ANCIENT INDIA

UNIT4
Q1 To What Extent Did the Bhakti of Alvars and Nayanars Pose a Challenge to
Brahmanic Orthodoxy in the 8th and 9th Centuries?

Introduction

The 8th and 9th centuries in South India marked a time of great religious change with the
rise of the Bhakti movement, which was led by the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and the
Nayanars (devotees of Shiva). This movement was radically different from the religious
practices of Brahmanism, which had been the dominant form of religion for many centuries.
Brahmanism focused on rituals and Vedic sacrifices that could only be performed by
Brahmins (priests) and were deeply connected to the caste system. In contrast, the
Bhakti movement focused on personal devotion to God, with the Alvars and Nayanars
teaching that anyone could reach the divine through sincere love and worship, regardless
of their social background.

As R. Champakalakshmi points out in her study, the Alvars and Nayanars not only rejected
Brahmanical rituals but also questioned the social inequalities supported by
Brahmanism, especially the rigid caste system. The Tamil Bhakti movement was not just
about religion; it brought a social and cultural change. It made religion open to
everyone, breaking the barriers of caste and exclusivity.By singing devotional songs in
Tamil, the local language, they made religious expression accessible to everyone, not just
the educated elite. Saints like Andal and Appar showed that spirituality was for
everyone, regardless of caste, class, or gender. This movement challenged the very
core of Brahmanism, which had always controlled religious practices and kept the lower
castes and women away from spiritual power. In this essay, we will explore how the Bhakti
movement of the Alvars and Nayanars posed a direct challenge to Brahminism, especially
in terms of ritual practices, the caste system, and language.

Brahmanism and Its Control Over Religion and Society

To understand the challenge posed by the Alvars and Nayanars, it is important to first
understand what Brahmanism was. Brahmanism was the religion followed by the
Brahmins (priests) and was based on the Vedas, which were considered sacred texts.
These texts outlined complex rituals and sacrifices that were thought to be necessary for
gaining favor with the gods. However, these rituals could only be performed by Brahmins
and were very expensive and exclusive. This created a divide between the Brahmin
priests, who had control over religious practices, and the rest of the society.

Moreover, Brahmanism was closely connected to the caste system, which divided society
into strict social groups. Brahmins and Kshatriyas (warriors) were at the top of this social
ladder, while lower castes and Dalits were kept away from religious rituals and spiritual
practices. The caste system also controlled who could worship and how they could worship.
For instance, only the upper castes were allowed to perform rituals, while the lower castes
were excluded from religious spaces.

This system reinforced inequality and maintained the Brahmins' dominance over both
religious and social life. The Alvars and Nayanars, however, rejected these exclusivist
practices and promoted a more inclusive form of worship, one based on personal
devotion to God rather than complicated rituals that only a select few could perform. Saints
like Andal, a woman Alvar, and Kannappa, a Nayanar from a hunter caste, showed that
anyone could connect with God through devotion. By focusing on love for God instead of
caste privileges, the Bhakti movement challenged the unfair social system and gave a
voice to the silenced. This made the movement not only religious but also a significant
social change. Their teachings, as discussed by M.G.S. Narayanan and K. Veluthat,
challenged the Brahmanical claim to religious authority and opened the doors of devotion
to everyone, regardless of their caste or gender.

The Focus on Personal Devotion, Not Rituals

One of the most important aspects of the Bhakti movement was its focus on personal
devotion to God, rather than on following elaborate rituals. The Alvars and Nayanars
believed that true spirituality came from a direct, heartfelt relationship with God, not from
external actions or rituals. They taught that one could find salvation through love and
devotion to God, not by performing complicated sacrifices or relying on Brahmin priests.

For example, Nammalvar, one of the greatest Alvars, wrote poems expressing his
complete surrender to Vishnu. He believed that salvation could be attained through pure
devotion rather than through any physical ritual. The Nayanars, too, sang praises of Shiva
in simple, emotional terms, stressing the importance of sincerity in worship. They rejected
the idea that one needed to perform specific Vedic rituals or seek the help of Brahmin
priests to connect with the divine.

