1.

5 - Diffusion
Key terms
1. Diffusion: Process by which different substances mix as a result of the
random motions of their particles

→ Diffusion happens due to the particles (of a gas) moving randomly past
another and colliding with each other

All gases diffuse to fill available space

→ Gases diffuse at different rates

→ Diffusion also takes place in liquids (But, much more slowly) as compared to
gases. Mainly, because the particles in a liquid move more slowly as compared
to the particles of a gas
→ Diffusion also takes place between a liquid and a gas
→ Collisions take place randomly between particles in a liquid or a gas &
that there is sufficient space between the particles of one substance for the
particles of another to move into

An example is diffusion of concentrated HCl (Slower diffusion rate), NH3 (faster

diffusion rate)

1.5 - Diffusion 1
 Where the right ring forms:

NH3 (g) + HCl(g)− > NH4 Cl(s)

​ ​

1.5 - Diffusion 2
 1.4 - The effects of
temperature and pressure on
the volume of a gas
1. Temperature and Volume: As the temperature of a gas increases, the gas
particles gain more energy and move faster, leading to more frequent
collisions with the inside surface of a container (e.g., a balloon). This
increased pressure causes the volume of the gas to expand. This
relationship is observed in Charles's Law, which states that the volume of a
gas increases with temperature at constant pressure.

2. Pressure and Temperature: Increasing the pressure of a gas (e.g., using a

bicycle pump) compresses the gas particles closer together, causing more
frequent collisions and an increase in temperature. The rise in temperature
is due to increased frictional forces and the formation of intermolecular
bonds as the molecules are forced together.

In summary, an increase in temperature leads to an increase in gas volume

(Charles's Law), while an increase in pressure at constant volume leads to an
increase in temperature due to molecular interactions.

Condition Effects on volume of gas

Temperature increase Volume increase

Temperature decrease Volume decreases

Pressure increase Volume decreases

Pressure decrease Volume increases

1. For Temperature and Volume (Charles's Law):

V ∝T (at constant pressure)

2. For Pressure and Volume (Boyle's Law):

1.4 - The effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas 1

 1
V ∝ ​
(at constant temperature)
P

1.4 - The effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas 2

 1.3 - Changes of states
Key terms
Melting point: The temperature at which a solid begins to turn into a liquid.
Pure substances have a sharp boiling point

Evaporation: Process occurring at the surface of a liquid involving the change

of state of a liquid into a gas at a temperature below the boiling point. When a
solution is heated, the solvent evaporated and leaves the solute behind

Boiling point: The temperature at which the pressure of the gas created above
the liquid equals atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on a surface

due to the weight of the air above it

Condensation: Change of a gas into a liquid. This process is accompanied by

the evolution of heat

Physical change: A change in a substance that does not involve forming new
chemical bonds, so no new substance is formed. The change is easily
reversible

Changes of states using the Kinetic Particle Theory model

1. Solid → Liquid
- When a solid is heated, its particles gain energy & vibrate faster. This causes
them to push against neighbouring particles, increasing the space between
them, and as a result, the solid expands. As the heat energy expands further,
the forces of attraction between the particles weaken, and the regular pattern
of the solid’s structure breaks down. The particles can now move more freely
and the solid melts, transitioning into a liquid at its melting point. Even in the

1.3 - Changes of states 1

 liquid state, there are still significant forces of attraction between the particles
- Solids with high melting points have stronger forces of attraction between
their particles than those which have a low melting point

Melting and Boiling points of substances

Substance melting point (degrees celcius) Boiling point (degrees celcius)

Al 661 2467

C2H5OH (Ethanol) -117 79

MgO 827 3627

Hg -30 357

CH4 -187 -164

O -218 -183

NaCl 801 1413

S 113 445

H2O 0 100

2. Liquid → gas
- When a liquid is heated, the average energy of the particles increase & the
particles will move even faster. Some particles at the surface of the liquid have
enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction between themselves & the
other particles in the liquid which escape to form a gas. Eventually, a
temperature is reached at which the particles are trying to escape from the
liquid so quickly that bubbles of gas start to form inside the liquid. At the boiling
point, the pressure of the gas equals to that of the air
- liquids with high boiling points have stronger forces between their particles
than liquids with low boiling points

