DC MOTOR

Electricity and New Energy
Permanent Magnet DC Motor

Student Manual
86357-00
Order no.: 86357-00
Revision level: 12/2014
By the staff of Festo Didactic
© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2011

Internet: www.festo-didactic.com
e-mail: did@de.festo.com
Printed in Canada
All rights reserved
ISBN 978-2-89640-504-6 (Printed version)
ISBN 978-2-89747-238-2 (CD-ROM)
Legal Deposit – Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, 2011
Legal Deposit – Library and Archives Canada, 2011
The purchaser shall receive a single right of use which is non-exclusive, non-time-limited and limited
geographically to use at the purchaser's site/location as follows.
The purchaser shall be entitled to use the work to train his/her staff at the purchaser's site/location and
shall also be entitled to use parts of the copyright material as the basis for the production of his/her own
training documentation for the training of his/her staff at the purchaser's site/location with
acknowledgement of source and to make copies for this purpose. In the case of schools/technical
colleges, training centers, and universities, the right of use shall also include use by school and college
students and trainees at the purchaser's site/location for teaching purposes.
The right of use shall in all cases exclude the right to publish the copyright material or to make this
available for use on intranet, Internet and LMS platforms and databases such as Moodle, which allow
access by a wide variety of users, including those outside of the purchaser's site/location.
Entitlement to other rights relating to reproductions, copies, adaptations, translations, microfilming and
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require the prior consent of Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG.
Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not represent a commitment on
the part of Festo Didactic. The Festo materials described in this document are furnished under a license
agreement or a nondisclosure agreement.
Festo Didactic recognizes product names as trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective
holders.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Other trademarks and trade names may
be used in this document to refer to either the entity claiming the marks and names or their products.
Festo Didactic disclaims any proprietary interest in trademarks and trade names other than its own.
Safety and Common Symbols
The following safety and common symbols may be used in this manual and on
the equipment:
Symbol Description
DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

avoided, will result in death or serious injury.
WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

if not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.
CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

indicates a hazard with a potentially hazardous situation which,
if not avoided, may result in property damage.
Caution, risk of electric shock
Caution, hot surface
Caution, risk of danger
Caution, lifting hazard
Caution, hand entanglement hazard
Notice, non-ionizing radiation
Direct current
Alternating current
Both direct and alternating current
Three-phase alternating current
Earth (ground) terminal
© Festo Didactic 86357-00 III

Safety and Common Symbols
Symbol Description
Protective conductor terminal
Frame or chassis terminal
Equipotentiality
On (supply)
Off (supply)
Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

reinforced insulation
In position of a bi-stable push control
Out position of a bi-stable push control
IV © Festo Didactic 86357-00

Table of Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................. VII
About This Manual ................................................................................................ IX
Introduction Permanent Magnet DC Motors .................................................... 1

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS ....................................................... 1
Work, torque, and power.......................................................... 1
Basic dc motor operation ......................................................... 3
Permanent magnet dc motors.................................................. 5
Exercise 1 Prime Mover and Brake Operation ............................................. 7

DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 7
Introduction to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply ...................................................................................... 7
Two-quadrant constant-torque brake.......................................... 7
Clockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake ........................... 8
Counterclockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake ............... 9
Speed, torque, and mechanical power measurements
using the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply ......... 10
Motor operation ........................................................................ 10
Generator operation ................................................................. 10
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 11

Setup and connections .......................................................... 11
Two-quadrant, constant-torque brake operation.................... 13
Constant-speed prime mover operation ................................ 16
Constant-speed prime mover driving a loaded generator ..... 19
Exercise 2 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator........ 25

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 25
Permanent magnets ............................................................... 25
Magnetic field around a conductor ......................................... 26
Magnetic field in a loop of wire (electromagnet) .................... 27
Electromagnetic induction ...................................................... 29
Construction of a permanent magnet dc motor ..................... 33
Permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator ......... 34
Reducing the fluctuations of the generated dc voltage .......... 38
Characteristic of the generated voltage as a function of
the rotation speed .................................................................. 40
Torque opposing rotation in a permanent magnet
dc motor operating as a generator ......................................... 40
Opposition torque-versus-current characteristic .................... 42
© Festo Didactic 86357-00 V

Table of Contents
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 43

Electromagnetic induction phenomenon ................................ 43
Opposition to rotation ............................................................. 44
Voltage-versus-speed characteristic of a permanent
magnet dc motor operating as a generator ............................ 44
Clockwise rotation..................................................................... 46
Counterclockwise rotation ......................................................... 47
Torque-versus-current characteristic of a permanent
magnet dc motor operating as a generator ............................ 48
Exercise 3 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Motor ............... 55

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 55
Operation of a permanent magnet dc motor as a motor ........ 55
Magnetic field produced in the armature ............................... 56
Armature rotation resulting from the interaction between
the magnetic fields of the armature and permanent
magnets ................................................................................. 58
Equivalent diagram of a permanent magnet dc motor ........... 60
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 63
Setup and connections .......................................................... 64
Speed-versus-voltage characteristic of a permanent
magnet dc motor operating as a motor .................................. 65
Torque-versus-current and speed-versus-torque
characteristics of a permanent magnet dc motor
operating as a motor .............................................................. 68
Appendix A Equipment Utilization Chart ...................................................... 75
Appendix B Glossary of New Terms.............................................................. 77
Appendix C Circuit Diagram Symbols ........................................................... 79
Appendix D Preparation of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack ............................. 85

Charging procedure ............................................................... 85
Sulfation test .......................................................................... 86
Battery maintenance .............................................................. 87
Index of New Terms ............................................................................................. 89

Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 91
VI © Festo Didactic 86357-00

Preface
The production of energy using renewable natural resources such as wind,
sunlight, rain, tides, geothermal heat, etc., has gained much importance in recent
years as it is an effective means of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
The need for innovative technologies to make the grid smarter has recently
emerged as a major trend, as the increase in electrical power demand observed
worldwide makes it harder for the actual grid in many countries to keep up with
demand. Furthermore, electric vehicles (from bicycles to cars) are developed and
marketed with more and more success in many countries all over the world.
To answer the increasingly diversified needs for training in the wide field of
electrical energy, the Electric Power Technology Training Program was
developed as a modular study program for technical institutes, colleges, and
universities. The program is shown below as a flow chart, with each box in the
flow chart representing a course.
The Electric Power Technology Training Program.
© Festo Didactic 86357-00 VII

Preface
The program starts with a variety of courses providing in-depth coverage of basic
topics related to the field of electrical energy such as ac and dc power circuits,
power transformers, rotating machines, ac power transmission lines, and power
electronics. The program then builds on the knowledge gained by the student
through these basic courses to provide training in more advanced subjects such
as home energy production from renewable resources (wind and sunlight), large-
scale electricity production from hydropower, large-scale electricity production
from wind power (doubly-fed induction generator [DFIG], synchronous generator,
and asynchronous generator technologies), smart-grid technologies (SVC,
STATCOM, HVDC transmission, etc.), storage of electrical energy in batteries,
and drive systems for small electric vehicles and cars.
Do you have suggestions or criticism regarding this manual?
If so, send us an e-mail at did@de.festo.com.

The authors and Festo Didactic look forward to your comments.
VIII © Festo Didactic 86357-00

About This Manual
Rotating machines such as electrical motors and generators (or alternators) are
found in almost every sector of the industry. The basic principles of operation of
rotating machines have been known for almost two centuries. Rotating machines
operate due to the interaction between magnetic fields and current-carrying
conductors, and are split into two basic categories: motors and generators.
Permanent magnet dc motors are rotating machines that operate using direct
current (i.e., they are dc powered). They can be used as either generators or
motors. Permanent magnet dc motors are rugged components that are easy to
connect and require little maintenance. They are found in a variety of
applications, such as battery charging, small electric vehicles, windmill
technology, mobility scooters, pumps, machine tools, kitchen appliances, optical
equipment, etc.
The present course introduces the student to permanent magnet dc motors used
as either generators or motors. The course covers the construction, operating
principles, and characteristic curves of permanent magnet dc motors related to
each of these two operating modes.
The equipment for the course mainly consists of the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor and the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply. The operation of
the motor is controlled using the LVDAC-EMS software, which also provides the
instrumentation required to record the experimental data and plot characteristic
curves.
Safety considerations
Safety symbols that may be used in this manual and on the equipment are listed
in the Safety Symbols table at the beginning of the manual.
Safety procedures related to the tasks that you will be asked to perform are
indicated in each exercise.
Make sure that you are wearing appropriate protective equipment when
performing the tasks. You should never perform a task if you have any reason to
think that a manipulation could be dangerous for you or your teammates.
Prerequisite
As a prerequisite to this course, you should have read the manual titled
DC Power Circuits, p.n. 86350.
Systems of units
Units are expressed using the International System of Units (SI) followed by the
units expressed in the U.S. customary system of units (between parentheses).
© Festo Didactic 86357-00 IX

Introduction
Permanent Magnet DC Motors
MANUAL OBJECTIVE When you have completed this manual, you will be familiar with the construction
and operation of permanent magnet dc motors used as either generators or
motors. You will be familiar with the characteristic curves of permanent magnet
dc motors related to each of these two operating modes.
DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of Fundamentals covers the following points:
Work, torque, and power

Basic dc motor operation
Permanent magnet dc motors
DISCUSSION OF Work, torque, and power

FUNDAMENTALS
The mechanical work ܹ that is done when a force ‫ ܨ‬moves an object over a
distance ݀ can be calculated using the following equation:
ܹ ൌ‫ܨ‬ή݀ (1)
where ܹ is the mechanical work done by the force, expressed in joules (J)
or in pound-force inches (lbf·in).
‫ܨ‬ is the magnitude of the force moving the object, expressed in
newtons (N) or in pound-forces (lbf).
݀ is the distance over which the force moves the object, expressed
in meters (m) or in inches (in).
Figure 1 shows the example of a block that is moved over a distance of 1 m

(39.4 in) by a force ‫ ܨ‬of 1 N (0.22 lbf). Using Equation (1), it can be calculated
that a mechanical work ܹ of 1 J (8.85 lbf·in) has been done.
1m
ܹ ൌ 1 J (8.85 lbfāin) (39.4 in)
‫ ܨ‬ൌ 1 N (0.22 lbf)
Figure 1. Work required to move a block.
© Festo Didactic 86357-00 1

