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The L2 Motivational Self System: Using the Selves in the Classroom

Chapter · January 2022

DOI: 10.5040/9781350166912.ch-9

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 CHAPTER 9

The L2 Motivational Self

System: Using the Selves in the
Classroom
Mostafa Papi

Background
Motivation for second language (L2) learning has been a topic of interest
for researchers in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) for over
seven decades. Research on this topic was pioneered by researchers in
the multilingual context of Canada, where interest in the target language
community and culture were determining factors in one’s decision and
motivation to learn the other language. For instance, if Anglophones were
interested in the French-Canadians’ community and culture they were more
motivated to learn French. If the interest to learn about the French-Canadian
culture and community was so intense that the individual wanted to even
adopt and blend in with the French-Canadian culture, the individual was
assumed to have what was called an integrative orientation toward learning
French (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972). This integrative orientation was
found to result in highest levels of motivation to learn the target language. In
addition to desire to integrate, learners also had another orientation toward
learning a second language that included utilitarian goals such as getting
a job, passing a course, traveling, and the like. These two orientations,
integrative vs. instrumental, were traditionally assumed to encompass
language learning goals and motives. However, in the early 1990s and after
three decades of the hegemony of Gardner’s theory of motivation, many

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researchers started to question the generalizability of these findings to other

contexts where there is no target language community to integrate into, and
pointed to the restrictive nature of Gardner’s theory. Most notably, Zoltan
Dörnyei championed a new wave of research on the topic and proposed that
motivation is much more complicated than what Gardner’s theory (Gardner,
1985; Gardner & Lambert, 1972) has outlined. Dörnyei proposed multiple
theories of motivation each dealing with different aspects of motivation
including but not limited to the process of goal setting and motivation,
classroom motivation, task motivation, and, more relevant to the present
chapter, the notion of L2 selves.
In his L2 Motivational Self System, Dörnyei (2009a) drew on motivation
theories from the field of psychology to propose that if knowing the target
language is an important dimension of the future self that the person desires
to become, this person is said to have a future L2 self. The future L2 self
could be an Ideal L2 Self, representing the L2 attributes that the person
would ideally like to possess in future, or an Ought-to L2 Self, representing
the L2 attributes that the person is expected to possess in order to avoid
negative consequences. An example of an Ideal L2 Self is an image of a person
who uses the target language fluently and effectively in communication with
international friends and colleagues. An example of an Ought-to L2 Self is
an image of a person who performs very well in their language classes or
at their job and avoids negative consequences such as failure in school or
at work, respectively. An Ideal L2 Self and an Ought-to L2 Self could even
look like they are the same goal (e.g., using the target language effectively
at work) on surface; however, the deeper regulatory focus of the goals
could be different. That is, whereas an Ideal L2 Self has a promotion focus
concerned with approaching positive end-states such as advancement and
accomplishment in one’s career, an Ought-to L2 Self has a prevention focus
concerned with avoiding negative end-states such as avoiding losing one’s
job. In other words, whereas the former is about moving from the current
state to a more desirable state, the latter is about maintaining the current
state and avoiding a less desirable state.
The Ideal and Ought-to L2 Self act as motivators through creating
feelings of discomfort associated with the discrepancy between one’s current
self and their future selves. In other words, individuals are motivated to
reduce the discrepancy between their current L2 self and their future L2
selves. This perceived discrepancy creates a feeling of discomfort that results
in motivation to reduce the discrepancy. As the learners move from their
current self toward their future selves, they experience different types of
emotions depending on the type of future self that they are trying to approach.
Learners who are motivated to realize their Ideal L2 Self, experience elation-
related emotions such as excitement and joy (see Dewaele, this volume) as
they move toward this promotion-related self but if they fail to realize their
Ideal L2 Self, they experience dejection-related emotions such as sadness
and disappointment. By contrast, learners experience the quiescence-related

