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Health

Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over
time. In general, it refers to physical and emotional wellbeing, especially that
associated with normal functioning of the human body, absent of disease, pain
(including mental pain), or injury.

Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular physical


exercise and adequate sleep,[1] and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or
situations, such as smoking or excessive stress. Some factors affecting health are
due to individual choices, such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while
others are due to structural causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way
that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still,
other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as genetic
disorders.

History
The meaning of health has evolved over time. In
keeping with the biomedical perspective, early
definitions of health focused on the theme of the World
body's ability to function; health was seen as a state
of normal function that could be disrupted from time Health
to time by disease. An example of such a definition of
health is: "a state characterized by anatomic,
physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to Organizat
perform personally valued family, work, and
community roles; ability to deal with physical, ion's
biological, psychological, and social stress".[2] Then,
in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definition
definitions, the World Health Organization (WHO)
Health is a state of
proposed a definition that aimed higher, linking health
complete physical,
to well-being, in terms of "physical, mental, and social
mental and social well-
well-being, and not merely the absence of disease
being and not merely
and infirmity".[3] Although this definition was
the absence of disease
welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also
or infirmity.
criticized for being vague and excessively broad and
was not construed as measurable. For a long time, it Source:
was set aside as an impractical ideal, with most "Constitution" (https://
discussions of health returning to the practicality of www.who.int/about/a
[4]
the biomedical model. ccountability/governa
nce/constitution) .
Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a
World Health
state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift
Organization.
happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO
Retrieved
played a leading role when it fostered the
10 December 2023.
development of the health promotion movement in
the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of
health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a
resource for living". In 1984, WHO revised the definition of health defined it as "the
extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs
and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not
the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal
resources, as well as physical capacities."[5] Thus, health referred to the ability to
maintain homeostasis and recover from adverse events. Mental, intellectual,
emotional and social health referred to a person's ability to handle stress, to acquire
skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and
independent living.[4] This opens up many possibilities for health to be taught,
strengthened and learned.
Since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Program has been a visible
component of the United States' approach to improving population health.[6] In each
decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued,[7] featuring updated goals and
identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the
succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof.
Progress has been limited to many objectives, leading to concerns about the
effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a
decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more
prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches and adds a substantive
focus on the importance of addressing social determinants of health. A new
expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed
books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be
determined in the coming years.[8]

Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in
humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal
health are covered by the veterinary sciences. The term "healthy" is also widely used
in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the
benefit of humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy cities or
healthy environments. In addition to health care interventions and a person's
surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of
individuals. These are referred to as the "determinants of health", which include the
individual's background, lifestyle, economic status, social conditions and spirituality;
Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.[9]

In the first decade of the 21st century, the conceptualization of health as an ability
opened the door for self-assessments to become the main indicators to judge the
performance of efforts aimed at improving human health.[10] It also created the
opportunity for every person to feel healthy, even in the presence of multiple chronic
diseases or a terminal condition, and for the re-examination of determinants of health
(away from the traditional approach that focuses on the reduction of the prevalence
of diseases).[11]
Determinants
In general, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his
health status and quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained
and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science,
but also through the efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the individual and
society. According to the World Health Organization, the main determinants of health
include the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and the
person's individual characteristics and behaviors.[12]

More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are
healthy or unhealthy include the following:[12][13][14]
Education and literacy
Employment/working conditions
Income and social status
Physical environments
Social environments
Social support networks
Biology and genetics
Culture
Gender
Health care services
Healthy child development
Personal health practices and
coping skills
Donald Henderson as part of the
CDC's smallpox eradication team in
1966

An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and


contexts examine the linkages between health and different factors, including
lifestyles, environments, health care organization and health policy, one specific
health policy brought into many countries in recent years was the introduction of the
sugar tax. Beverage taxes came into light with increasing concerns about obesity,
particularly among youth. Sugar-sweetened beverages have become a target of anti-
obesity initiatives with increasing evidence of their link to obesity.[15]—such as the
1974 Lalonde report from Canada;[14] the Alameda County Study in California;[16] and
the series of World Health Reports of the World Health Organization, which focuses
on global health issues including access to health care and improving public health
outcomes, especially in developing countries.[17]

The concept of the "health field," as distinct from medical care, emerged from the
Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as key
determinants of an individual's health. These are:[14]