Introduction – Permanent Magnet DC Motors Discussion of Fundamentals
Consider now that the block in Figure 1 is moved over the same distance using a
pulley that has a radius , as shown in Figure 2.
ܶ ൌ‫ܨ‬ൈ‫ݎ‬
‫ܨ‬
‫ݎ‬
Figure 2. Moving a block using a pulley.
A twisting force must be applied on the pulley shaft to make it rotate so that the
rope wound around the pulley shaft pulls the block with a force ‫ܨ‬. This twisting
force is known as the torque ܶ and is defined by the following equation:
ܶ ൌ‫ܨ‬ή‫ݎ‬ (2)
where ܶ is the torque exerted on the pulley shaft, expressed in newton-

meters (N·m) or in pound-force inches (lbfήin).
‫ ܨ‬is the magnitude of the force acting on the pulley shaft, expressed
in newtons (N) or in pound forces (lbf).
‫ ݎ‬is the radius of the pulley, expressed in meters (m) or in
inches (in).
At the end of each complete rotation of the pulley, the block has been pulled a
distance of ሺʹɎ ή ‫ݎ‬ሻ m or in, meaning that a work of ሺʹɎ ή ‫ ݎ‬ή ‫ܨ‬ሻ J of lbfāin has been
done. Since ܶ ൌ ‫ ܨ‬ή ‫ݎ‬, the amount of work ܹ done in one revolution can be
expressed as ሺʹɎ ή ܶሻ J or lbfāin.
Power ܲ is defined as the rate of doing work, and it is calculated using the
following equation when work ܹ is expressed in joules.
ܹ
ܲൌ (3)
‫ݐ‬
where ܲ is the power of the device doing the work, expressed in watts (W).
ܹ is the amount of work done, expressed in joules (J).
‫ ݐ‬is the time taken to do the work, expressed in seconds (s).
2 © Festo Didactic 86357-00

When work ܹ is expressed in pound-force inches (lbf·in), the following equation

must be used to calculate the power ܲ:
In Equation (4) and Equa-

ܹ ͳ ܹ
ܲൌ ή ൌ (4)
tion (6), the term ͳΤͺǤͺͷ is ‫ ݐ‬ͺǤͺͷ ͺǤͺͷ ൈ ‫ݐ‬
used to convert the work ܹ,
expressed in pound-force
where ܹ is the amount of work done, expressed in pound-
inches (lbfāin), into a work ܹ
force inches (lbf·in).
expressed in joules (J).
Since power is work done per unit of time, the power ܲ of a motor turning at a
speed ݊ can be found using the following equation when the torque ܶ is
expressed in newton-meters (Nήm).
ͳ ͳ ݊ήܶ

In Equation (5) and Equa- ܲൌ݊ή ή ʹɎܶ ൌ ݊ ή ήܶ ൌ (5)
͸Ͳ ͻǤͷͷ ͻǤͷͷ
tion (6), the term ͳΤ͸Ͳ is
used to convert the motor
speed ݊, expressed in revo- where ݊ is the motor speed of rotation, expressed in revolutions per
lutions per minute (r/min), minute (r/min).
into a speed ݊ expressed in
revolutions per second (r/s).
When torque ܶ is expressed in pound-force inches (lbf·in), the power ܲ of the
motor can be found using the following equation:
ͳ ͳ ͳ ݊ ή ܶ
ܲൌ݊ή ή ʹɎܶ ή ൌ݊ήܶή ൌ (6)
͸Ͳ ͺǤͺͷ ͺͶǤͷ ͺͶǤͷ
It is possible to obtain the power ܲ, expressed in horsepower (hp), for any given
power ܲ, expressed in watts (W), by dividing the power value in watts by 746.
Basic dc motor operation
A dc motor is a rotating electromechanical machine that operates using direct

current (i.e., the machine is dc powered). For instance, when a dc power source
like a battery is connected to the terminals of a dc motor, the motor starts to
rotate and rotational mechanical power is produced at the motor shaft, as
Figure 3 shows.
The rotational mechanical power produced at the motor shaft is available to

make an object rotate. This object can be the bladed rotor of a fan, the driving
wheels of a vehicle, etc. Electrical energy from the battery is thus converted into
mechanical (rotational) energy by the dc motor.

Electrical power
DC motor
‫ܧ‬ ൅
Battery Rotational
െ mechanical power
Fan
Figure 3. Operation as a motor: the dc motor converts electrical power into rotational
mechanical power that makes the fan turn.
A dc motor can also perform the opposite action, i.e., convert rotational
mechanical power into electrical power, as Figure 4 shows. When rotational
mechanical power is applied to the shaft of the dc motor, the shaft starts to rotate
and dc voltage appears at the motor terminals. When an electric load is
connected to the motor terminals, current flows through the load and electrical
power is consumed by the load. In this case, the dc motor operates as a
generator since it produces electrical energy from the mechanical energy applied
to its shaft (instead of converting electrical energy applied to its terminals into
mechanical energy).
Electrical power
Load
current
DC motor
൅
Electrical
load െ
Rotational
mechanical power
Figure 4. Operation as a generator: the dc motor converts rotational mechanical power into
electrical power that is consumed by an electric load.

Permanent magnet dc motors
Permanent magnet dc motors use the magnetic field produced by permanent

magnets to operate. Permanent magnet dc motors commonly found on the
market operate in the power range of a few watts (W) up to tens of
kilowatts (kW). Small permanent magnet dc motors are rated for input
dc voltages of 5 V, 12 V, 24 V, 48 V.
Figure 5. Small permanent magnet dc motor.
Industrial motors are rated for dc voltages of 90 to 180 V and, in larger

applications, for voltages of 250 V and sometimes higher.
Permanent magnet dc motors are rugged electrical components. They are easy
to connect because they are powered using two electrical wires only.
Furthermore, they require little maintenance since they have very few parts
subjected to wear. The parts that are subjected to wear are carbon fiber
brushes. These brushes wear out with motor usage. They must therefore be
replaced occasionally. The brush replacement interval depends on motor usage.
Permanent magnet dc motors generally have a good power efficiency since no

electrical power is lost in producing the magnetic field (this magnetic field is
naturally produced by a permanent magnet) necessary for its operation. This
makes permanent magnet dc motors a serious option in any application where
power efficiency is at a premium.
Permanent magnet dc motors are used in many applications, including small

electric vehicles, windmill technology, mobility scooters, golf cars, kitchen
appliances, lawn and garden equipment, machine tools, forklifts, optical
equipment, robots, pump drives, blower drives, marine pumps, reels and
winches, railroad equipment, etc.

Figure 6. Permanent magnet dc motors can be used to power electric bicycles and scooters.
Figure 7. Permanent magnet dc motors can be used in mobility scooters and golf carts.

Exercise 1
Prime Mover and Brake Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the basic
functions of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply used in this manual.
You will also be familiar with the polarity of the speed, torque, and mechanical
power for a machine operating as either a motor or a generator.
a The hands-on exercises in this manual require you to be familiar with the
computer-based instruments in this training system. Refer to user guides Data
Acquisition and Control System, Model 86716-E, and Computer-Based Instruments
for EMS, Model 86718-E, to become familiar with the operation and use of these
computer-based instruments.
DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:
Introduction to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply

Two-quadrant constant-torque brake
Clockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake
Counterclockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake
Speed, torque, and mechanical power measurements using the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
Motor operation
Generator operation
DISCUSSION Introduction to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
The Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply module used in this manual

consists of complex power electronics circuits, a microcontroller, and a dc motor.
The module can be used to implement a multitude of functions. All mechanical
functions (i.e., all functions using the dc motor) enable the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply module to act as a dynamometer, i.e., to measure
the torque created by the machine connected to it. The following three basic
functions are described in this exercise:
1. Two-quadrant constant-torque brake
2. Clockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake
3. Counterclockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake
These three functions are explained in more details below.
Two-quadrant constant-torque brake
This function is used to study rotating machines operating as motors

(i.e., converting electrical energy into mechanical energy). The two-quadrant

Exercise 1 – Prime Mover and Brake Operation Discussion
constant-torque brake can be used to mechanically load a motor (i.e., to create

an opposition torque acting against the torque produced by the motor to rotate),
as Figure 8 shows. It is thus possible to study the speed, torque, and mechanical
power of the motor under test as load torque is applied to it.
Load torque
(opposition torque)
Two-quadrant constant-
torque brake
Motor
Direction of
rotation
Motor torque
Figure 8. Motor coupled to a two-quadrant constant-torque brake.
When the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply is operating as a two-

quadrant, constant-torque brake, it is possible to set the magnitude of the load
torque produced by the brake. The Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
window in the LVDAC-EMS software has speed, torque, power, and energy
meters that indicate the different parameters measured for the machine under
test. For example, the torque indicated by the torque meter corresponds to the
torque produced by the motor under test, not the load torque produced by the
two-quadrant, constant-torque brake.
When determining the torque produced by the motor to which it is coupled, the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply automatically compensates for its
own friction torque and for the belt friction torque. Thus, the torque indicated by
the torque meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window of
the LVDAC-EMS software represents the actual torque produced at the shaft of
the motor under test. Similarly, the mechanical power indicated by the power
meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window represents the
corrected mechanical power at the shaft of the motor under test.
Clockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake
This control function is used mainly to study rotating machines operating as

generators (i.e., converting mechanical energy into electrical energy). The
clockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake can be used to drive a rotating
machine (i.e., to make the machine rotate with the prime mover/brake), as
Figure 9 shows. In this case, the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply

operates as a prime mover. Since the clockwise constant-speed prime

mover/brake can operate in two quadrants, it can also be used to reduce the
speed of a machine operating as a motor (i.e., to create an opposition torque
acting against the torque produced by the motor to rotate). In this case, the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply operates as a brake.
Generator
opposition torque
Generator
Clockwise
constant-speed
prime mover Direction of
rotation
Prime mover
torque
Figure 9. Clockwise constant-speed prime mover coupled to a generator.
When the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply is operating as a

clockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake, it is possible to set the rotation
speed. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, speed,
torque, power, and energy meters indicate the different parameters measured for
the machine under test.
The Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply operating as a clockwise

constant-speed prime mover maintains constant the speed of the machine to
which it is connected. When the machine speed differs from the specified value,
the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply automatically adjusts the torque
it produces in order to maintain the machine speed to the specified value.
Counterclockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake
This function is identical to the clockwise constant-speed prime mover/brake,

except that it makes the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply rotate in the
counterclockwise direction. The polarity of the parameters measured for the
machine under test is modified accordingly.

Speed, torque, and mechanical power measurements using the Four-

Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
By convention, the speed of The polarity of the torque and mechanical power measured for the machine
a machine rotating in the connected to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply depends on the
clockwise direction is of machine’s mode of operation. There are two modes of operation: motor and
positive polarity while the generator.
speed of a machine rotating
in the counterclockwise
direction is of negative
Motor operation
polarity.
As Figure 8 shows, when a machine operates as a motor, the motor torque is in
the same direction as the motor’s direction of rotation, i.e., the speed at which the
motor rotates is of the same polarity as the torque produced by the motor.
Consequently, the mechanical power produced by the motor, which is
proportional to the product of the motor speed and torque, is always positive,
regardless of the motor’s direction of rotation (i.e., regardless of whether the
motor speed and torque are positive or negative). This is consistent with the
definition of a motor, which states that a motor uses electrical energy to produce
mechanical energy, thus resulting in a positive mechanical power value.
Any load torque applied to the motor (such as the load torque created by the
brake in Figure 8) acts against the torque produced by the motor, and thus has a
polarity that is opposite to the polarity of the motor torque and speed.
Generator operation
As Figure 9 shows, when a machine operates as a generator, the generator

torque is in the direction opposite to the direction of rotation, i.e., the speed at
which the generator rotates has a polarity opposite to the polarity of the torque
produced by the generator. Consequently, the mechanical power at the shaft of
the generator, which is proportional to the product of the motor speed and torque,
is always negative, regardless of the generator’s direction of rotation
(i.e., regardless of whether the generator speed is positive or negative). This is
consistent with the definition of a generator, which states that a generator uses
mechanical energy to produce electrical energy, thus resulting in a negative
mechanical power value.
The torque produced by the machine driving the generator (such as the prime
mover torque in Figure 9) acts against the generator torque and thus has the
same polarity as the generator speed.