As Champakalakshmi explains, the Alvars and Nayanars rejected the complex rituals of
Brahmanism, which they believed were unnecessary for spiritual growth. Instead, they
focused on devotional songs and prayers to establish a direct, personal connection with
God. This new form of worship was not only more accessible but also empowered
ordinary people to take part in religious life.

Challenging the Caste System

Perhaps the most significant challenge posed by the Bhakti movement was its rejection of
the caste system. Brahmanism justified the caste system, which placed Brahmins at the
top and excluded lower castes from religious rituals. The Alvars and Nayanars, however,
emphasized that devotion to God was open to all, regardless of caste or social status. They
taught that divine grace was available to everyone, and anyone could be saved through
sincere worship.

The Nayanar saint Appar famously declared that caste did not matter in worshiping Shiva.
Similarly, the Alvars, such as Andal, emphasized that even women and lower castes could
be devoted followers of God. They taught that God's love was not limited by social
divisions, making the Bhakti movement a more inclusive and egalitarian alternative to the
exclusive and hierarchical practices of Brahmanism.

In her essay, Mahalakshmi R. discusses how the Bhakti saints rejected social
discrimination based on caste, making the Bhakti movement an important social and
religious reform. It gave the lower castes and women a voice in religious matters,
challenging the dominance of the Brahmin priests, who controlled both religious knowledge
and social power.

The Role of Tamil Language in the Bhakti Movement

Another important feature of the Bhakti movement was its use of Tamil, rather than
Sanskrit, in the devotional hymns of the Alvars and Nayanars. Sanskrit had traditionally
been the language of the Brahmins and the elite. Only the educated, upper castes could
understand and perform rituals in Sanskrit, which excluded most people from participating
in religious activities.

However, the Alvars and Nayanars wrote their hymns in Tamil, the local language, which
made these hymns more accessible to the common people. Tamil became the medium for
expressing devotion to God, allowing everyone, regardless of their social status or
education, to participate in worship. This was a radical shift because it broke the
monopoly that Brahmins had on religious knowledge and rituals.

By using Tamil, the Bhakti saints made religion accessible to everyone, not just the elite.
As Narayanan and Veluthat explain, the Bhakti movement democratized religious
practice, allowing people from all castes to worship and express their love for God without
needing the mediation of Brahmins. This was a significant challenge to Brahmanical
orthodoxy, which had long controlled religious practices through the use of Sanskrit.

Conclusion: The Lasting Impact of the Bhakti Movement

In conclusion, the Bhakti movement led by the Alvars and Nayanars in the 8th and 9th
centuries had a big effect on both religion and society in South India. The movement
challenged Brahmanism, which was based on complicated rituals and social divisions.
By focusing on personal devotion to God instead of rituals, the Bhakti saints made it clear
that anyone, no matter their caste or social status, could connect with God. This was very
different from Brahmanism, which only allowed the upper castes, especially Brahmins, to
perform religious rituals.

The Bhakti saints created a form of worship that included everyone, breaking the barriers
of caste, class, and gender. People from all backgrounds, including women and those from
lower castes, could now be part of religious practices. Saints like Andal, a woman
devotee, and Kannappa, a man from a low caste, proved that devotion to God had no
limits. Their lives and teachings showed that anyone could be close to God through love and
devotion.

As Champakalakshmi and other scholars argue, the Bhakti movement was not just a
religious revolution but also a social and cultural shift. It challenged the control of
Brahmins over religious practices, gave voice to the marginalized, and paved the way
for future religious movements in India. Today, the legacy of the Bhakti movement
continues to inspire people around the world, showing the power of devotion, equality, and
spiritual freedom.

Q2 Short notes

1) Tantric Traditions

Tantric Tradition was an important religious and spiritual tradition in early medieval India,
especially between the 7th and 13th centuries. During the period from 750 to 1200 CE,
new ways of worship emerged that moved away from traditional Vedic rituals. Tantric
practices focused on secret rituals, chanting mantras (sacred sounds), using hand
gestures (mudras), and practicing meditation. The main idea behind Tantrism was that
spiritual power could be used for personal growth and to connect directly with the divine.
Unlike the complicated rituals performed by Brahmin priests, Tantric practices were more
personal, simpler to follow, and focused on each person's spiritual experience.

