Impedance Matching

and Tuning

This chapter marks a turning point, in that we now begin to apply the theory and tech-
niques of previous chapters to practical problems in microwave engineering. We start with the
topic of impedance matching, which is often an important part of a larger design process for
a microwave component or system. The basic idea of impedance matching is illustrated in
Figure 5.1, which shows an impedance matching network placed between a load impedance
and a transmission line. The matching network is ideally lossless, to avoid unnecessary loss of
power, and is usually designed so that the impedance seen looking into the matching network
is Z 0 . Then reflections will be eliminated on the transmission line to the left of the matching
network, although there will usually be multiple reflections between the matching network and
the load. This procedure is sometimes referred to as tuning. Impedance matching or tuning is
important for the following reasons:

Maximum power is delivered when the load is matched to the line (assuming the gener-
ator is matched), and power loss in the feed line is minimized.
Impedance matching sensitive receiver components (antenna, low-noise amplifier, etc.)
may improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the system.
Impedance matching in a power distribution network (such as an antenna array feed
network) may reduce amplitude and phase errors.

As long as the load impedance, Z L , has a positive real part, a matching network can always
be found. Many choices are available, however, and we will discuss the design and performance
of several types of practical matching networks. Factors that may be important in the selection
of a particular matching network include the following:

Complexity—As with most engineering solutions, the simplest design that satisfies the
required specifications is generally preferable. A simpler matching network is usually
cheaper, smaller, more reliable, and less lossy than a more complex design.
Bandwidth—Any type of matching network can ideally give a perfect match (zero
reflection) at a single frequency. In many applications, however, it is desirable to match
a load over a band of frequencies. There are several ways of doing this, with, of course,
a corresponding increase in complexity.
 Matching Load
Z0 network ZL

FIGURE 5.1 A lossless network matching an arbitrary load impedance to a transmission line.

Implementation—Depending on the type of transmission line or waveguide being used,

one type of matching network may be preferable to another. For example, tuning
stubs are much easier to implement in waveguide than are multisection quarter-wave
transformers.
Adjustability—In some applications the matching network may require adjustment to
match a variable load impedance. Some types of matching networks are more amenable
than others in this regard.

Probably the simplest type of matching network is the L-section, which uses two reac-
tive elements to match an arbitrary load impedance to a transmission line. There are two
possible configurations for this network, as shown in Figure 5.2. If the normalized load
impedance, z L Z L Z 0 , is inside the 1 j x circle on the Smith chart, then the circuit
of Figure 5.2a should be used. If the normalized load impedance is outside the 1 j x cir-
cle on the Smith chart, the circuit of Figure 5.2b should be used. The 1 j x circle is the
resistance circle on the impedance Smith chart for which r 1.
In either of the configurations of Figure 5.2, the reactive elements may be either induc-
tors or capacitors, depending on the load impedance. Thus, there are eight distinct possibil-
ities for the matching circuit for various load impedances. If the frequency is low enough
and/or the circuit size is small enough, actual lumped-element capacitors and inductors can
be used. This may be feasible for frequencies up to about 1 GHz or so, although modern
microwave integrated circuits may be small enough such that lumped elements can be used
at higher frequencies as well. There is, however, a large range of frequencies and circuit
sizes where lumped elements may not be realizable. This is a limitation of the L-section

jX jX

Z0 jB ZL jB ZL

(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.2 L-section matching networks. (a) Network for z L inside the 1 j x circle. (b) Net-
work for z L outside the 1 j x circle.
matching technique. We will first derive analytic expressions for the matching network
elements of the two cases in Figure 5.2, and then illustrate an alternative design procedure
using the Smith chart.

Although we will discuss a simple graphical solution using the Smith chart, it is also useful
to have simple expressions for the L-section matching network components. These expres-
sions can be used in a computer-aided design program for L-section matching, or when it
is necessary to have more accuracy than the Smith chart can provide.
Consider first the circuit of Figure 5.2a, and let Z L RL j X L . We stated that this
circuit would be used when z L Z L Z 0 is inside the 1 j x circle on the Smith chart,
which implies that R L Z 0 for this case. The impedance seen looking into the matching
network, followed by the load impedance, must be equal to Z 0 for an impedance-matched
condition:
1
Z0 jX 51
jB 1 RL j XL