Exercise 1 – Prime Mover and Brake Operation Procedure Outline
PROCEDURE OUTLINE The Procedure is divided into the following sections:
Setup and connections

Two-quadrant, constant-torque brake operation
Constant-speed prime mover operation
Constant-speed prime mover driving a loaded generator
PROCEDURE
High voltages are present in this laboratory exercise. Do not make or modify any
banana jack connections with the power on unless otherwise specified
a Before performing this exercise, measure the open-circuit voltage across the
Lead-Acid Battery Pack (Model 8802), using a multimeter. If the open-circuit
voltage is lower than 51.2 V, ask your instructor for assistance as the
Lead-Acid Battery Pack is probably not fully charged. Appendix D of this
manual indicates how to fully charge the Lead-Acid Battery Pack before a lab
period.
In this section, you will mechanically couple the Permanent Magnet DC Motor to
the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply. You will then set the equipment
to study the two-quadrant, constant-torque brake operation.
1. Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart in Appendix A to obtain the list of

equipment required to perform the exercise.
Install the equipment in the Workstation.
Mechanically couple the Permanent Magnet DC Motor to the Four-Quadrant

Dynamometer/Power Supply using a timing belt.
Before coupling rotating machines, make absolutely sure that power is turned off
to prevent any machine from starting inadvertently.
2. Make sure that the main power switch on the Four-Quadrant

Dynamometer/Power Supply is set to the O (off) position, then connect its
Power Input to an ac power wall outlet.
3. Connect the USB port of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to

a USB port of the host computer.
4. On the Permanent Magnet DC Motor, make sure that switch S1 is set to the
O (off) position.

Exercise 1 – Prime Mover and Brake Operation Procedure
5. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 10. The red motor terminal is the
positive terminal.
ͳ
48 V
Permanent Two-quadrant
Magnet constant-torque
DC Motor brake
Figure 10. Permanent magnet dc motor coupled to a brake.
a Appendix C shows in more detail the equipment and the connections that are
required for each circuit diagram symbol used in this manual.
6. On the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply, set the Operating Mode

switch to Dynamometer. This setting allows the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply to operate as a prime mover, a brake, or both,
depending on the selected function.
Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply on by setting the main

power switch to I (on).
7. Turn the host computer on, then start the LVDAC-EMS software.
In the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window, make sure that the Four-Quadrant

Dynamometer/Power Supply is detected. Also, select the network voltage
and frequency that correspond to the voltage and frequency of your local
ac power network, then click the OK button to close the LVDAC-EMS
Start-Up window.
8. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply

window, then make the following settings:
Set the Function parameter to Two-Quadrant, Constant-Torque Brake.

This setting makes the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
operate as a two-quadrant brake with a torque setting corresponding to
the Torque parameter.
Set the Pulley Ratio parameter to 24:12. The first and second numbers in
this parameter specify the number of teeth on the pulley of the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply and the number of teeth on the
pulley of the machine under test (i.e., the Permanent Magnet DC Motor),
respectively. It is important to ensure that the Pulley Ratio parameter
corresponds to the actual pulley ratio between the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply and the machine under test.

Make sure that the Torque Control parameter is set to Knob. This allows
the torque of the two-quadrant brake to be controlled manually.
Set the Torque parameter to the minimum value (0.0 N·m or 0.0 lbf·in) by
entering this value in the field next to this parameter. This sets the torque
command of the Two-Quadrant, Constant-Torque Brake to 0.0 N·m
(0.0 lbf·in).
a The torque command can also be set by using the Torque control knob in the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window.
Two-quadrant, constant-torque brake operation
In this section, you will make the Permanent Magnet DC Motor rotate in the
clockwise direction and observe what happens to the torque produced by the
motor when you increase the load torque applied to it. You will observe the
polarity of the torque and the mechanical power produced by the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor, and confirm that this machine is operating as a motor. You will
then make the Permanent Magnet DC Motor rotate in the counterclockwise
direction and observe what happens to the torque produced by the motor when
you increase the load torque applied to it. You will observe the polarity of the
torque and mechanical power produced by the Permanent Magnet DC Motor,
and confirm that the machine can operate as a motor, in either direction of
rotation (clockwise or counterclockwise).
9. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the Two-

Quadrant, Constant-Torque Brake by setting the Status parameter to Started
or by clicking the Start/Stop button.
On the Permanent Magnet DC Motor, set switch S1 to the I (on) position.

Observe that the motor starts rotating. This is because the Lead-Acid Battery
Pack acts as a dc power source supplying power to the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor to make it rotate.
The Speed meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window

indicates the rotation speed ݊ of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Is this
speed positive, indicating that the motor is rotating in the clockwise direction?
Yes No
10. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, slowly increase

the value of the Torque parameter to 0.5 Nām (4.4 lbfāin). While you do so,
observe the torque ܶ produced by the Permanent Magnet DC Motor
(indicated by the Torque meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply window).
What happens to the torque ܶ produced by the Permanent Magnet DC Motor

as the load torque applied to the motor by the Two-Quadrant, Constant-
Torque Brake increases?

11. What is the polarity of the torque ܶ produced by the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor?
What is the polarity of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor speed ݊?
Is the torque ܶ of the same polarity as the motor speed ݊?
Yes No
12. Is the polarity of the motor mechanical power ܲெ positive (indicated by the
Power meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window)?
Yes No
Does this confirm that the Permanent Magnet DC Motor currently operates
as a motor? Explain.
13. Stop the Permanent Magnet DC Motor by setting its power switch S1 to
the O (off) position.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Torque

parameter to 0.0 Nām (0.0 lbfāin).
14. On the Lead-Acid Battery Pack, reverse the battery connections to reverse
the polarity of the voltage applied to the Permanent Magnet DC Motor.
a Reversing the power supply connections at the two terminals of a dc motor

reverses the direction of rotation of the motor.
Start the Permanent Magnet DC Motor by setting its power switch S1 to

the I (on) position. Is the Permanent Magnet DC Motor speed ݊ negative,
indicating that the direction of rotation of the motor has been reversed and
that the motor is rotating in the counterclockwise direction?
Yes No
15. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, slowly increase

the value of the Torque parameter to 0.5 Nām (4.4 lbfāin). While you do so,
observe the torque ܶ produced by the Permanent Magnet DC Motor.

What happens to the torque ܶ produced by the Permanent Magnet DC Motor

as the braking torque applied to the motor by the Two-Quadrant, Constant-
Torque Brake increases?
16. Is the torque ܶ produced by the Permanent Magnet DC Motor of the same
polarity as the motor speed ݊?
Yes No
17. Is the polarity of the motor mechanical power ܲெ positive?
Yes No
as a motor?
Yes No
18. Stop the Permanent Magnet DC Motor by setting its power switch ͳ to
the O (off) position.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the Two-

Quadrant, Constant-Torque Brake by setting the Status parameter to
Stopped or by clicking the Start/Stop button.
19. From your observations, does the direction of rotation of the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor determine the polarity (positive or negative) of the motor
speed ݊ and torque ܶ? Explain.
Can the Permanent Magnet DC Motor operate as a motor in either direction

of rotation (clockwise or counterclockwise)? Explain.

Constant-speed prime mover operation
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a prime mover (implemented
using the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply) mechanically coupled to
the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. You will make the prime mover rotate in the
clockwise direction and confirm that the Permanent Magnet DC Motor rotates at
the specified speed determined by the prime mover speed and the pulley ratio.
You will also confirm that the torque produced by the machine is virtually zero.
You will make the prime mover rotate in the counterclockwise direction and
confirm that the speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor is negative when it
rotates in the counterclockwise direction. You will also confirm that the torque
produced by the machine is virtually zero.
20. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 11. In this circuit, no load is
connected to the Permanent Magnet DC Motor output.
Permanent
Prime Magnet
mover DC Motor
Figure 11. Prime mover coupled to a permanent magnet dc motor (no electrical load
connected to the motor).
21. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, make the

following settings:
Set the Function parameter to CW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake.

operate as a clockwise prime mover/brake with a speed setting
corresponding to the Speed parameter.
Set the Pulley Ratio parameter to 24:12.
Make sure that the Speed Control parameter is set to Knob. This allows
the speed of the clockwise prime/mover brake to be controlled manually.
Set the Speed parameter (i.e., the speed command) to 1000 r/min by
entering 1000 in the field next to this parameter. Notice that the speed
command is the targeted speed at the shaft of the machine coupled to
the prime mover, i.e., the speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor in
the present case.
a The speed command can also be set by using the Speed control knob in the
22. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the

CW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the Start/Stop button or
by setting the Status parameter to Started.

Observe that the prime mover starts to rotate, thereby driving the shaft of the
Permanent Magnet DC Motor.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, observe that the

Pulley Ratio parameter is now grayed out as it cannot be changed while the
prime mover is rotating. The Speed meter indicates the rotation speed ݊ of
the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Record this speed below.
Rotation speed of the permanent magnet dc motor = r/min
Is the rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor approximately

equal to the value of the Speed parameter?
Yes No
Is the rotation speed positive, indicating that the Permanent Magnet

DC Motor is rotating in the clockwise direction?
Yes No
23. Observe the rotation speed indicated on the front panel display of the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply module. It corresponds to the rotation
speed of the prime mover. Notice that this speed is approximately half
(؆ 500 r/min) the speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. This is because
the pulley ratio of 24:12 causes the prime mover to make ½ (ͳʹ ൊ ʹͶ)
revolution for every revolution of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Is this
your observation?
Yes No
24. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, observe the

torque ܶ of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor.
Is the torque virtually zero, indicating that no torque is produced by the

Permanent Magnet DC Motor?
Yes No
25. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, increase the

Speed parameter to 1500 r/min.
Does the speed ݊ of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor increase with the
Speed parameter of the CW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake?
Yes No
Does the motor torque ܶ remain virtually zero as the speed increases?
Yes No

26. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the

by setting the Status parameter to Stopped, then make the following settings:
Set the Function parameter to CCW Constant-Speed Prime

Mover/Brake. This setting makes the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply operate as a counterclockwise prime
mover/brake with a speed setting corresponding to the Speed parameter.
the speed of the counterclockwise prime/mover brake to be controlled
manually.
Set the Speed parameter to െ1000 r/min.