Tantric traditions influenced many religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
In early medieval India, especially in South India, Tantrism became important and worked
alongside the Bhakti movement. The Bhakti movement, led by saints like the Alvars and
Nayanars, emphasized personal devotion to God and rejected caste-based rituals.
Although Tantrism was usually seen as a secret practice for a small group of people, some
of its rituals were combined with the devotional practices of Bhakti saints. This created a mix
of personal devotion and mystical rituals that influenced religious life during that period.

Tantrism can be seen as a response to the complicated Vedic rituals controlled by

Brahmins. Instead of relying on priests, Tantric practices encouraged people to have a
personal experience with the divine through rituals, meditation, and devotion. This
allowed people outside the Brahmin class, including women and lower-caste individuals,
to participate in religious activities. Because of this, Tantrism played an important role in
bringing about social and spiritual changes in early medieval South India.

Tantric Practices: Key Features

Tantrism was based on the idea that using special rituals and mantras could help a person
experience the divine directly. This was different from the traditional Vedic approach, which
focused on sacrifices and rituals performed by priests. Tantric rituals used sacred
symbols, specific postures, and repeating mantras to call on gods and achieve spiritual
goals like liberation or gaining divine power. Narayanan and Veluthat (2000) explain that
Tantric practices were closely connected to the worship of Shiva and Vishnu in South India,
where followers used secret rituals and meditation to form a personal bond with these gods.

The Alvars and Nayanars, important leaders in the Tamil Bhakti movement, sometimes
included Tantric ideas in their worship. While their main focus was on devotion and love for
God, some Bhakti saints also practiced rituals similar to Tantric ones. For example, they
sang devotional hymns, meditated, and sometimes used mantras to strengthen their
connection with the divine. Champakalakshmi (1996) points out that even though they didn’t
always openly follow Tantric rituals, the deep emotional devotion of the Bhakti saints
shows how Tantric influences were present in their practices.
Tantric Influences on the Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti movement, with its emphasis on personal devotion and love for God, often
overlapped with Tantric practices, especially in the worship of Shiva and Vishnu. However,
while Tantrism was more focused on esoteric rituals and practices, Bhakti was more
inclusive and accessible to all people, including those outside the priestly class. Despite
these differences, both traditions emphasized the importance of a personal connection
with God and spiritual liberation through devotion. Mahalakshmi (2000) discusses how
figures like Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a Tamil Bhakti saint, integrated elements of Tantric
practices into her worship of Shiva. Karaikkal Ammaiyar’s fierce devotion to Shiva can be
seen as an example of how Tantric and Bhakti traditions sometimes blended, creating a
powerful form of personal spirituality that transcended caste and gender boundaries.

In conclusion, Tantric traditions played an important role in the religious practices of early
medieval India, especially in South India during the period of 750–1200 CE. While Tantrism
was distinct for its focus on secretive rituals and the personal connection to the divine, it
shared common ground with the Bhakti movement, which emphasized personal devotion
over complex Vedic rituals. Both traditions provided a path to spiritual liberation that was
accessible to a broader range of people, including women and lower-caste individuals.
While Tantrism remained somewhat esoteric and exclusive in certain contexts, its
influence on the Bhakti saints helped shape a more inclusive form of spirituality that
challenged traditional social and religious hierarchies. This blend of Tantric and Bhakti
practices contributed to the religious and social transformations in early medieval South
India, leaving a lasting impact on the region’s spiritual landscape.

2) Puranic Hinduism

Puranic Hinduism became one of the most significant religious traditions in early medieval
India, especially during the period between 750 and 1200 CE. This tradition was shaped by
the Puranas, a collection of sacred texts that combined mythology, theology, cosmology, and
moral teachings. Unlike the older Vedic tradition, which emphasized complex rituals and
sacrifices performed by Brahmin priests, Puranic Hinduism focused on simpler forms of
worship and devotion. It made religion more accessible to the common people, allowing for
widespread participation in spiritual practices. The core of Puranic Hinduism revolved around
the worship of popular deities, particularly Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi, and it established a
strong foundation for Bhakti (devotion) as a key religious practice.