Rearranging and separating into real and imaginary parts gives two equations for the two
unknowns, X and B:

B X RL X L Z0 RL Z0 (5.2a)
X 1 B XL B Z 0 RL XL (5.2b)

Solving (5.2a) for X and substituting into (5.2b) gives a quadratic equation for B. The
solution is

XL R L Z 0 R 2L X 2L Z 0 RL
B 5 3a
R 2L X 2L

Note that since R L Z 0 , the argument of the second square root is always positive. Then
the series reactance can be found as
1 X L Z0 Z0
X 5 3b
B RL B RL

Equation (5.3a) indicates that two solutions are possible for B and X . Both of these
solutions are physically realizable since both positive and negative values of B and X are
possible (positive X implies an inductor and negative X implies a capacitor, while positive
B implies a capacitor and negative B implies an inductor). One solution, however, may
result in significantly smaller values for the reactive components, or may be the preferred
solution if the bandwidth of the match is better, or if the SWR on the line between the
matching network and the load is smaller.
Next consider the circuit of Figure 5.2b. This circuit is used when z L is outside the
1 j x circle on the Smith chart, which implies that R L Z 0 . The admittance seen look-
ing into the matching network, followed by the load impedance, must be equal to 1 Z 0 for
an impedance-matched condition:

1 1
jB 54
Z0 RL j X XL
Rearranging and separating into real and imaginary parts gives two equations for the two
unknowns, X and B:

B Z0 X XL Z0 RL (5.5a)
X XL B Z 0 RL (5.5b)

Solving for X and B gives

X RL Z0 RL XL (5.6a)
Z0 RL RL
B (5.6b)
Z0

Because R L Z 0 , the arguments of the square roots are always positive. Again, note that
two solutions are possible.
In order to match an arbitrary complex load to a line of characteristic impedance Z 0 ,
the real part of the input impedance to the matching network must be Z 0 , while the imag-
inary part must be zero. This implies that a general matching network must have at least
two degrees of freedom; in the L-section matching circuit these two degrees of freedom
are provided by the values of the two reactive components.

Instead of the above formulas, the Smith chart can be used to quickly and accurately design
L-section matching networks. The procedure is best illustrated by an example.

EXAMPLE 5.1 L-SECTION IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Design an L-section matching network to match a series RC load with an impedance

Z L 200 j 100 to a 100 line at a frequency of 500 MHz.

Solution
The normalized load impedance is z L 2 j1, which is plotted on the Smith
chart of Figure 5.3a. This point is inside the 1 j x circle, so we use the match-
ing circuit of Figure 5.2a. Because the first element from the load is a shunt sus-
ceptance, it makes sense to convert to admittance by drawing the SWR circle
through the load, and a straight line from the load through the center of the chart,
as shown in Figure 5.3a. After we add the shunt susceptance and convert back
to impedance, we want to be on the 1 j x circle so that we can add a series
reactance to cancel j x and match the load. This means that the shunt suscep-
tance must move us from y L to the 1 j x circle on the admittance Smith chart.
Thus, we construct the rotated 1 j x circle as shown in Figure 5.3a (center at
r 0 333). (A combined Z Y chart may be convenient to use here, if it is not too
confusing.) Then we see that adding a susceptance of jb j0 3 will move us
along a constant-conductance circle to y 0 4 j 0 5 (this choice is the short-
est distance from y L to the shifted 1 j x circle). Converting back to impedance
leaves us at z 1 j1 2, indicating that a series reactance of x j 1 2 will bring
us to the center of the chart. For comparison, the formulas (5.3a) and (5.3b) give
the solution as b 0 29 x 1 22.
 This matching circuit consists of a shunt capacitor and a series inductor,
as shown in Figure 5.3b. For a matching frequency of 500 MHz, the capacitor
has a value of
b
C 0 92 pF
2 f Z0
and the inductor has a value of
x Z0
L 38 8 nH
2 f
It is also interesting to look at the second solution to this matching problem. If
instead of adding a shunt susceptance of b 0 3 we use a shunt susceptance of
b 0 7, we will move to a point on the lower half of the shifted 1 j x circle,
to y 0 4 j0 5. Then converting to impedance and adding a series reactance of
x 1 2 leads to a match as well. Formulas (5.3a) and (5.3b) give this solution as
b 0 69 x 1 22. This matching circuit is also shown in Figure 5.3b, and
is seen to have the positions of the inductor and capacitor reversed from the first
matching network. At a frequency of f 500 MHz, the capacitor has a value of
1
C 2 61 pF
2 f x Z0