CCW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the Start/Stop button
or by setting the Status parameter to Started.
28. Wait a few seconds, then observe the Permanent Magnet DC Motor speed
and torque.
Is the rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor approximately

equal to the value of the Speed parameter?
Yes No
Is the motor speed ݊ negative, indicating that the Permanent Magnet

DC Motor is rotating in the counterclockwise direction?
Yes No
Is the motor torque ܶ virtually zero, indicating that no torque is produced by

the Permanent Magnet DC Motor?
Yes No
29. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, increase the

Speed parameter to െ1500 r/min.
Does the speed ݊ of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor increase (with a

negative polarity) as the Speed parameter of the CCW Constant-Speed
Prime Mover/Brake increases?
Yes No
Does the motor torque ܶ remain virtually zero as the speed increases?
Yes No


CCW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the Start/Stop button
or by setting the Status parameter to Stopped.
Constant-speed prime mover driving a loaded generator
In this section, you will set up a circuit containing a prime mover (implemented
using the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply) mechanically coupled to
the Permanent Magnet DC Motor operating as a generator. The output of the
generator will be short circuited. You will make the generator rotate in the
clockwise direction and confirm that the generator speed and torque are of
opposite polarity, and that the generator mechanical power is negative, thus
indicating that the machine is operating as a generator. You will then make the
generator rotate in the counterclockwise direction and verify that the generator
speed and torque are of opposite polarity, and that the generator mechanical
power is negative. Finally, you will confirm that the machine can operate as a
generator, regardless of the direction of rotation.
31. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 12.
Permanent
Prime
Magnet
mover
DC Motor
Figure 12. Prime mover coupled to a permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator
(short-circuited output).

following settings:
Make sure that the Speed Control parameter is set to Knob.
Set the Speed parameter to 1000 r/min.

CW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake to make the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor rotate.

34. What is the polarity of the torque ܶ produced by the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor?
What is the polarity of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor speed ݊?
Are the speed and torque of opposite polarity?
Yes No
35. Is the polarity of the motor mechanical power negative?
Yes No
as a generator? Explain.
36. Slowly increase the Speed parameter to 1500 r/min. While you do so,
observe the speed ݊, torque ܶ, and mechanical power ܲெ of the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor on the meters in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply.
Describe what happens to the torque and mechanical power as the speed
increases.
37. Observe the rotation speed indicated on the front panel display of the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply module. It corresponds to the rotation
speed of the prime mover. Notice that this speed is approximately half
(؆ 750 r/min) the generator speed. This is because the pulley ratio of 24:12
causes the prime mover to make ½ (ͳʹ ൊ ʹͶ) revolution for every revolution
of the generator. Is this your observation?
Yes No
Also, observe the torque indicated on the front panel display of the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply module. It corresponds to the torque
of the prime mover. Notice that this torque is approximately twice the
generator torque. This is because the pulley ratio of 24:12 causes the prime
mover torque to be 2 times (ʹͶ ൊ ͳʹ) greater than the generator torque. Is
this your observation?
Yes No


CW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake, then make the following setting:

Mover/Brake.
Set the Speed parameter to െ1000 r/min.
Start the CCW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake to make the

Permanent Magnet DC Motor rotate.
39. Slowly increase the Speed parameter to -1500 r/min. Describe what happens
to the torque ܶ as the speed increases.
Are the generator speed ݊ and torque ܶ of opposite polarity?
Yes No
40. Is the polarity of the motor mechanical power ܲெ negative?
Yes No
as a generator?
Yes No

CCW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake by setting the Status parameter to
Stopped or by clicking the Start/Stop button.
42. From your observations, does the direction of rotation determine the polarity
of the generator speed ݊ and torque ܶ? Explain.

Exercise 1 – Prime Mover and Brake Operation Conclusion
Can the Permanent Magnet DC Motor operate as a generator in either

direction of rotation (clockwise or counterclockwise)?
Yes No
43. Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply off by setting the main
power switch to O (off). Close the LVDAC-EMS software. Disconnect all
leads and return them to their storage location.
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you familiarized yourself with the basic functions of the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply used in this manual. You observed the
polarity of the speed, torque, and mechanical power for a rotating machine
operating either as a motor or a generator.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Calculate the power ܲ of a motor rotating at a speed ݊ of 2000 r/min and
producing a torque ܶ of 1.2 N·m (10.6 lbf·in).
2. Briefly describe a brake and a prime mover.
3. Briefly describe the energy conversion occurring in a motor, as well as the

energy conversion occurring in a generator.
4. Consider a motor rotating in the clockwise direction that is coupled to a brake

applying a load torque to the motor. Determine the polarity of the motor
speed and torque, as well as the polarity of the braking torque. Also,
determine the polarity of the motor mechanical power.

Exercise 1 – Prime Mover and Brake Operation Review Questions
5. Consider a prime mover making a generator rotate in the clockwise direction.

Determine the polarity of the prime mover torque, as well as the polarity of
the generator speed and torque. Also, determine the polarity of the generator
mechanical power.

Exercise 2
Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the construction
of permanent magnet dc motors as well as their operation as generators.
Permanent magnets
Magnetic field around a conductor
Magnetic field in a loop of wire (electromagnet)
Electromagnetic induction
Construction of a permanent magnet dc motor
Permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator
Reducing the fluctuations of the generated dc voltage
Characteristic of the generated voltage as a function of the rotation
speed
Torque opposing rotation in a permanent magnet dc motor operating as
a generator
Opposition torque-versus-current characteristic
DISCUSSION Permanent magnets
A permanent magnet is a piece of iron or metal surrounded by a magnetic field,

as Figure 13 shows. This magnetic field is constant, i.e., it persists naturally
without the need of an electrical current. The magnet has a north (N) pole and a
south (S) pole. These poles are situated near the ends of the magnet where the
magnetic field strength is the greatest.
North (N)
pole
Magnetic field Magnetic field

N
South (S)
pole
Figure 13. A permanent magnet has two poles called north (N) and south (S).

Exercise 2 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator Discussion
The direction of the magnetic field is indicated by the line arrows: from north to
south outside the magnet, and from south to north within the magnet.
Like poles on magnets repel each other while unlike poles attract each other, as
Figure 14 shows.
x Repulsion: when a pole on a magnet is moved toward a pole of similar

polarity on another magnet, the magnets repel each other, as Figure 14a
shows.
x Attraction: when a pole on a magnet is moved toward a pole of opposite

polarity on another magnet, the magnets attract each other, as
Figure 14b shows.
S N N S
(a) Repulsion
S N S N
(b) Attraction
Figure 14. Like poles repel each other while opposite poles attract each other.
Magnetic field around a conductor
When electrical current flows through a conductor like an electric wire, a

magnetic field is created. The magnetic field is represented by concentric lines
centered around the wire axis, as Figure 15 shows. The direction of the magnetic
field lines can be determined by using the right-hand rule, as Figure 15 shows.
x The thumb represents the direction of the current in the conductor.
x The other fingers represent the direction of the magnetic field lines.

Magnetic
field
Thumb in the direction of current flow. The
other fingers show the direction of the
‫ܫ‬ magnetic field lines.
Conductor Right hand
Figure 15. When electrical current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is created
around the conductor.
Magnetic field in a loop of wire (electromagnet)
When current flows through a loop of wire, a magnetic field is created in the loop.
As Figure 16 shows, this magnetic field has north and south poles, like a
permanent magnet. In this condition, the loop of wire forms an electromagnet.
Permanent
magnet

Magnetic field
direction
When current flows

through the loop, the
wire loop forms an
electromagnet
Figure 16. Magnetic field created in a loop of wire.
By using the right-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field inside the loop of
wire and, therefore, the location of the north and south poles can be determined.
The higher the current flowing through the loop, the stronger the magnetic field
produced in the loop. When the current flow is interrupted, the magnetic field
disappears.

Figure 17. Permanent magnet dc generators can be used for battery charging.
Figure 18. Permanent magnet dc generators can be used in small-scale wind turbines.

Electromagnetic induction
The operation of various electric devices (transformers, generators, alternators,

motors, etc.) is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which
states the following:
1. A voltage is induced across the terminals of a wire loop if the magnetic

flux passing through the loop varies as a function of time.
2. The value of the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of

the magnetic flux.
The voltage induced across the terminals of a wire loop when the magnetic flux
passing through the loop varies can be calculated using the following equation:
ȟԄ (7)
‫ ܧ‬ൌ ்ܰ௨௥௡௦ ή
ȟ‫ݐ‬
where ‫ܧ‬ is the voltage induced across the terminals of the wire loop,
expressed in volts (V).
்ܰ௨௥௡௦ is the number of turns of wire in the loop.
ȟԄ is the variation in intensity of the magnetic flux passing through
the wire loop, expressed in Webers (Wb).
ȟ‫ݐ‬ is the time interval during which the magnetic flux variation
occurs, expressed in seconds (s).
Figure 19 gives an example of the voltage induced across a wire loop that is
exposed to a magnetic flux varying in intensity. Between instants ‫ݐ‬଴ and ‫ݐ‬ଵ , the
intensity of the magnetic flux Ԅremains constant (3 mWb), and thus, the induced
voltage is zero. Between instants ‫ݐ‬ଵ and ‫ݐ‬ଶ , the intensity of the magnetic flux Ԅ
increases at a constant rate, and thus, a constant voltage is induced in the wire
loop. Between instants ‫ݐ‬ଶ and ‫ݐ‬ଷ , the intensity of the magnetic Ԅ flux remains
constant (5 mWb), and thus, the induced voltage is zero.