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 THE L2 MOTIVATIONAL SELF SYSTEM 93

emotions such as calmness as they succeed in moving toward their Ought-

to L2 Self but feel agitation-related emotions such as anxiety if they do not
make appropriate progress in doing so.
The pursuit of Ideal L2 Self vs. Ought-to L2 Self also results in the
employment of different strategies in goal pursuit. Learners who are
motivated by their Ideal L2 Self are more concerned about moving from
the current state to a more desirable state, therefore, they are willing to
take an eager strategic inclination, which involves taking advantage of every
opportunity to use the target language without being concerned about the
risk of making mistakes. Those motivated by an Ought-to L2 Self, on the
other hand, are concerned about maintaining their current state and tend to
take a vigilant strategic inclination that involves a cautious and minimal use
of the target language in order to avoid making mistakes and risking their
current situation.
In sum, learners who are motivated by their Ideal L2 Self experience joy
and excitement and use eager strategies in their L2 use when they advance
toward their Ideal L2 Self and experience sadness and disappointment when
they fail to do so. By contrast those who are motivated by their Ought-to L2
Self experience anxiety and use vigilant L2 use strategies when they fail to
realize their Ought-to L2 Self but experience calmness and safety when they
succeed in doing so. In other words, the ultimate goal of learners motivated
by their Ideal L2 Self is to achieve the feeling of joy whereas the goal of
learners motivated by their Ought-to L2 Self is to achieve the feelings of
calmness and safety.

Research on L2 Selves
The future L2 selves have been the subject of scholarly research. Studies in
this area can be divided to three groups that have explored the relations
between the selves on one hand and emotions, motivation, behavior, and
achievement, on the other hand.
Some studies have explored the connection between selves and emotions.
Papi (2010) found that Ought-to L2 Self increase L2 anxiety whereas Ideal
L2 Self decreased L2 anxiety. Papi and Teimouri (2014) found similar results.
In another study in the context of Iran, Teimouri (2017) found that Ideal L2
Self predicted L2 learning enjoyment whereas Ought-to Selves predicted L2
anxiety and shame. Similarly, Papi and Khajavi (2021) found that Ideal L2 Self
predicted L2 enjoyment positively and L2 anxiety negatively whereas Ought
L2 Self predicted L2 anxiety positively.
The biggest group of studies have examined the predictive validity of
motivation theories by exploring how the selves predicts motivation and
behavior. In the case of the future L2 selves, researchers examine whether the
learners who have strong Ideal or Ought-to L2 Selves also show high levels

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of language learning motivation, behavior, and achievement or proficiency

outcomes. Many studies all around the work have been conducted to
evaluate the predictive validity of the future L2 selves. For instance, in an
international study in the context of English learning in China, Japan, and
Iran, my colleagues and I (Taguchi, Magid & Papi, 2009) found that Ideal
L2 Self was a strong predictor of motivation; Ought-to L2 Self also predicted
motivation but not as strongly as Ideal L2 Self. Csizer and Kormos (2009)
tested the model in the context of Hungary and found only Ideal L2 Self to
predict motivation. In Hong Kong, Dörnyei and Chan (2013) found that
Ideal and Ought-to L2 Selves were both associated with motivation among
learners of English and Mandarin but only Ideal L2 Self correlated with the
students’ grades in Mandarin. In a large-scale study in the context of China,
You and Dörnyei (2016) found that in both rural and urban areas Ideal L2
Self and Ought-to L2 Self predicted motivation. Csizér and Lukàcs (2010)
found that Ideal L2 Self predicted motivation among learners of German
and English in Hungary. Kormos and Csizer (2014) found that Ideal L2 Self
predicted motivation among secondary school, university, and young adult
learners in Hungary. Papi and Abdollahzadeh (2012) found that Ought-to L2
Self was associated with low class participation. Domakani and Mohammadi
(2016) found that Ideal L2 Self predicted the use of self-regulated learning
strategies but Ought-to L2 Self did not. Khajavi and Ghonsouli (2017)
found that Ideal L2 Self resulted in willingness to communicate in a second
language. Papi et al. (2019) found that Ideal L2 Self contributed to eager
L2 use strategies representing maximum use of the target language whereas
the Ought-to Self resulted in vigilant L2 use strategies concerned with the
minimal and cautious use of the target language.
The third groups of studies have also been conducted on the relationship
between the selves on one hand and L2 proficiency achievement on the
other hand. Papi and Teimouri (2012) found that the learners who had
a strong Ideal L2 Self and a weak Ought-to L2 Self rated their English
proficiency higher than other groups of learners. Kim and Kim (2014)
found that Ideal L2 Self predicted self-reported English proficiency among
elementary students in South Korea. Papi and Khajavi (2021) found that
Ideal L2 Self predicted English achievement (final course grades) through
increasing enjoyment and eager L2 use, whereas Ought-to L2 Self negatively
affected English achievement through increasing anxiety and vigilant L2 use
strategies. Finally, in meta-analysis of many studies in this area, Al-Hoorie
(2018) found that only Ideal L2 Self correlated with L2 achievement.

