can alternate in color from the inside to the outside or
from the top to bottom. Elbaite is strongly pleochroic which means that a transparent crystal will
appear darker when viewed down the long axis of the crystal. A green or
blue Elbaite can appear black when viewed from such an angle.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is extremely variable with the most common colors being red,
pink, green, blue, orange and yellow.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System: Trigonal; 3 m
 Crystal Habit is typically elongated three, and occasionally six, sided prisms. The
terminations can be either a simple to complex trigonal pyramid or flat basal face. Acicular
and massive forms can also be found.
 Cleavage is absent although there is basal parting.
 Fracture is uneven to conchoidal.
 Hardness is 7 - 7.5
 Specific Gravity is 3.0+ (average)
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Refractive indices = 1.62 and 1.68 .
 Associated Minerals include those minerals associated with granitic pegmatites and
metamorphic rocks such as micas, feldspars, quartz and even other gem minerals such as
beryl, garnets, spodumene and topaz.
 Notable Occurrences include the San Diego, California area; Brazil; Elba, Italy (where
Elbaite gets its name); Sri Lanka; Pakistan; Maine, USA and Russia as well as many others.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, triangular cross-section, color and hardness.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals
THE MINERAL TURQUOISE
 Chemistry: CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8*5(H2O),
Hydrated Copper Aluminum Phosphate
 Class: Phosphates
 Uses: as an ornamental stone for carving and
jewelry.

Turquoise is a valuable mineral and is possibly the

most valuable, non-transparent mineral in the jewelry
trade. It has been mined for eons since at least 6000
BC. by early Egyptians. Its history also includes
beautiful ornamental creations by Native Americans
and Persians. Its popularity is still quite strong today. Although crystals of any size are rare, some
small crystals have been found in Virginia and elsewhere. Most specimens are cryptocrystalline,
meaning that the crystals could only be seen by a microscope. The finest turquoise comes from Iran
but is challenged by some southwestern United States specimens. Turquoise is often imitated by
"fakes", such as the mineral chrysocolla, and poorer turquoise specimens are often dyed or color
stabilized with coatings of various resins. The name comes from a french word which means stone
of Turkey, from where Persian material passed on its way to Europe.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is of course, turquoise, but this color actually varies from greenish blue to sky blue
shades.
 Luster is dull to waxy, vitreous in macro-crystals.
 Transparency specimens are opaque.
 Crystal System is triclinic; bar 1
 Crystal Habits include crystals rarely large enough to see, usually massive,
cryptocrystalline forms as nodules and veinlets.
 Cleavage is perfect in two direction, but is not often seen.
 Fracture is conchoidal and smooth.
 Hardness is 5 - 6
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2.6 - 2.8 (average)
 Streak is white with a greenish tint.
 Associated Minerals are pyrite. limonite. quartz and clays.
 Other Characteristics: color can change with exposure to skin oils.
 Notable Occurances include Arizona and New Mexico, USA; Australia; Iran; Afghanistan
and other locallities in the Middle East.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, hardness, luster, color and associations.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals

THE MINERAL APATITE

 Chemistry: Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl),
Calcium (Fluoro, Chloro, Hydroxyl)
Phosphate
 Class: Phosphates
 Group: Apatite
 Uses: as a source of phosphorous to
be used in fertilizer and rarely as a
gemstone.

Apatite is actually three different minerals

depending on the predominance of either
fluorine, chlorine or the hydroxyl group.
Apatite is widely distributed in all rock
types; igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic, but is usually just small disseminated grains or cryptocrystalline fragments. Large
well formed crystals though can be found in certain contact metamorphic rocks. Very gemmy
crystals of apatite can be cut as gems but the softness of apatite prevents wide distribution or
acceptance of apatite as a gemstone.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is typically green but also yellow, blue, reddish brown and purple.
 Luster is vitreous to greasy and gumdrop.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is hexagonal; 6/m
 Crystal Habits include the typical hexagonal prism with the hexagonal pyramid or a
pinacoid or both as a termination. Also accicular, granular, reniform and massive. A
cryptocrystalline variety is called collophane and can make up a rock type called
phosphorite and also can replace fossil fragments.
 Cleavage is indistinct in one basal direction.
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 5.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3.1 - 3.2 (average for translucent minerals)
 Streak is white.
 Associated Minerals are hornblende, micas, nepheline and calcite.
 Other Characteristics: An unusual "partially dissolved" look similar to the look of
previously sucked on hard candy.
 Notable Occurrences include Durango, Mexico; Bancroft, Ontario; Germany and Russia.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, color, hardness and look.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals

THE MINERAL CORUNDUM

 Chemical Formula: Al2O3,
Aluminum Oxide
 Class: Oxides and Hydroxides
 Group: Hematite
 Uses: As a gemstone and as an
abrasive.

PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is highly variable. The color

can be white or colorless, blue, red,
yellow, green, brown, purple, and pink; there are also instance of color zonation.
 Luster is vitreous to adamantine.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is trigonal; bar 3 2/m
 Crystal Habits include sapphire's typical six-sided barrel shape that may taper into a
pyramid, and ruby's hexagonal prisms and blades.
 Cleavage is absent, although there is parting which occurs in three directions.
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 9
 Specific Gravity is approximately 4.0+ (above average for translucent minerals)
 Streak is white.
 Associated Minerals include calcite, zoisite, feldspars, micas and garnets.
 Other Characteristics: Refractive index is around 1.77; pleochroic (meaning color
intensity is variable from different viewing directions); striations on parting surfaces.
 Notable Occurrences include Burma; Sri Lanka; North Carolina and Montana, USA; many
African localities; several localities in India, and Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian
countries.
 Best Field Indicators are extreme hardness, density and crystal habit.

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Economic Geology Lab 5
Dr. Bahaa Eldin Mahmoud
Non-Metallic Minerals

THE MINERAL SPINEL

 Chemistry: MgAl2O4 , Magnesium Aluminum
Oxide
 Class: Oxides
 Group: Spinel
 Uses: as a gemstone

Spinel is a very attractive and historically

important gemstone mineral. Its typical red
color, although pinker, rivals the color of
ruby. In fact, many rubies, of notable fame
belonging to crown jewel collections, were
found to actually be spinels. Perhaps the greatest mistake is the Black Prince's
Ruby set in the British Imperial State Crown. Whether these mistakes were
accidents or clever substitutions of precious rubies for the less valuable spinels
by risk taking jewelers, history is unclear. The misidentification is meaningless
in terms of the value of these gems for even spinel carries a considerable
amount of worth and these stones are priceless based on their history, let
alone their carat weight and pedigree.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is red, green, blue, purple, brown, and black; but red is by far the more common
color.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent and sometimes nearly opaque.
 Crystal System: Isometric; 4/m bar 3 2/m
 Crystal Habits include the typical octahedron, but can be found as dodecahedrons and
combinations of other isometric forms. Also as rounded grains in alluvial placer deposits.
 Cleavage: None
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 7.5-8.0
 Specific Gravity is 3.6-4.0
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: index of refraction is approximately 1.71 - 1.76 and rutile
inclusions may produce six or four rayed stars or asterisms.
 Associated Minerals include calcite, dolomite, corundum and garnets.
 Notable Occurrences include Burma, Sri Lanka, Brazil and Afghanistan.
 Best Field Indicators are twinned crystals if present, color, hardness, density and locality.

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