‫ݐ‬0 ‫ݐ‬1 ‫ݐ‬2 ‫ݐ‬3
Magnetic flux Ȱ (mWb)

Magnetic flux Ȱ
ȟԄ
ȟ‫ݐ‬
‫( ݐ‬ms)
Induced
Induced voltage ‫( ܧ‬V)

voltage ‫ܧ‬
ܰܶ‫ ݏ݊ݎݑ‬ൌ ͳͲͲ
‫( ݐ‬ms)
Figure 19. Voltage induced in a loop exposed to a magnetic flux varying in intensity.
Using the values given in Figure 19, the voltage ‫ ܧ‬induced across the coil
between instants 1 and 2 can be calculated by using Equation (7):
ȟԄ ͲǤͲͲͷ െ ͲǤͲͲ͵
‫ ܧ‬ൌ ்ܰ௨௥௡௦ ή ൌ ͳͲͲ ή ൌ ʹͲͲ
ȟ‫ݐ‬ ͲǤͲͲͳ
Figure 20 shows another example illustrating electromagnetic induction. Two

permanent magnets are aligned so that poles of opposite polarities face each
other. This creates a magnetic field going from left to right between the magnets,
as indicated by the lines of magnetic field shown in the figure. As the wire loop is
moved upward between the two magnets, the magnetic flux Ԅthat passes
through the loop increases up to a maximum value then returns to zero, and
thus, voltage is induced across the loop terminals.
x In Figure 20a, the lines of magnetic field pass from the A side of the wire
loop to the B side of the wire loop, resulting in a magnetic flux Ԅ of
negative polarity through the loop. The voltageܸ஺஻ induced across the
loop terminals has a negative polarity when the magnetic flux passes
୼ம
from zero to the negative maximum, because the rate of change of the
୼௧
magnetic flux has a negative value. The induced voltageܸ஺஻ is zero
when the magnetic flux Ԅ reaches the negative maximum because the
୼ம
magnetic flux momentarily stops varying (i.e., the rate of change of the
୼௧
magnetic flux is zero). The induced voltageܸ஺஻ reverses polarity (i.e., it
becomes positive) when the magnetic flux passes from the negative
୼ம
maximum to zero because the rate of change of the magnetic flux has
୼௧
a positive value.

x In Figure 20b, the same wire loop is moved upward between the two
magnets. However, the loop has been rotated 180° so that the lines of
magnetic field pass from the B side of the loop to the A side of the loop,
resulting in a magnetic flux Ԅ of positive polarity through the loop (i.e.,
the polarity of the magnetic flux is opposite to that in Figure 20a).
Consequently, the magnetic flux Ԅ and the voltageܸ஺஻ induced across
the loop are similar to those in Figure 20a but are of opposite polarity.
Thus, the voltageܸ஺஻ induced across the loop terminals has a positive
polarity when the magnetic flux passes from zero to the positive
୼ம
maximum, because the rate of change of the magnetic flux has a
୼௧
positive value. The induced voltageܸ஺஻ is zero when the magnetic flux Ԅ
reaches the positive maximum because the magnetic flux momentarily
stops varying. The induced voltageܸ஺஻ reverses polarity (i.e., it becomes
negative) when the magnetic flux passes from the positive maximum to
୼ம
zero because the rate of change of the magnetic flux has a negative
୼௧
value.

Direction of motion
of the wire loop
A side of wire loop Lines of magnetic field
Magnetic
field Ԅ in 0 Time
loop
N S
Wire loop
A
Induced
voltage
B
B side of wire loop
Induced
voltage 0 Time
( ൅ )
(a) The lines of magnetic field pass from the A side to the B side of the wire loop.
Direction of motion
of the wire loop
Magnetic
field Ԅ in 0 Time
B side of wire loop Lines of magnetic field loop
N S
B Wire loop
Induced
voltage
Induced
A voltage 0 Time
A side of wire loop ( Ǧ )
(b) The lines of magnetic field pass from the B side to the A side of the wire loop.
Figure 20. Voltage induced across a wire loop that is moved in the magnetic field created by
permanent magnets.

Construction of a permanent magnet dc motor
Figure 21 shows a simplified diagram of a permanent magnet dc motor.
x The stator is the fixed part of the motor, in which the rotor turns. The
stator consists of a pair of permanent magnets aligned so that poles of
opposite polarities face each other. Thus, one magnet has its north (N)
pole close to the armature, while the other magnet has its south (S) pole
close to the armature. Therefore, lines of magnetic field pass from one
permanent magnet to the other through the metallic armature.
x The rotor is the rotating part of the motor. It consists of a wire loop
mounted on a rotary metallic armature. The ends of the wire loop are
connected to terminals located on the stator of the motor, via a
commutator and a pair of brushes (usually made of carbon). The
commutator has two segments isolated from one another. Each segment
is connected to one terminal of the wire loop. (The role of the
commutator will be explained later.)
Permanent
magnets (stator)
N S
Motor Wire loop

terminals (armature winding)
Commutator Armature (rotor)

segments
Brushes
Figure 21. Construction of a simple permanent magnet dc motor.
Such a dc motor is referred to as a permanent magnet dc motor because

permanent magnets are used to produce the magnetic field necessary for
operation.
The diagram in Figure 21 shows the simplest way of constructing a permanent

magnet dc motor. In real dc motors, the armature is made up of several wire
loops instead of a single loop and the commutator has several segments instead
of a single pair of segments. Also, each wire loop consists of several turns of wire
instead of a single turn.

Figure 22. In real dc motors, the armature (rotor) is made up of several wire loops and the
commutator has several segments.
Figure 23. Motor stator and rotor. The stator is the fixed part of the motor, in which the rotor
turns. The stator consists of a pair of permanent magnets aligned so that poles of opposite
polarities face each other.
Permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator
Figure 24 shows a permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator. When

the rotor wire loop is rotated within the magnetic field produced by the stator
permanent magnets, the magnetic flux Ԅ that passes through the loop varies and
a voltage, ͳ, is induced across the loop terminals. Voltage ‫ܧ‬ଵ is collected by the
two commutator segments and delivered to stationary brushes (൅ and -)
connected to the motor terminals.
x As the loop passes from position 0 to position 4, the magnetic flux Ԅ in

the loop passes from a negative maximum (maximum flux passing from
the A side to the B side of the loop) to a positive maximum (maximum

flux passing from the B side to the A side of the loop). During this
180° interval of rotation, the voltage ‫ܧ‬ଵ induced across the loop has a
୼ம
positive polarity because the rate of change of the magnetic flux has a
୼௧
positive value.
x When the loop reaches position 4, the connections of the two

commutator segments to brushes Ǧ and ൅ are reversed.
Consequently, this reverses the connections between the wire loop
terminals and the motor terminals.
x As the loop passes from position 4 to position 0, the magnetic flux Ԅ in

the loop passes from a positive maximum (maximum flux passing from
the B side to the A side of the loop) to a negative maximum (maximum
flux passing from the A side to the B side of the loop). During this
180° interval of rotation, the voltage ‫ܧ‬ଵ induced across the loop has a
୼ம
negative polarity because the rate of change of the magnetic flux has
୼௧
a negative value.
x When the loop reaches position 0, the connections of the two

commutator segments to brushes Ǧand ൅ are reversed again, thereby
reversing the connections between the wire loop terminals and the motor
terminals.
This cycles repeats as long as the rotor continues to rotate, so that the polarity of
the voltage ‫ܧ‬ଵ generated across the rotor wire loop continually alternates: it is
positive for half a turn, then negative for the next half turn, then positive for the
next half turn, and so on. Because of this, the voltage ‫ܧ‬ଵ generated across the
rotor wire loop is referred to as an alternating-current (ac) voltage. Because the
commutator reverses the connections between the wire loop terminals and the
motor terminals at wire loop positions 0 and 4, the voltage ‫ܧ‬ଶ at the motor
terminals always has the same polarity (positive), as is shown in Figure 24. The
voltage ‫ܧ‬ଶ at the motor terminals is thus a pulsating positive direct-current (dc)
voltage (two pulses per rotation).

Axis of rotation
A side of wire loop

B
Segment 1
N S
of commutator C
Brushes D
B side of wire loop
Bെ B൅ Voltage across
the loop terminals
Segment 2 Motor terminals

of commutator
DC voltmeter
Side view
A-B segment
0
7 1
N 6 2 S
5 3
4
Axis of rotation
C-D segment
Wire loop
positions
൅ ͳ Ԅ
Voltage ‫ ͳܧ‬generated
across the wire loop
(voltage across the Wire loop position
0 (A-B segment of wire loop)
commutator segments) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
and magnetic flux Ԅin
the loop
െ
Voltage ‫ ʹܧ‬at the motor

terminals Wire loop position
(voltage across the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
brushes)
െ
Figure 24. Permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator (clockwise rotation).

When the direction of rotation of the wire loop is reversed, the polarity of the
dc voltage ‫ܧ‬ଶ at the motor terminals also reverses, as Figure 25 shows. The
voltage ‫ܧ‬ଶ at the motor terminals is thus a pulsating negative dc voltage (two
pulses per rotation).
Axis of rotation
A side of wire loop
B
Segment 1
N S
of commutator C
Brushes
D
B side of wire loop
Bെ B൅
Voltage across
the loop terminals
Segment 2 Motor terminals
of commutator
DC voltmeter
Side view A-B segment

0
7 1
N 6 2 S
5 3
4
Axis of rotation
C-D segment
Wire loop
positions
൅ Ԅ
ͳ
Voltage ‫ ͳܧ‬generated
across the wire loop
(voltage across the Wire loop position
commutator segments) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
and magnetic flux Ԅ in
the loop
െ
Voltage ‫ ʹܧ‬at the motor

terminals Wire loop position
brushes)
െ
Figure 25. Permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator (counterclockwise rotation).

Reducing the fluctuations of the generated dc voltage
All permanent magnet dc motors have an armature made of several wire loops
and commutator segments. Increasing the number of wire loops and commutator
segments reduces the fluctuation of the voltage at the dc motor terminals that is
due to the pulsating effect (i.e., the generated voltage is a nearly pure
dc voltage). Figure 26 shows an example of the voltage generated at the
terminals of a dc motor when a second loop of wire is added to the armature.
Two extra segments are also added to the commutator to connect the additional
wire loop of the armature to the motor terminals via the brushes.
As Figure 26 shows:
x Two alternating-current (ac) voltages ‫ܧ‬ଵ and ‫ܧ‬ଶ are generated, one
across each wire loop.
x However, the voltage ‫ܧ‬ଷ at the motor terminals always has the same
polarity. This voltage consists of four pulses per rotation of the armature
instead of only two pulses per rotation. Consequently, the fluctuation of
the generated dc voltage caused by the pulsating effect is reduced.
The higher the number of wire loops at the armature, the higher the number of
segments on the commutator and thus, the higher the number of pulses per
rotation and the lower the voltage fluctuation at the dc motor terminals.

Axis of rotation
Wire loop 1
B
A
N S
C
D Wire loop 2
Motor terminals
DC voltmeter
Side view A-B segment
0
7 1
N 6 2 S
5 3
4
Axis of rotation C-D segment
Wire loop 1
positions
൅ Wire loop 1 Wire loop 2

voltage (ͳ) voltage (ʹ)
Voltages ͳ and ʹ Wire loop position

generated across 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 (A-B segment of wire loop 1)
wire loops 1 and 2
Voltage ‫ ͵ܧ‬at the

motor terminals Wire loop position
0 (A-B segment of wire loop 1)
brushes)
െ
Figure 26. Adding loops of wire to the dc motor armature increases the value of the generated
dc voltage and reduces the voltage fluctuation due to the pulsating effect.