Puranic Traditions: Key features

Puranic Hinduism, which emerged prominently between 750 and 1200 CE, introduced key
features that made religion more accessible to people from all walks of life. It emphasized
personal devotion (bhakti) to deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi, allowing ordinary
people, including women and lower castes, to connect directly with the divine without
needing Brahmin intermediaries. Worship practices became simpler, focusing on puja
(offerings), bhajans (devotional songs), and pilgrimages to sacred places. Stories of gods
like Rama and Krishna, along with the worship of the goddess Devi in her forms as Durga,
Lakshmi, and Saraswati, played an important role in shaping religious beliefs and
highlighting divine feminine power. Puranic Hinduism also absorbed local traditions,
incorporating regional deities and customs into its narratives, creating a unified religious
identity across India. The Puranas promoted the idea of a sacred geography, linking
specific places like Varanasi, Rameshwaram, and Kanchipuram to mythological stories
and divine presence. This emphasis on pilgrimage and shared mythology fostered a strong
cultural and spiritual connection among people.

Interaction with the Bhakti Movement

Puranic Hinduism deeply influenced the Bhakti movement, which also gained momentum
during this period. The Alvars and Nayanars, saints of the Bhakti tradition, focused on the
personal worship of Vishnu and Shiva, resonating with the Puranic emphasis on devotion.
Narayanan and Veluthat (2000) explain that Puranic ideas and Bhakti practices worked
together to challenge caste barriers, allowing more people, including women and lower
castes, to participate in spiritual life. This overlap between the two traditions fostered a more
inclusive and devotional religious environment.

Social and Cultural Impact

Puranic Hinduism contributed to the rise of temple culture, which became central to social
and religious life in early medieval India. Temples served not only as places of worship but
also as centers for education, art, and economic activity. As Champakalakshmi (1996) points
out, the spread of Puranic traditions encouraged the development of temple architecture,
sculpture, and iconography, creating a rich cultural heritage. Additionally, by integrating
regional beliefs and promoting a personal connection to the divine, Puranic Hinduism
broke down some of the rigid social hierarchies of Vedic society, making religion more
inclusive.

Conclusion

Puranic Hinduism transformed the religious and cultural landscape of early medieval India.
Its emphasis on devotion, inclusivity, and simplicity made it appealing to a wide
audience. By blending mythology, local traditions, and devotional practices, it became a
unifying force in a diverse society. Its interaction with the Bhakti movement and the spread
of temple culture significantly shaped the religious and social life of the period. The legacy of
Puranic Hinduism continues to influence Indian spirituality and culture, highlighting the
enduring power of devotion and inclusivity in religious practices.

3) Merchant Guilds of South India: A Short Note

The merchant guilds of South India were highly influential organizations that flourished
during the early medieval period (750–1200 CE), playing a crucial role in the economic,
social, and cultural life of the region. During this time, South India became a hub for both
local and international trade, connecting it to regions as far as Southeast Asia, China, the
Middle East, and East Africa. The thriving trade networks were supported and regulated by
powerful guilds like the Ayyavole 500, Manigramam, and Nanadesis, which provided
structure and stability to trading activities. These guilds were not just economic organizations
but also social institutions, contributing to the temple economy, urban development, and the
cultural integration of diverse communities. They operated with detailed systems of
governance, often receiving royal patronage and protection, which allowed them to expand
their influence across vast territories. The merchant guilds exemplified the
interconnectedness of commerce, politics, and religion in early medieval South India,
shaping its history in significant ways.

KEY FEATURES
The merchant guilds of South India were well-organized groups of traders that played a key
role in the economy and society during 750–1200 CE. These guilds, such as the Ayyavole
500 and Manigramam, were known for their strong organization, with rules, leaders, and
collective resources used to promote trade and resolve disputes. They were involved in
long-distance trade, connecting South India to regions like Southeast Asia, China, and
Sri Lanka, trading items like spices, textiles, and precious stones. Guilds worked closely
with local rulers, receiving tax benefits and protection in exchange for boosting the local
economy and supporting temples through donations and festivals. They were also socially
active, funding temples and community welfare projects, which made them influential in
promoting religion and culture. Their adaptability and inclusion of traders from diverse
backgrounds helped foster cooperation and cosmopolitanism in trade centers, making them
vital to South India’s growth during this period.