Applications in the Classroom Context

As the studies reviewed above show, both Ideal L2 Self and Ought-to L2 Self
contribute to student motivation. However, whereas Ideal L2 Self enhances
learning enjoyment and decreases the negative emotion of anxiety, Ought-to

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 THE L2 MOTIVATIONAL SELF SYSTEM 95

L2 Self results negative emotions such as anxiety and shame. In addition,

whereas Ideal L2 Self results in constructive learning behaviors such as
willingness to communicate in a second language and the eager use of the
second language, Ought-to L2 Self leads to vigilant and minimal use of the
language and low class participation. These findings show that whereas both
Ideal and Ought-to L2 Self contribute to the intensity of learner motivation,
there are qualitative differences in the emotional and behavioral outcomes
of these selves (Papi, 2016, 2018) with Ideal L2 Self appearing to lead
to emotional and behavioral patterns more adaptive and constructive to
language learning. It is, thus, not surprising that most motivation researchers
have emphasized the enhancement of Ideal L2 Self as their focal approach
in motivating language learners (see, e.g., Thompson, this volume). Such an
enhancement of Ideal L2 Self can lead to learners’ experience of positive
emotions during the learning process and enhance their promotion-oriented
learning behaviors such as eager L2 use and willingness to communicate.
Different techniques have been empirically used in a few studies (e.g.,
Mackay, 2015; Magid, 2011; Magid & Chan, 2012; Munezane, 2015;
Sampson, 2012; Sato, 2020) to help learners develop and activate an Ideal
L2 Self. These studies, reviewed below, have shown that helping students
develop an Ideal L2 Self with specific and clear features could have positive
motivational, behavioral and learning outcomes.
Magid (2011) conducted a motivational program consisting of
activities to develop students’ future L2 selves (Ideal L2 Self and feared L2
self) and help them come up with plans and strategies to achieve them.
He had students read or listen to motivational songs. Then the students
were asked to close their eyes and listen to excerpts that were developed
by the researcher to help students visualize their ideal English selves (e.g.,
imagine living in a community abroad and using English to communicate
with others). The students were also guided to jot down their goals as well
as their ideal L2 selves in the domains of jobs, relationships, and lifestyle,
and their positive or negative role models for their motivational goals in
each domain, and come up with a timeline and strategies to achieve those
goals. The researcher reported that at the end of the program, the students’
vision of their ideal L2 self, their English learning motivation, oral English
proficiency and vocabulary knowledge increased even though it is hard to
attribute the linguistic improvements directly to the intervention program.
Magid and Chan (2012) employed sophisticated workshops within two
intervention programs on developing an Ideal L2 Self among learners of
English in England and Hong Kong that lasted four and three months,
respectively. In the England program, students were asked to write about
their future professional, personal, and social future including their jobs,
relationships, and life styles. They were also asked to make lists of their
positive and negative role models and also think about the self they fear
they might become. These techniques were intended to help learners to
develop a clear and elaborate picture of their Ideal L2 Self. In a following

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workshop, the learners were asked to create a timeline including paths and
steps toward achieving their Ideal L2 Self. This was meant to make the
achievement of these goals appear as something feasible and real rather than
imaginary. To make it feel even more real and doable, they asked students
to develop action plans detailing the steps they need to take to move toward
those goals and the date they had in mind to start working on the plans. In
the Hong Kong program, students were asked to draw an Ideal Self Tree
each with three limbs indicating the ideal English user they want to be, their
ideal career, and how they want to use English at work in personal life.
After the workshops, the students were given twenty-three audio-recorded
imagery situations to listen to and keep their Ideal L2 Selves activated and
motivating. The participants also received counseling and feedback on how
they were progressing in achieving their goals. The results of the studies
showed that these interventions helped the participants develop a vivid and
elaborate vision of their Ideal L2 Self, and increased their motivation and
self-confidence (see also Chan, 2014).
In an action research study, Sampson (2012) conducted a one-semester
program during which the researcher asked students to complete a free
writing activity describing their “best possible English self.” Based on
data collected from the free-writing task, other task-based activities were
developed to enhance the participants’ Ideal L2 Self explicitly and implicitly.
These included ranking pictures of their Ideal Selves (e.g., jobs, lifestyle),
discussing the pros and cons of each, selecting role models, developing
strategies for goal-achievement, timelines for achieving their ideal selves,
and also reflecting on the “failed future self.” Students also wrote reflections
on their progress throughout the semester, and in the end they presented
their reflections through a skit. The study found that by the end of the
program the student developed a clear Ideal L2 Self and came to recognize
themselves as agents of their own learning process.
Mackay (2015) employed three types of visualization activities. The first
type included positive visualization, through which students using breathing
and relaxation techniques and were guided on how to use visual stimuli to
trigger mental images. The second type of activities included visualizing the
future L2 self they identified with the most. The third type included students
interviewing successful language learners on the strategies and plans they
used to realize their future L2 selves, and developed a learning timeline and
a list of strategies and plans to realize their own L2 selves. Based on the
qualitative results, the author reported that the intervention helped students
form clear, detailed, and personal visions of their Ideal L2 Selves.
Munezane (2015) examined the effects of a similar intervention on
learners’ willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC).
The students were asked to visualize their Ideal L2 Self with the desired
proficiency in English and share them with their classmates. Next, they
drew pictures of their Ideal L2 Selves, wrote about them at home, and
presented them in class. While imagining themselves as future specialists