Biomedical: all aspects of health,


physical and mental, developed
within the human body as
influenced by genetic make-up.
Environmental: all matters related
to health external to the human
body and over which the individual
has little or no control;
Lifestyle: the aggregation of
personal decisions (i.e., over which
the individual has control) that can
be said to contribute to, or cause,
illness or death;
The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination
of physical, mental, and social well-being—a combination sometimes referred to as
the "health triangle."[18] The WHO's 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further
stated that health is not just a state, but also "a resource for everyday life, not the
objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal
resources, as well as physical capacities."[19]

Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, data
from the Alameda County Study suggested that people can improve their health via
exercise, enough sleep, spending time in nature, maintaining a healthy body weight,
limiting alcohol use, and avoiding smoking.[20] Health and illness can co-exist, as even
people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves
healthy.[21]
If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they
breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live.[22][23]

— Hippocrates, the Father


of Medicine, 5th century
BC
The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of
individuals. This includes characteristics of the natural environment, the built
environment and the social environment. Factors such as clean water and air,
adequate housing, and safe communities and roads all have been found to contribute
to good health, especially to the health of infants and children.[12][24] Some studies
have shown that a lack of neighborhood recreational spaces including natural
environment leads to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of
obesity, linked to lower overall health and well-being.[25] It has been demonstrated that
increased time spent in natural environments is associated with improved self-
reported health,[26] suggesting that the positive health benefits of natural space in
urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy and land use.

Genetics, or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health
status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the predisposition to
certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors
individuals develop through the lifestyle of their families. For example, genetics may
play a role in the manner in which people cope with stress, either mental, emotional or
physical. For example, obesity is a significant problem in the United States that
contributes to poor mental health and causes stress in the lives of many people.[27]
One difficulty is the issue raised by the debate over the relative strengths of genetics
and other factors; interactions between genetics and environment may be of
particular importance.
Potential issues
A number of health issues are common around the globe. Disease is one of the most
common. According to GlobalIssues.org, approximately 36 million people die each
year from non-communicable (i.e., not contagious) diseases, including cardiovascular
disease, cancer, diabetes and chronic lung disease.[28]

Among communicable diseases, both viral and bacterial, AIDS/HIV, tuberculosis, and
malaria are the most common, causing millions of deaths every year.[28]

Another health issue that causes death or contributes to other health problems is
malnutrition, especially among children. One of the groups malnutrition affects most
is young children. Approximately 7.5 million children under the age of 5 die from
malnutrition, usually brought on by not having the money to find or make food.[28]

Bodily injuries are also a common health issue worldwide. These injuries, including
bone fractures and burns, can reduce a person's quality of life or can cause fatalities
including infections that resulted from the injury (or the severity injury in general).[28]

Lifestyle choices are contributing factors to poor health in many cases. These include
smoking cigarettes, and can also include a poor diet, whether it is overeating or an
overly constrictive diet. Inactivity can also contribute to health issues and also a lack
of sleep, excessive alcohol consumption, and neglect of oral hygiene. There are also
genetic disorders that are inherited by the person and can vary in how much they
affect the person (and when they surface).[29][30]

Although the majority of these health issues are preventable, a major contributor to
global ill health is the fact that approximately 1 billion people lack access to health
care systems.[28] Arguably, the most common and harmful health issue is that a great
many people do not have access to quality remedies.[31]
Mental health
The World Health Organization describes mental health as "a state of well-being in
which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal
stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution
to his or her community".[32] Mental health is not just the absence of mental illness.[33]

Mental illness is described as 'the spectrum of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral


conditions that interfere with social and emotional well-being and the lives and
productivity of people.[34] Having a mental illness can seriously impair, temporarily or
permanently, the mental functioning of a person. Other terms include: 'mental health
problem', 'illness', 'disorder', 'dysfunction'.[35]

Approximately twenty percent of all adults in the US are considered diagnosable with
a mental disorder. Mental disorders are the leading cause of disability in the United
States and Canada. Examples of these disorders include schizophrenia, ADHD, major
depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder
and autism.[36]

Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including:[37]

Biological factors, such as genes or


brain chemistry
Family history of mental health
problems
Life experiences, such as trauma or
abuse
Maintaining
Achieving and maintaining health is an ongoing process, shaped by both the evolution
of health care knowledge and practices as well as personal strategies and organized
interventions for staying healthy.