Rotated 1 + jx circle
on admittance chart

+j0.3

yL

zL
+j1.2

(a)

FIGURE 5.3 Solution to Example 5.1. (a) Smith chart for the L-section matching networks.
 38.8 nH

Z0 = 100 0.92 pF ZL = 200 – j100

Solution 1

2.61pF

Z0 = 100 46.1 nH ZL = 200 – j100

Solution 2
(b)

0.75
Solution
2
0.5
Solution
1

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
f (GHz)
(c)

FIGURE 5.3 Continued. (b) The two possible L-section matching circuits. (c) Reflection coeffi-
cient magnitudes versus frequency for the matching circuits of (b).

while the inductor has a value of

Z0
L 46 1 nH
2 fb
Figure 5.3c shows the reflection coefficient magnitude versus frequency for these
two matching networks, assuming that the load impedance of Z L 200 j100
at 500 MHz consists of a 200 resistor and a 3.18 pF capacitor in series. There
is not a substantial difference in bandwidth for these two solutions.

POINT OF INTEREST: Lumped Elements for Microwave Integrated Circuits

Lumped R L, and C elements can be practically realized at microwave frequencies if the

length, , of the component is very small relative to the operating wavelength. Over a limited
range of values, such components can be used in hybrid and monolithic microwave integrated
circuits at frequencies up to 60 GHz, or higher, if the condition that 10 is satisfied.
Usually, however, the characteristics of such an element are far from ideal, requiring that un-
desirable effects such as parasitic capacitance and/or inductance, spurious resonances, fringing
fields, loss, and perturbations caused by a ground plane be incorporated in the design via a CAD
model (see the Point of Interest concerning CAD).
 Air
bridge

Lossy film
Lossy film

Planar resistor Chip resistor Loop inductor Spiral inductor

Dielectric

r r

Interdigital Metal-insulator- Chip capacitor

gap capacitor metal capacitor

Resistors are fabricated with thin films of lossy material such as nichrome, tantalum nitride,
or doped semiconductor material. In monolithic circuits such films can be deposited or grown,
whereas chip resistors made from a lossy film deposited on a ceramic chip can be bonded or
soldered in a hybrid circuit. Low resistances are hard to obtain.
Small values of inductance can be realized with a short length or loop of transmission
line, and larger values (up to about 10 nH) can be obtained with a spiral inductor, as shown
in the following figures. Larger inductance values generally incur more loss and more shunt
capacitance; this leads to a resonance that limits the maximum operating frequency.
Capacitors can be fabricated in several ways. A short transmission line stub can provide
a shunt capacitance in the range of 0–0.1 pF. A single gap, or an interdigital set of gaps, in
a transmission line can provide a series capacitance up to about 0.5 pF. Greater values (up to
about 25 pF) can be obtained using a metal-insulator-metal sandwich in either monolithic or
chip (hybrid) form.

Another popular matching technique uses a single open-circuited or short-circuited length

of transmission line (a stub) connected either in parallel or in series with the transmission
feed line at a certain distance from the load, as shown in Figure 5.4. Such a single-stub
tuning circuit is often very convenient because the stub can be fabricated as part of the
transmission line media of the circuit, and lumped elements are avoided. Shunt stubs are
preferred for microstrip line or stripline, while series stubs are preferred for slotline or
coplanar waveguide.
In single-stub tuning the two adjustable parameters are the distance, d, from the load
to the stub position, and the value of susceptance or reactance provided by the stub. For
the shunt-stub case, the basic idea is to select d so that the admittance, Y , seen looking
into the line at distance d from the load is of the form Y0 j B. Then the stub susceptance
is chosen as j B, resulting in a matched condition. For the series-stub case, the distance
d is selected so that the impedance, Z , seen looking into the line at a distance d from the
load is of the form Z 0 j X . Then the stub reactance is chosen as j X , resulting in a
matched condition.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the proper length of an open or shorted transmission line
section can provide any desired value of reactance or susceptance. For a given suscep-
tance or reactance, the difference in lengths of an open- or short-circuited stub is 4.