Characteristic of the generated voltage as a function of the rotation speed
Figure 27 shows the generated voltage-versus-speed characteristic of a

permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator. The generated voltage is
proportional to the rotation speed of the armature. This is because the higher the
rotation speed of the armature, the higher the rate of change of the magnetic
୼ம
flux ( ) in the rotor wire loops, and thus, the higher the generated voltage. The
୼௧
polarity of the generated voltage depends on the direction of rotation of the
armature. When the armature rotates in the clockwise (CW) direction, the
generated voltage is positive. Conversely, when the armature rotates in the
counterclockwise (CCW) direction, the generated voltage is negative.
a The relationship between the polarity of the generated dc voltage and rotor
direction of rotation is arbitrarily selected. Thus, the polarity of the generated
dc voltage can be considered to be negative when the rotor rotates clockwise
and positive when the rotor rotates counterclockwise.
Generated voltage (V)

൅
Rotation speed
0 (r/min)
െ (CCW) ൅ (CW)
Figure 27. Generated voltage versus speed characteristic of a permanent magnet dc motor
operating as a generator.
Torque opposing rotation in a permanent magnet dc motor operating as a

generator
Torque is a force used to make an object rotate or, conversely, a force opposing
the rotation of an object. This object may be, for example, the rotor of a
generator. In that case, torque is applied to the rotor of the generator to make it
turn, and, in reaction, the generator produces torque that opposes rotation.
Conversely, a torque opposes the rotation of the rotor when a load is applied to
the generator.

Figure 28 illustrates the above example using a permanent magnet dc motor

operating as a generator. When a load like a resistor is connected to the
terminals of a dc motor operating as a generator, current starts to flow in the
armature wire loop through the load. This current produces a magnetic field
inside the wire loop with a north pole and a south pole, as shown by the red lines
of force around the loop in Figure 28. The green lines in this figure show the
magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets.
The location of the poles of the magnetic field produced in the wire loop with
respect to the poles of the permanent magnets on the motor stator creates forces
of attraction and repulsion that oppose armature rotation, as Figure 28 shows.
The combined effect of these forces is to apply torque to the motor shaft that
opposes rotation. The higher the current flowing in the loop, the stronger the
magnetic field produced in the loop and the stronger the torque that opposes
rotation.
Direction of
rotation
A R
S
N S
െ
Commutator
N A
and brushes ൅ R
Legend
Motor terminals
A Attraction force
R Repulsion force
െ ൅
Load
Figure 28. The interaction between the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets in
a dc motor and the magnetic field produced in the armature wire loop when an electric load is
connected to the dc motor creates attraction and repulsion forces in the motor that result in
torque opposing the armature rotation.
In Figure 28, the magnetic fields produced by the wire loop and the permanent
magnets are shown as two separate fields to make the explanation clearer.
However, since magnetic lines of force cannot intersect each other, the resulting
magnetic field in an actual dc motor operating as a generator resembles that
shown in the cross-sectional view of the motor in Figure 29. However, this does
not change the end result, i.e., the combined effect of the forces of attraction and
repulsion result in a torque that opposes rotation (opposition torque).
Since the opposition torque produced by a permanent magnet dc motor

operating as a generator acts in the direction opposite to the direction of rotation
of the armature, its polarity is opposite to the polarity of the rotation speed. Thus,
when the armature rotates clockwise (i.e., when the polarity of the rotation speed
is positive), the polarity of the opposition torque is negative. Conversely, when

the armature rotates counterclockwise (i.e., when the polarity of the rotation
speed is negative), the polarity of the generator torque is positive.
Direction of
rotation
A
S R
Loop
end
N Loop
S
end
R
N A
Legend
Current entering page

Current exiting page
A
Attraction force
R
Repulsion force
Figure 29. Magnetic field in an actual dc motor operating as a generator.
Opposition torque-versus-current characteristic
Figure 30 shows the opposition torque-versus-load current characteristic of a

permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator. The opposition torque is
proportional to the current supplied to the load. Notice that the opposition torque
is expressed with a negative polarity to indicate that it opposes armature rotation
(the rotation speed is generally considered to be positive).
0 Load current (A)
Torque
(N·m or lbf·in)
Figure 30. Opposition torque-versus-current characteristic of a permanent magnet dc motor

operating as a generator.

Exercise 2 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator Procedure Outline
Electromagnetic induction phenomenon

Opposition to rotation
Voltage-versus-speed characteristic of a permanent magnet dc motor
operating as a generator
Clockwise rotation
Counterclockwise rotation
Torque-versus-current characteristic of a permanent magnet dc motor
PROCEDURE
banana jack connections with the power on unless otherwise specified.
Electromagnetic induction phenomenon
In this section of the exercise, you will connect a dc voltmeter across the motor
terminals and observe the voltage developed across these terminals when the
motor shaft is rotated manually.
1. Place the Permanent Magnet DC Motor on your work surface. Connect a

dc voltmeter to the terminals of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. The red
motor terminal is the positive terminal.
2. Make the shaft of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor rotate clockwise with
your hands. Notice that a dc voltage of positive polarity appears across the
motor terminals. Explain why a dc voltage is developed at the motor
terminals when its shaft is rotated.
3. Make the shaft of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor rotate counterclockwise

with your hands. Does a dc voltage of negative polarity appear across the
motor terminals? Why?
4. Disconnect the dc voltmeter from the Permanent Magnet DC Motor.

Exercise 2 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator Procedure
Opposition to rotation
In this section, you will observe the opposition to rotation of the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor when the terminals of the motor are not short-circuited and
when they are.
5. Make the shaft of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor rotate with your hands.
Notice that it is easy to make the motor shaft rotate. Explain why.
6. Short-circuit the two terminals of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor with a

lead.
Make the motor shaft rotate clockwise with your hands, then make it rotate
counterclockwise. Notice that it is less easy to make the motor shaft rotate
when the motor terminals are short-circuited. Explain why.
7. Remove the lead short-circuiting the motor terminals.
Voltage-versus-speed characteristic of a permanent magnet dc motor

In this section, you will use a prime mover to drive the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor and make it operate as a generator. You will vary the rotation speed of
the prime mover by steps and measure the dc voltage generated across the
motor terminals.

equipment required to perform the rest of this exercise.
Mechanically couple the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to the

Permanent Magnet DC Motor using a timing belt.

9. Make sure that the main power switch on the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/
Power Supply is set to the O (off) position, then connect its Power Input to an
ac power wall outlet.
Connect the Power Input of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface
(DACI) to a 24 V ac power supply. Turn the 24 V ac power supply on.

Connect the USB port of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to a
USB port of the host computer.
11. On the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/ Power Supply, set the Operating Mode
switch to Dynamometer. This setting allows the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply to operate as a prime mover, a brake, or both,
depending on the selected function.

In the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window, make sure that the Data Acquisition
and Control Interface and the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
are detected. Make sure that the Computer-Based Instrumentation function
for the Data Acquisition and Control Interface is selected. Also, select the
network voltage and frequency that correspond to the voltage and frequency
of your local ac power network, then click the OK button to close the
LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window.
13. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 31. In this circuit, the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor is driven, via a belt, by the motor in the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply. E1 is a voltage input of the Data Acquisition
and Control Interface.
a Appendix C shows in more detail the equipment and the connections required
for the circuit diagram below.

Permanent
Constant-speed Magnet
prime mover DC Motor
Figure 31. Setup used to plot the voltage-versus-speed characteristic of a permanent magnet
dc motor operating as a generator.
Clockwise rotation


operate as a clockwise prime mover/brake with a speed setting
corresponding to the Speed parameter.
respectively.
the speed of the clockwise prime mover/brake to be controlled manually.
Set the Speed parameter (i.e., the speed command) to 1000 r/min by
entering 1000 in the field next to this parameter. Notice that the speed
command is the targeted speed at the shaft of the machine coupled to
the prime mover, i.e., the speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor in
the present case.
a The speed command can also be set by using the Speed control knob in the
15. In LVDAC-EMS, start the Metering application. Set meter E1 as a

dc voltmeter.
Click the Continuous Refresh button to enable continuous refresh of the

values indicated by the various meters in the Metering application.


by setting the Status parameter to Started.
Observe that the prime mover starts to rotate, thereby driving the shaft of the
Permanent Magnet DC Motor.
The Speed meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window

indicates the rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Is this
speed approximately equal to the value of the Speed parameter
(1000 r/min)?
Yes No
Meter E1 in the Metering window indicates the dc voltage generated across
the Permanent Magnet DC Motor terminals. Record this voltage below.
DC voltage generated ൌ V
17. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Data Table window. Set the Data Table to record
the rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor (indicated by the
Speed meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply) and the
dc voltage generated across the motor terminals (indicated by meter E1 in
the Metering window).
a To select the parameters to be recorded in the Data Table, click the Options
menu of the Data Table and then click Record Settings. In the Settings list,
select Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply, then check the Speed box.
In the Settings list, select Metering, then check the box of meter E1. Click OK
to close the Record Settings box.
18. Make the rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor vary from 0 to
4000 r/min in steps of 500 r/min by adjusting the Speed parameter. For each
speed setting, record the motor rotation speed (indicated by the Speed
meter) and the dc voltage (meter E1) generated across the motor terminals
in the Data Table by clicking the Record Data button in this table.
19. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the CW

Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the Start/Stop button or by
setting the Status parameter to Stopped. Then, make the following settings:

Dynamometer/Power Supply operate as a counterclockwise prime
mover/brake with a speed setting corresponding to the Speed parameter.

Set the Speed parameter to 0 r/min.
Start the CCW Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the

Start/Stop button or by setting the Status parameter to Started.
20. Make the rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor vary from 0 to
-4000 r/min in steps of about -500 r/min by adjusting the Speed parameter in
the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window. For each speed
setting, record the motor rotation speed and the dc voltage (meter E1)
generated across the motor terminals in the Data Table.
21. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the CCW

Constant-Speed Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the Start/Stop button or by
setting the Status parameter to Stopped.
22. From the results recorded in the Data Table, plot the curve of the dc voltage
generated across the motor terminals versus the motor rotation speed.
According to the obtained curve, is the voltage generated across a

permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator proportional to the
rotation speed?
Yes No
Does the polarity of the generated dc voltage depend on the direction of
rotation, thereby confirming what has been observed at the beginning of this
exercise when you turned the motor shaft manually and measured the
generated voltage with a dc voltmeter? Explain.
Save the data recorded in the Data Table, then close this table.
Torque-versus-current characteristic of a permanent magnet dc motor

In this section, you will use a prime mover to drive the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor and make it operate as a generator. You will vary the opposition torque
developed at the motor shaft and measure the current flowing through the
generator armature.
23. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 32. Use the high-current (40 A)
terminal of current input I1 on the Data Acquisition and Control Interface.

In the Data Acquisition and Control Settings window of LVDAC-EMS, set the
Range of current input I1 to High.
for the circuit diagram.
Permanent
Constant-torque High-current
Magnet
prime mover range
DC Motor
Figure 32. Setup used to plot the torque-versus-current characteristic of a permanent magnet
dc motor operating as a generator.

following settings:
Set the Function parameter to Positive Constant-Torque Prime

Dynamometer/Power Supply operate as a constant-torque prime
mover/brake with a torque setting corresponding to the Torque
parameter.
Set the Torque parameter to 0.3 N·m (2.7 lbf in) by entering 0.3 (2.7)
in the field next to this parameter.
25. In the Metering window of LVDAC-EMS, set meter I1 to display dc values.