Diet

Percentage of overweight or obese


population in 2010. Data source:
OECD's iLibrary.[38][39]

Percentage of obese population in


2010. Data source: OECD's
iLibrary.[38][40]

An important way to maintain one's personal health is to have a healthy diet. A


healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide
nutrients to the body.[41] Such nutrients provide the body with energy and keep it
running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also
( ) f
reproduction and good health. Macronutrients are consumed in relatively large
quantities and include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and fatty acids.[42]
Micronutrients – vitamins and minerals – are consumed in relatively smaller
quantities, but are essential to body processes.[43] The food guide pyramid is a
pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the
recommended intake for each food group (i.e., protein, fat, carbohydrates and
sugars). Making healthy food choices can lower one's risk of heart disease and the
risk of developing some types of cancer, and can help one maintain their weight
within a healthy range.[44]

The Mediterranean diet is commonly associated with health-promoting effects. This


is sometimes attributed to the inclusion of bioactive compounds such as phenolic
compounds, isoprenoids and alkaloids.[45]

Exercise
Physical exercise enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and
wellness. It strengthens one's bones and muscles and improves the cardiovascular
system. According to the National Institutes of Health, there are four types of
exercise: endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance.[46] The CDC states that physical
exercise can reduce the risks of heart disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, high blood
pressure, obesity, depression, and anxiety.[47] For the purpose of counteracting
possible risks, it is often recommended to start physical exercise gradually as one
goes. Participating in any exercising, whether it is housework, yardwork, walking or
standing up when talking on the phone, is often thought to be better than none when
it comes to health.[48]
Sleep
Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital
for growth and development. Ongoing sleep deprivation has been linked to an
increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has
been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower
recovery times from illness.[49] In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set
as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a
cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night.[50]
Due to the role of sleep in regulating metabolism, insufficient sleep may also play a
role in weight gain or, conversely, in impeding weight loss.[51] Additionally, in 2007, the
International Agency for Research on Cancer, which is the cancer research agency for
the World Health Organization, declared that "shiftwork that involves circadian
disruption is probably carcinogenic to humans", speaking to the dangers of long-term
nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep.[52] In 2015, the National Sleep
Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements
based on age, and concluded that "Individuals who habitually sleep outside the
normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if
done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being."[53]

Age and condition Sleep needs

Newborns (0–3 months) 14 to 17 hours

Infants (4–11 months) 12 to 15 hours

Toddlers (1–2 years) 11 to 14 hours

Preschoolers (3–5 years) 10 to 13 hours

School-age children (6–13 years) 9 to 11 hours

Teenagers (14–17 years) 8 to 10 hours

Adults (18–64 years) 7 to 9 hours

Older Adults (65 years and over) 7 to 8 hours


Role of science

1:49

The Dutch Public Health Service


provides medical care for the
natives of the Dutch East Indies,
May 1946.

Health science is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main
approaches to health science: the study and research of the body and health-related
issues to understand how humans (and animals) function, and the application of that
knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and
mental impairments. The science builds on many sub-fields, including biology,
biochemistry, physics, epidemiology, pharmacology, medical sociology. Applied health
sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through
applications in areas such as health education, biomedical engineering,
biotechnology and public health.

Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures


developed through the health sciences are provided by practitioners trained in
medicine, nursing, nutrition, pharmacy, social work, psychology, occupational therapy,
physical therapy and other health care professions. Clinical practitioners focus mainly
on the health of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall
health of communities and populations. Workplace wellness programs are
increasingly being adopted by companies for their value in improving the health and
well-being of their employees, as are school health services to improve the health and
well-being of children.
Role of medicine and medical
science
Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within health care systems. Legal,
credentialing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments,
augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The
characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way
medical care is provided.

From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the
development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the Catholic Church today
remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.[54]
Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the United States)[55] and many
developing countries provide medical services through a system of universal health
care that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer health care system, or
compulsory private or co-operative health insurance. This is intended to ensure that
the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than
ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned
hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three.

Most tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a


whole.[56] In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for
it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who
may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.
Modern drug ampoules

Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to


information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice
by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While
the US healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness,[57] new
legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between
the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality
and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.

Delivery
Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care
categories.[58]

Nurses in Kokopo, East New


Britain, Papua New Guinea
Primary care medical services are provided by physicians, physician assistants, nurse
practitioners, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient
seeking medical treatment or care.[59] These occur in physician offices, clinics,
nursing homes, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of
medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of
acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and
both sexes.

Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices
or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care
provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient.[60] Referrals are made for those
patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These
include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, Emergency departments,
intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery,
endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice
centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients
and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.

Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers
equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local
hospitals. These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced
neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology,
etc.

Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health
care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means.

In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average
person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees"
be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant
costs and barriers remain.[61]

Separation of prescribing and dispensing is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in


which the physician who provides a medical prescription is independent from the
pharmacist who provides the prescription drug. In the Western world there are
centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries,
it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.[62]
Role of public health

Postage stamp, New


Zealand, 1933. Public health
has been promoted – and
depicted – in a wide variety
of ways.

Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease,
prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed
choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals."[63]
It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population
health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or
as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a
pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the
interdisciplinary categories of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services.
environmental health, community health, behavioral health, and occupational health
are also important areas of public health.

The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries
and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of
healthy behavior, communities, and (in aspects relevant to human health)
environments. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening or re-occurring
by implementing educational programs, developing policies, administering services
and conducting research.[64] In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a
pathogen can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak.
Vaccination programs and distribution of condoms to prevent the spread of
communicable diseases are examples of common preventive public health measures,
as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms
(including overcoming resistance to such).

Public health also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between
different areas of the country and, in some cases, the continent or world. One issue is
the access of individuals and communities to health care in terms of financial,
geographical or socio-cultural constraints.[65] Applications of the public health system
include the areas of maternal and child health, health services administration,
emergency response, and prevention and control of infectious and chronic diseases.

The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in
part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century
registered a decrease in the mortality rates for infants and children and a continual
increase in life expectancy in most parts of the world. For example, it is estimated
that life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900,[66] and
worldwide by six years since 1990.[67]

Self-care strategies

A lady washing her hands


c. 1655
Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people
observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for
preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through
integrative care. They also include personal hygiene practices to prevent infection and
illness, such as bathing and washing hands with soap; brushing and flossing teeth;
storing, preparing and handling food safely; and many others. The information
gleaned from personal observations of daily living – such as about sleep patterns,
exercise behavior, nutritional intake and environmental features – may be used to
inform personal decisions and actions (e.g., "I feel tired in the morning so I am going
to try sleeping on a different pillow"), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans
(e.g., a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having
exacerbation of left-sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce
fluid overload).[68]

Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person's life. The
maintenance of strong social relationships, volunteering, and other social activities
have been linked to positive mental health and also increased longevity. One
American study among seniors over age 70, found that frequent volunteering was
associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not
volunteer, regardless of physical health status.[69] Another study from Singapore
reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better cognitive performance
scores, fewer depressive symptoms, and better mental well-being and life satisfaction
than non-volunteering retirees.[70]

Prolonged psychological stress may negatively impact health, and has been cited as
a factor in cognitive impairment with aging, depressive illness, and expression of
disease.[71] Stress management is the application of methods to either reduce stress
or increase tolerance to stress. Relaxation techniques are physical methods used to
relieve stress. Psychological methods include cognitive therapy, meditation, and
positive thinking, which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant
skills, such as problem solving and time management skills, reduces uncertainty and
builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations where
those skills are applicable.
Occupational
In addition to safety risks, many jobs also present risks of disease, illness and other
long-term health problems. Among the most common occupational diseases are
various forms of pneumoconiosis, including silicosis and coal worker's
pneumoconiosis (black lung disease). Asthma is another respiratory illness that many
workers are vulnerable to. Workers may also be vulnerable to skin diseases, including
eczema, dermatitis, urticaria, sunburn, and skin cancer.[72] Other occupational
diseases of concern include carpal tunnel syndrome and lead poisoning.

As the number of service sector jobs has risen in developed countries, more and
more jobs have become sedentary, presenting a different array of health problems
than those associated with manufacturing and the primary sector. Contemporary
problems, such as the growing rate of obesity and issues relating to stress and
overwork in many countries, have further complicated the interaction between work
and health.

Many governments view occupational health as a social challenge and have formed
public organizations to ensure the health and safety of workers. Examples of these
include the British Health and Safety Executive and in the United States, the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, which conducts research on
occupational health and safety, and the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, which handles regulation and policy relating to worker safety and
health.[73]

See also

Disease burden – Impact of


diseases
Environmental health – Public
health branch focused on
environmental impacts on human
health
Healing – Process of the
restoration of health
Health equity – Study and causes
of differences in the quality of
health and healthcare
Human enhancement – Natural,
artificial, or technological alteration
of the human body
List of health and wellness
podcasts
Men's health – Broad subject that
encompasses all facets of men's
health
One Health – Collaborative global
initiative
Population health – Health
outcomes of a group of individuals
Women's health – Broad subject
that encompasses all facets of
women's health
Youth health – range of approaches
to preventing, detecting or treating
young people’s health risks and
issues
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External links

Library resources about


Health

Online books (https://ftl.toolforge.org/


cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Health&library=O
LBP)
Resources in your library (https://ftl.to
olforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Heal
th)
Resources in other libraries (https://ftl.
toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=He
alth&library=0CHOOSE0)

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