In conclusion, the merchant guilds of South India were very important in the economic and
social life during the early medieval period (750–1200 CE). These guilds were not just
about trade; they played a big role in making South India a rich and thriving region. They
helped grow local and international trade, connecting South India to other parts of the
world. Guilds like the Ayyavole 500, Manigramam, and Nanadesis also supported temples
and religious activities, which were central to the society at the time. The guilds had strong
organization and even influenced political decisions, making them powerful in shaping the
communities. They also helped bring together people from different backgrounds and
regions, helping to create a more connected society. The impact of these guilds is still seen
today in South India’s continued importance in trade and culture, showing how they helped
establish strong links with the world.

Q3 Anything related to architecture

The early medieval period in India, spanning roughly from 750 to 1200 CE, was marked by a
significant evolution in temple architecture. This era saw the emergence of distinct regional
styles, reflecting the cultural, political, and geographical diversity of the subcontinent. Two
major architectural traditions dominated this period: the Nagara style, which developed in the
northern and central regions, and the Dravida style, which flourished in the southern parts of
India. These styles were not just about building temples but were expressions of regional
identities, artistic creativity, and religious devotion. Temples became the focal points of
religious and cultural life, showcasing not only intricate craftsmanship but also the influence
of local traditions and materials.

A unique feature of this period was the increasing regionalism in architectural styles, which
led to the development of hybrid forms in areas like Odisha, Bengal, and the Deccan. The
architecture of this period blended traditional ideas with innovations, creating structures that
were both functional and deeply symbolic. The construction of temples was often supported
by ruling dynasties, local merchants, and communities, making them symbols of political
power and economic prosperity as well as centers of spirituality.

The Nagara and Dravida styles, while distinct, also borrowed elements from each other and
adapted to the local environment, resulting in rich diversity. By studying these architectural
traditions, we gain insights into the socio-religious and cultural transformations of early
medieval India, reflecting how art and architecture served as a medium for both unity and
diversity in this era.

The Nagara Style of North India

The Nagara style of temple architecture, which was popular in North India during the early
medieval period (750-1200 CE), has unique features that make it different from other
regional styles. Scholars like Narayanan and Veluthat have pointed out that this style
became widespread in North India because of its special design and focus on height. A key
feature of the Nagara style is the shikhara, a tall, curved spire that rises above the inner
sanctum (garbhagriha) of the temple. This design represents a cosmic mountain,
symbolizing the connection between the earthly and divine worlds, as explained by scholar
George Michell.

Nagara temples are usually built with a square or rectangular inner sanctum, with the design
focusing on the tall shikhara above, which represents the journey towards the divine. The
vertical structure highlights the goal of reaching the divine through prayer and devotion.
According to R. Champakalakshmi, the outer walls of these temples are often decorated with
detailed carvings showing stories from Hindu mythology, gods, goddesses, and heavenly
beings. These carvings were not just decorative but also helped tell religious stories, making
the temple a place for both worship and learning.

The mandapa, or pillared hall, is another important feature of Nagara temples. This hall,
used for group worship and gatherings, is supported by beautifully carved pillars. Narayanan
and Veluthat highlight that these mandapas played a key role in social and religious
activities, connecting the community's worship with the temple's spiritual purpose. The
temple’s entrance, often marked by a torana (arched gateway), added to the holiness of the
space, creating a clear shift from the ordinary world to the divine one.

The design of Nagara temples also focused on elevation. Many temples were built on raised
platforms, which set them apart from the surrounding landscape, symbolizing their elevated
spiritual status. George Michell points out that the use of local materials like stone, brick,
and wood led to regional variations in temple design, but the central elements of the Nagara
style—shikhara, mandapa, and sculpture—remained consistent.

Overall, the Nagara style, as discussed by Narayanan, Veluthat, and Champakalakshmi,

represented a highly structured and symbolic form of architecture that played a key role in
the religious and cultural life of early medieval North India. Its influence is evident in the
architectural landscape of the region and continues to shape the temple traditions in India
today.