Ensure the continuous refresh mode of the meters is enabled.
26. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the Positive

Constant-Torque Prime Mover/Brake by setting the Status parameter to
Started or by clicking the Start/Stop button.
Observe that the prime mover starts to rotate clockwise, thereby driving the
shaft of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor.

The Speed and Torque meters in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power

Supply indicate the rotation speed and torque at the shaft of the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor. Notice that the torque is of negative polarity, i.e., opposite
to the polarity (positive) of the rotation speed. This is because the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor is operating as a generator. Is the torque (absolute value)
indicated by the Torque meter approximately equal to the value of the Torque
parameter?
Yes No
Meter I1 in the Metering window indicates the dc current flowing in the
armature of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Record this current below.
DC current flowing in the motor ൌ A
27. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Data Table and make the settings required to
record the torque developed the shaft of this motor (indicated by the Torque
meter in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply) and the dc current
flowing in the armature of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor (indicated by
meter I1 in the Metering window).
a To select the parameters to be recorded in the Data Table, click the Options
menu of the Data Table and then click Record Settings. In the Settings list,
select Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply, then check the
Torque box. In the Settings list, select Metering, then check the box of
meter I1. Click OK to close the Record Settings box.
28. Make the torque developed at the shaft of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor
vary from 0 to -0.7 N·m (or from 0 to -6.0 lbf·in) in steps of -0.1 N·m
(or -1 lbf·in) by adjusting the Torque parameter. For each torque setting,
record the current flowing in the armature of the dc motor (meter I1) and the
torque developed at the motor shaft (indicated by the Torque meter) in the
Data Table.
Since the output of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor is short circuited by current input I1,
high currents can flow in the motor at low torques and rotation speeds. Make sure not to
exceed the current rating of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Perform the remainder of
this manipulation in less than 5 minutes.
29. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the Positive

Constant-Torque Prime Mover/Brake.
30. From the results recorded in the Data Table, plot a curve of the torque
developed at the motor shaft as a function of the current flowing in the
armature of the dc motor.

Exercise 2 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator Conclusion
According to the obtained curve, is the torque developed at the shaft of a

permanent magnet dc motor operating as a generator proportional to the
current flowing in the motor armature?
Yes No
31. Save the data recorded in the Data Table, then close this table. Turn the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply off by setting the main power
switch to O (off). Close the LVDAC-EMS software. Disconnect all leads and
return them to their storage location.
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you familiarized yourself with a permanent magnet dc motor.
You learned that this motor consists of a rotor (armature) made of several loops
of wire, and a stator made of permanent magnets that produce a fixed magnetic
field. When the rotor is rotated by a prime mover, it cuts the lines of force of the
stator magnetic field, which produces a dc voltage across the motor terminals:
the dc motor operates as a dc generator. The magnitude of the generated
voltage is proportional to the rotation speed, while the polarity of this voltage
depends on the direction of rotation. For instance, when the rotor rotates
clockwise, the dc voltage is positive, and vice-versa. You learned that when a
load is connected across the motor terminals, a force (torque) opposing rotor
rotation is produced. This torque is in the direction opposite to the direction of
rotation. The higher the current supplied to the load, the stronger the torque
opposing rotation.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. By referring to Figure 21, describe the construction of a simple permanent
magnet dc motor.

Exercise 2 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator Review Questions
2. By referring to Figure 24, describe the operation of a simple permanent

magnet dc motor used as a generator. Explain how an alternating-
current (ac) voltage is induced across the armature wire loop, and why this
voltage is unipolar (i.e., why it always has the same polarity) at the motor
terminals.
3. What effect does increasing the number of wire loops and commutator
segments have on the voltage generated by a permanent magnet dc motor
operating as a generator? Explain.
4. Describe the relationship between the voltage generated by a dc motor

operating as a generator as a function of the armature rotation speed. When
is the generated voltage of positive polarity? When is this voltage of negative
polarity?

Exercise 2 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator Review Questions
5. Explain why a force (torque) opposes the rotation of a dc motor operating as

a generator when an electrical load like a resistor is connected to the
dc motor terminals. When is this force of positive polarity? When is this force
of negative polarity?

Exercise 3
Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Motor
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the operation of
permanent magnet dc motors used as motors.
Operation of a permanent magnet dc motor as a motor

Magnetic field produced in the armature
Armature rotation resulting from the interaction between the magnetic
fields of the armature and permanent magnets
Equivalent diagram of a permanent magnet dc motor
DISCUSSION Operation of a permanent magnet dc motor as a motor
Figure 33 shows a diagram of a simple permanent magnet dc motor with two

wire loops at the armature. When a dc power source is connected to the motor
terminals, current flows in the wire loops of the armature via the brushes, and a
magnetic field is produced in the wire loops. The wire loops thus act as
electromagnets. The interaction between the magnetic field produced in the
armature wire loops and the magnetic field produced by the stator permanent
magnets creates attraction and repulsion forces that make the armature rotate.
This is explained in detail in the next sections.
Armature
(iron cylinder)
Permanent
magnet
N S
Permanent
magnet
DC power Wire loops

source
Commutator
Brushes
Figure 33. Construction of a simple permanent magnet dc motor.

Exercise 3 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Motor Discussion
Magnetic field produced in the armature
Figure 34 and Figure 35 show what happens to the polarity of the magnetic field
produced in the armature wire loops when the rotor of the simple permanent
magnet dc motor of Figure 33 rotates. In Figure 34a, the brushes make contact
with commutator segments A and B. Therefore, current flows from the dc power
source to wire loop A-B via the brushes. No current flows in wire loop C-D. This
creates an electromagnet A-B with north and south poles, as shown in
Figure 34a. When the rotor is rotated clockwise a little as in Figure 34b, current
still flows in wire loop A-B, and the north and south poles of the electromagnet
are rotated clockwise.
Loop C-D
A S Loop A-B
(a) D
C
N Loop C-D
S
A
C
(b) Loop A-B
D
B
N
Loop C-D
C S
(c) A
B
Loop A-B
D
Figure 34. Magnetic field produced at the armature when the rotor rotates clockwise (part I).

As the rotor continues to rotate clockwise, the commutator slots pass by the
brushes and a commutation occurs, i.e., the brushes stop making contact with
commutator segments A and B and make contact with commutator segments C
and D instead, as shown in Figure 34c. Consequently, current stops flowing in
wire loop A-B and starts to flow in wire loop C-D. This creates an
electromagnet C-D with north and south poles, as shown in Figure 34c.
A comparison of Figure 34b and Figure 34c shows that, at commutation, the
north and south poles of the electromagnet are rotated 90° counterclockwise. As
the rotor continues to rotate clockwise, the same phenomenon repeats every
90° rotation (i.e., at every commutation), as shown in Figure 35.
Loop A-B
C Loop C-D
S
A
(a)
B
Loop A-B
N
S
B C
(b) Loop C-D
A
N
Loop A-B
B S
(c) C
D
Loop C-D
A
Figure 35. Magnetic field produced at the armature when the rotor rotates clockwise (part II).

In summary, as the rotor rotates, the north and south poles of the electromagnet
go back and forth (oscillate) over a 90° angle, as Figure 36 shows. In other
words, the north and south poles can be considered as stationary, i.e., they do
not rotate as the rotor rotates. This is equivalent to having an electromagnet in
the rotor that rotates at the same speed as the rotor, but in the opposite direction.
90°
Rotor is rotating
S
90°
Figure 36. The north and south poles of the electromagnet at the armature oscillate around a
fixed position.
The higher the number of segments on the commutator, the lower the angle of
rotation between each commutation, and thus, the lower the angle over which the
north and south poles of the electromagnet oscillate. For example, if the
commutator shown in Figure 33, Figure 34, and Figure 35 were having
32 segments instead of 4, the north and south poles would oscillate over an
angle of only 11.25° instead of 90°.
Armature rotation resulting from the interaction between the magnetic

fields of the armature and permanent magnets
The rotor discussed in the previous section is placed within permanent magnets
in a permanent magnet dc motor, as shown in Figure 37. This causes the
magnetic field produced by the armature electromagnet to interact with the
magnetic field of the permanent magnets. Consequently, the poles of opposite
polarities attract each other (in order to align), while the poles of the same
polarity repel each other, so the rotor starts to rotate (clockwise in the present
case). Once the rotor has rotated by a certain angle (90° in the present case), a
commutation occurs, and the north and south poles of the armature
electromagnet instantly return to their initial location. Once again, the poles of
opposite polarities attract each other (in order to align), while the poles of the
same polarity repel each other, so the rotor continues to rotate in the same
direction. Once the rotor has rotated by a certain angle (90° in the present case),
another commutation occurs and the north and south poles of the armature
electromagnet instantly return to their initial location once again. This cycle
repeats over and over. The forces resulting from the interaction of the magnetic
field produced by the armature electromagnet and the magnetic field of the
permanent magnets always act in the same direction (clockwise in the present
case), and the rotor rotates continually. Thus, a rotating machine converting
electrical energy into mechanical energy, i.e., an electric motor, is achieved.

Direction of rotation
Armature
Permanent magnets (stator) (rotor) R A
N
N S
A
S
R
DC power
source Legend
A
Attraction force
R
Repulsion force
Figure 37. Clockwise rotation resulting from the interaction between the magnetic field
produced by the armature electromagnet and the magnetic field of the permanent magnets.
The direction of rotation of the rotor depends on the polarity of the voltage
applied to the brushes. When the dc power source connections are reversed, as
shown in Figure 38, the polarity of the voltage applied to the brushes is reversed.
This reverses the direction of the current flowing in the armature wire loops, and
thus, the location of the north and south poles of the magnetic field produced by
the armature electromagnet. Consequently, this reverses the direction of the
forces resulting from the interaction of the magnetic field produced by the
armature electromagnet and the magnetic field of the permanent magnets,
thereby reversing the armature’s direction of rotation.
Direction of rotation
Armature
(rotor)
Permanent magnets (stator) A R
S
N S
N
DC power R A
source Legend
A
Attraction force
R
Repulsion force
Figure 38. When the polarity of the voltage applied to the brushes is reversed, the direction of
rotation of the armature is also reversed.