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 THE L2 MOTIVATIONAL SELF SYSTEM 97

in their own field, the students discussed important global issues and gave
class presentation on the issues. One group of the students were asked to jot
down and discuss their goal for the next twenty years, the next year’s goals,
and the current semester’s goals. The students were then guided to reflect on
how English proficiency can help them reach those goals. The study showed
that visualization increased students L2 WTC; in addition, students enjoyed
the content of the interventions and found themselves to be more competent
in reaching their motivational goals.
Safadri (2021) employed a six-step program on a small sample of
participants in Iran. The program included activities such as creating a
vision of learners’ Ideal English Self through reflection, discussion, and
scripted imagery, strengthening the vision through creating their future
autobiographies, interviewing successful English learners, and doing mini-
projects. The authors reported that these activities enhanced learners’
motivation and Ideal L2 Self.
Finally, Sato (2020; see also Sato & Lara, 2019) had a group of Chilean
business-major students complete language learning tasks that required
envisioning their ideal selves as internationally successful entrepreneurs and
emphasized the important use of English. The students also had to reflect
on the potential obstacles that they might have in the pursuit of their ideal
selves. More specifically, they were asked to watch an interview with a very
successful Chilean entrepreneur who spoke English with a Chilean accent.
They were asked to pay special attention to the person’s English skills. They
were then asked to envision themselves just like the person in the video and
as highly successful people and pay attention to the role of English in their
success. A control group watched a similar video of a successful Chilean
entrepreneur without who spoke Spanish and did similar worksheets without
any attention to the role of English. The results of the study showed that the
intervention led to improvements in Ideal L2 Self but not in Ought-to L2
Self or intended effort. In addition, the students in the intervention group
used English more frequently and Spanish less frequently in their classes.
The studies reviewed about employed interventions based on the
conditions that Dörnyei (2009a) considered necessary for the future selves
to have motivational power. That is, the studies tried to (a) create an Ideal
L2 Self if students didn’t have one, (b) strengthen the vision through imagery
enhancement, (c) make the Ideal Self appear plausible, (d) activating the
Ideal Self through different communicative tasks, (e) operationalize the ideal
vision by developing action plans and strategies, and, finally (f), making
the Ideal L2 Self more desirable by considering the possibility of failure.
Even though these preliminary studies might lack empirical rigor, they
provide promising evidence that classroom activities developed based on
Dörnyei’s proposals provide the motivational content that many language
classes seriously need. They also confirm Papi’s (et el., 2019) proposal that
enhancing the Ideal L2 Self can lead to more eager behavioral outcomes
such as WTC and the eager use of the target language.

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 98 RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING MOTIVATION

From a motivation-as-quality perspective (Papi, 2018; Papi et al., 2019),

designing experiments that enhance both the ideals and the oughts, and
measuring the effects of those interventions not only on the ideal and oughts
but more importantly on the quality of learning behaviors and outcomes
could be theoretically more meaningful and lead to more validity in the
results and interpretations of such studies. In addition, both immediate and
long-term benefits of such interventions should be explored in order to better
understand the real value of such interventions, which can only be valid if
the sample size is large enough to allow for sufficient statistical power in the
analyses, the participants are blinded to the purpose of the study, and there
is a control group that is involved in equally instructional learning activities.
Keeping the principles laid out by Dörnyei (2009a) and Papi et al. (2019;
see also Papi & Khajavy, 2021) in mind, teachers can creatively develop
numerous ideas that can not only provide communicative, task-based, and
enjoyable activities for language teaching but also implicitly or explicitly
enhance learners’ motivation to achieve the highest levels of proficiency in
the language they desire to learn.

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