The Dravida Style of South India

The Dravida style of temple architecture developed in South India during the early medieval
period (750-1200 CE) and became a dominant form of temple design in the region. This
style is primarily characterized by its emphasis on horizontal expansion, with a focus on
large, elaborate structures designed to accommodate a large number of worshippers.
Scholars like Narayanan and Veluthat point out that the Dravida style was shaped by local
traditions, climatic conditions, and the role of temples as community centers.

A key feature of Dravida temples is the shikhara or central tower, which, unlike the vertical
spire of the Nagara style, is typically pyramidal in shape, with a series of diminishing tiers
that give it a stepped appearance. According to George Michell, this design symbolizes the
mountains, which are considered sacred in Hindu cosmology. The towering shikhara
represents a bridge between the divine and the earthly, providing a visual focus for the
temple complex.

Another prominent feature of Dravida temples is the mandapa, similar to the Nagara style,
but these mandapas in the Dravida tradition are much larger and more elaborate, often with
multiple pillared halls. These halls were used for congregational worship, cultural activities,
and religious rituals. Narayanan and Veluthat emphasize the importance of the mandapa in
facilitating social and religious interactions, as they were spaces for people to gather,
participate in festivals, and celebrate community events.

The Dravida style also incorporates the prakara, or enclosed courtyard, which surrounds the
main temple structure. The prakara serves as a transition zone between the sacred and the
secular, where devotees can prepare for their entry into the temple. Within this space, there
are often shrines dedicated to various deities, and the temple’s gopurams (ornate gateway
towers) mark the entrance, acting as both architectural focal points and symbolic gateways
to the divine. The gopurams, as noted by Champakalakshmi, are intricately decorated with
sculptures and carvings that tell stories of the gods and goddesses, making the temple not
just a place of worship but also a space for religious education.

In addition to these architectural features, the Dravida style is known for its focus on rituals
and community involvement. The temples were not just centers of religious activity, but
also social hubs where local people could gather, share news, and support each other. The
larger, more complex temple complexes also provided facilities for other community needs,
such as rest houses, water tanks, and sometimes even educational institutions.

Regionalism and Hybrid Styles

During the early medieval period (750–1200 CE), regionalism played a significant role in
shaping temple architecture across India. As different parts of the subcontinent developed
their unique styles, there was a tendency for local customs, traditions, and materials to
influence the design of temples. This led to the rise of regional styles, which were tailored to
the specific cultural and geographical contexts of each area.

In South India, the Dravida style became dominant, characterized by large, expansive
temple complexes and pyramid-shaped towers (shikharas). However, in some regions, such
as Tamil Nadu, temples began to show elements of both the Dravida and Nagara styles,
creating hybrid architectural forms. This blending was often a result of cultural exchanges
between northern and southern India, where traders, scholars, and pilgrims traveled
frequently, sharing architectural ideas and practices. The influence of the Nagara style can
be seen in the emergence of smaller, more vertical structures in some Dravida temples,
along with the use of carved decorative elements that resembled northern traditions.
Similarly, northern temples sometimes adopted southern techniques, such as intricate
carving and the use of larger, more accessible temple spaces.

As noted by scholars like R. Champakalakshmi and Narayanan, the integration of different

architectural styles was not limited to just the design of the temples but also extended to the
rituals and social functions associated with them. The process of regionalism and
hybridization allowed local traditions and beliefs to merge with pan-Indian religious practices.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the early medieval period saw significant developments in temple

architecture, marked by the emergence of regional styles like the Nagara and Dravida.
These styles reflected the religious, cultural, and social dynamics of their time and were
influenced by local traditions and geographical conditions. As time went on, regionalism
led to the creation of hybrid styles, blending elements from different architectural traditions,
which contributed to a diverse and dynamic religious landscape. This fusion shaped both
the physical structures of temples and religious practices, making temples more
inclusive and accessible to a broader section of society. The architectural innovations of
this period laid the foundation for the ongoing evolution of temple architecture in India and
enriched the country’s religious and cultural heritage.