3. Gas → liquid → solid

- when a gas is cooled, the average energy of the particles decreases and the
particles move closer together. The forces of attraction between the particles
now become significant and cause the gas to condense into a liquid
→ When a liquid is cooled, it freezes to form a solid. Energy is released in each
of these changes

1.3 - Changes of states 2

 Changes of states are physical changes. Whenever it occurs, the
temperature remains constant and no new substance is formed

Heating and cooling curves

Sharp melting point: Indicates that a sample is pure.

The graph above shows the temperature against time (y-axis) for the change of
ice at -15 to water to steam
Observations of the graph:
→ Stops rising at melting point (100) producing a sharp melting point
→ Addition/presence of impurities lowers the melting point

Melting pot tube: Used to find the melting point of a substance

1.3 - Changes of states 3

 If a substance, such as the solid in the melting point tube, is heated slowly, this
apparatus can be used to find the melting point of the substance

Energy is given out when gases condenses to liquid and the liquid freezes
to give the solid

1.3 - Changes of states 4

 1.2 - The Kinetic Particle
Theory of matter
→ Kinetic particle theory: - It helps to explain the way matter behaves based
on the idea that all matter is composed of tiny particles, explaining the physical
properties of matter in terms of the movement of
these particles
→ Basically; It explains the physical properties of matter based on the
movement of the tiny particles within it
→ Alternatively; It is a theory which accounts for the properties of matter in
terms of its constituent particles

Main points of the theory

→ All matter is composed of tiny, moving particles, invisible to one’s eyes.
Different substances have different types of particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) of varying sizes
→ The particles move all the time. The higher the temperature, the faster they
move on average
→ Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature

Explaining the states of matter

1.
Solid (usually forms crystals, which are solids whose particles are arranged in
a definite way giving a specific shape, as they are arranged in a regular
manner)
→ The particles attract each other
→ There are attractive forces between the particles which hold them closely
together
→ The particles have little freedom of movement & can only vibrate about a
fixed position
→ They are arranged in a regular manner

1.2 - The Kinetic Particle Theory of matter 1

 [Spheres are usually used to model these particles when modelling the crystals
structure of a solid. E.g: KCrS2O8, Chrome alum crystal)
[X-ray crystallography is used to confirm the crystal structure of pure
substances]
→ when crystals of a pure substance form under a given set of conditions, the
particles are always arranged in the same way. The particles can also be
arranged in different ways in crystals of different substances. Just like NaCl
crystals being arranged to give cubic crystals

2.
Liquid

→ Particles are close together but move in a random way & collide with each
other
→ The forces of attraction between the particles in a liquid are weaker
compared to those of a solid
→ Particles in the liquid form of a substance have more energy (on average)
than the particles in the solid form of the substance

3.
Gas
→ Free to move anywhere in the container they are held in
→ The particles move randomly at high velocites
→ They collide each other (less often compared to liquids) & also collide with
the walls of the container they are held in
→ They virtually exert no forces on each other as they are relatively far apart

Arrangements

1.2 - The Kinetic Particle Theory of matter 2

1.2 - The Kinetic Particle Theory of matter 3
 1.1 - Solids, liquids and gases
Matter is categorised as solid, liquid and gas.

STATES OF MATTER
Solid Liquid Gas
-At a given temperature, -At a given -At a given temperature,
has definite shape & temperature, has has neither a definite
volume fixed volume & will shape nor volume
-Usually increases take the shape of -Will take the shape of
slightly in size when any container in any container in which it
heated; expansion which it is poured is stored & spreads
-Usually decreases in -Volume is slightly evenly within it
size when cooled; affected by changes -Volumes of gases are
contraction in temperature greatly affected by
changes in temperature

NOTE: Liquids and gases are compressible. So, their volumes can be reduced
by the application of pressure

1.1 - Solids, liquids and gases 1