Equivalent diagram of a permanent magnet dc motor
When dc voltage is applied to a permanent magnet dc motor, it starts to rotate,

as was explained in the previous section. Since the armature wire loops are
rotating in the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets, a voltage is
induced at the armature, as when the motor operates as a generator. In the
present case (i.e., when speaking of a motor), the voltage induced across the
armature is due to the counter-electromotive force (CEMF), and is commonly
represented by the following variable: ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி .
Figure 39 shows the equivalent diagram of a permanent magnet dc motor.
‫ܫ‬஺ ܴ‫ܣ‬
൅
‫ܣܴܧ‬
൅
‫ܣܧ‬ ‫ܨܯܧܥܧ‬
Figure 39. Equivalent diagram of a permanent magnet dc motor.
In this circuit, ‫ܧ‬஺ is the voltage applied to the motor brushes, ‫ܫ‬஺ is the current
flowing in the armature through the brushes, and ܴ஺ is the total resistance of the
wire loops at the armature. Note that ‫ܧ‬஺ , ‫ܫ‬஺ , and ܴ஺ are usually referred to as the
armature voltage, current, and resistance, respectively. ‫ܧ‬ோ஺ is the voltage drop
across the armature resistor. The dc source ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி in the equivalent diagram
represents the voltage generated at the armature when the motor rotates,
i.e., the voltage due to the counter-electromotive force (CEMF). Voltage ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி is
proportional to the motor speed. Notice that the polarity of voltage ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி is such
that it opposes the voltage ‫ܧ‬஺ applied to the armature, thereby limiting the
armature current ‫ܫ‬஺ . Although not indicated in the equivalent diagram of
Figure 39, the motor also develops a torque proportional to the current ‫ܫ‬஺
flowing in its armature.
The motor operation is governed by the two following equations. Equation (8)
states the relationship between the motor speed ݊ and the induced
voltage ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி . Equation (9) states the relationship between the motor torque
and the armature current ‫ܫ‬஺ .
݊ ൌ ଵ ή ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி (8)
where ݊ is the motor rotation speed (r/min).

ଵ ୰Ȁ୫୧୬
is a constant expressed in .
୚
‫ܧ‬஼ாெி is the voltage induced across the armature (V).

(9)
ܶ ൌ ଶ ή ‫ܫ‬஺
where ܶ is the motor torque (N·m or lbf·in).

ଶ ୒ή୫ ୪ୠ୤ή୧୬
is a constant expressed in or .
୅ ୅
‫ܫ‬஺ is the armature current (A).
When a voltage ‫ܧ‬஺ is applied to the armature of a permanent magnet dc motor

with no mechanical load, the armature current ‫ܫ‬஺ flowing in the equivalent circuit
of Figure 39 is constant and of very low value. Consequently, the voltage
drop ‫ܧ‬ோ஺ across the armature resistor is so low that it can be neglected,
and ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி can be considered to be equal to the armature voltage ‫ܧ‬஺ . The
relationship between the motor rotation speed ݊ and the armature voltage ‫ܧ‬஺ is
therefore a straight line because ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி is proportional to the motor rotation
speed ݊. Figure 40 shows this linear relationship. The slope of the straight line
equals constant ͳ.
Motor rotation speed ݊
(r/min)
Slope ൌ ͳ
Armature
voltage ‫( ܣܧ‬V)
Figure 40. Relationship between the motor rotation speed and the armature voltage.
Since the relationship between the voltage ‫ܧ‬஺ and the motor rotation speed ݊ is
linear, a dc motor can be considered a linear voltage-to-speed converter, as
Figure 41 shows.
Input ൌ armature voltage ‫ܣܧ‬ ͳ Output ൌ motor rotation speed ݊
Figure 41. A dc motor can be considered to be a linear voltage-to-speed converter.

The same type of relationship exists between the motor torque ܶ and the
armature current ‫ܫ‬஺ . Thus, the relationship between the motor torque ܶ and the
armature current ‫ܫ‬஺ is a straight line, as Figure 42 shows. The slope of the
straight line equals constant ʹ.
Motor torque ܶ
(N·m or lbf·in)
Slope ൌ ʹ
Armature
current ‫ܫ‬஺ (A)
Figure 42. Relationship between the motor torque and the armature current.
Since this relationship is linear, a dc motor can also be considered a linear

current-to-torque converter, as Figure 43 shows.
Input ൌ armature current ‫ܫ‬஺ ʹ Output ൌ motor torque ܶ
Figure 43. A DC motor can be considered to be a linear current-to-torque converter.
When the motor torque ܶ increases, the armature current increases, and thus,
the voltage drop ‫ܧ‬ோ஺ (ܴ஺ ή ‫ܫ‬஺ ) across the armature resistor also increases and can
no longer be neglected. As a result, the armature voltage ‫ܧ‬஺ is no longer equal
to ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி , it is rather the sum of ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி and ‫ܧ‬ோ஺ , as Equation (10) shows:
‫ܧ‬஺ ൌ ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி ൅ ‫ܧ‬ோ஺ (10)
Therefore, when a fixed armature voltage ‫ܧ‬஺ is applied to a dc motor, the voltage
drop ‫ܧ‬ோ஺ across the armature resistor increases as the motor torque ܶ increases
(i.e., as the armature current ‫ܫ‬஺ increases), and thereby, causes ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி to
decrease. Consequently, the motor rotation speed ݊ decreases because it is

Exercise 3 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Motor Procedure Outline
proportional to ‫ܧ‬஼ாெி . This is shown in Figure 44, which is a graph of the motor
rotation speed ݊ versus the motor torque ܶ for a fixed armature voltage ‫ܧ‬஺ .
Motor rotation speed ݊

(r/min)
Fixed armature voltage ‫ܧ‬஺
Motor torque ܶ
(N·m or lbf·in)
Figure 44. The motor rotation speed decreases as the motor torque increases for a fixed
armature voltage ࡱ࡭ .

Speed-versus-voltage characteristic of a permanent magnet dc motor
operating as a motor
Clockwise rotation
Torque-versus-current and speed-versus-torque characteristics of a
permanent magnet dc motor operating as a motor
Clockwise rotation
PROCEDURE
banana jack connections with the power on unless otherwise specified.
a Before performing this exercise, measure the open-circuit voltage across the
Lead-Acid Battery Pack (Model 8802), using a multimeter. If the open-circuit
voltage is lower than 51.2 V, ask your instructor for assistance as the
Lead-Acid Battery Pack is probably not fully charged. Appendix D of this
manual indicates how to fully charge the Lead-Acid Battery Pack before a lab
period.

Exercise 3 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Motor Procedure
In this part of the exercise, you will set up and connect the equipment.

equipment required to perform this exercise.
Mechanically couple the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to the

Permanent Magnet DC Motor using a timing belt.
2. Make sure that the main power switch of the Four-Quadrant

Dynamometer/Power Supply is set to the O (off) position, then connect its
Power Input to an ac power outlet.
Connect the Power Input of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to a
24 V ac power supply. Turn the 24 V ac power supply on.

Connect the USB port of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to a
USB port of the host computer.
4. On the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/ Power Supply, set the Operating Mode

switch to Power Supply. This setting allows the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply to operate as a voltage source, current source,
battery charger, or battery discharger, depending on the selected function.

In the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window, make sure that the Data Acquisition
and Control Interface and the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
are detected. Make sure that the Computer-Based Instrumentation function
for the Data Acquisition and Control Interface is selected. Also, select the
network voltage and frequency that correspond to the voltage and frequency
of your local ac power network, then click the OK button to close the
LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window.

Speed-versus-voltage characteristic of a permanent magnet dc motor

operating as a motor
In this part of the exercise, you will connect a variable-voltage, dc power source
to the Permanent Magnet DC Motor terminals to make the motor rotate. You will
vary the voltage applied to the motor armature and measure the rotation speed at
the motor shaft.
6. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 45. In this circuit, is a positive

dc voltage source implemented with the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply. E1 and I1 are voltage and current inputs of the Data Acquisition and
Control Interface (DACI). The Permanent Magnet DC Motor is coupled to the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply with a timing belt to allow
measurement of the motor rotation speed using the A/B shaft encoder in the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply.
for the circuit diagram below.
൅
A/B Shaft Encoder
Permanent of the Four-
Magnet Quadrant
DC Motor Dynamometer/
Power Supply
Figure 45. Setup used to plot the speed-versus-voltage characteristic of a permanent magnet
dc motor operating as a motor.
7. Connect Shaft Encoder Outputs A and B of the Four-Quadrant

Dynamometer/Power Supply to Encoder Digital Inputs A and B of the Data
Acquisition and Control Interface (DACI), respectively, using 2 mm leads.
Also, connect the common (white) terminal of the Shaft Encoder Outputs on
the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to one of the two common
(white) terminals of the Digital Inputs on the DACI using a 2 mm lead. These
connections allow measurement of the rotation speed at the shaft of the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply, in order to determine the
rotation speed at the shaft of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor.
Clockwise rotation

Set the Function parameter to DC Voltage Source. This setting makes

the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply operate as a dc voltage
source with a voltage setting corresponding to the Voltage parameter.
Make sure that the Voltage Control parameter is set to Knob. This allows
the dc source voltage to be controlled manually.

Set the Voltage parameter to 10 V by entering 10 in the field next to this

parameter.
a The dc source voltage can also be set by using the Voltage control knob in the
Four-Quadrant Dynamomemeter/Power Supply window.
9. In LVDAC-EMS, start the Metering application. Set meter E1 as a

dc voltmeter and meter I1 as a dc ammeter. Also, set another meter to
measure rotation speed using the signals provided by Shaft Encoder
Outputs A and B of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply (these
outputs feed Encoder Digital Inputs A and B of the Data Acquisition and
Control Interface).
Click the Continuous Refresh button to enable continuous refresh of the

values indicated by the various meters in the Metering application.
10. In the Data Acquisition and Control Settings window of LVDAC-EMS, set the
Digital Input A/B Encoder parameter to 180 PPR (pulses per revolution). This
setting allows the Speed meter in the Metering window (set in the previous
manipulation) to measure the rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor.
a The A/B shaft encoder in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply

provides 360 pulses per revolution (PPR). Thus, whenever the shaft of the
rotating machine in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply makes
one turn, 360 pulses are produced at Shaft Encoder Outputs A and B.
Because the pulley ratio between the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply and the Permanent Magnet DC Motor is 24:12, the rotating machine in
the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply rotates half a turn whenever
the Permanent Magnet DC Motor makes one turn. Consequently, only
180 pulses are produced at Shaft Encoder Outputs A and B for each revolution
of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Setting the Digital Input A/B Encoder
parameter to 180 PPR thereby allows direct measurement of the rotation
speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor using the Speed meter in the
Metering window.

DC Voltage Source by clicking the Start/Stop button or by setting the Status
parameter to Started.
Observe that the Permanent Magnet DC Motor starts to rotate, thereby

turning the shaft of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply.
Meter E1 in the Metering window indicates the armature voltage of the

Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Record this voltage below.
Armature voltage = V
Meter Encoder AB in the Metering window indicates the rotation speed of the
Permanent Magnet DC Motor. Record this rotation speed below.
Rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor = r/min

the armature voltage of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor (indicated by
meter E1 in the Metering window) and the rotation speed of the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor (indicated by meter Encoder AB in the Metering window).
a To select the parameters to be recorded in the Data Table, open the Record
Settings dialog box then select meter E1 and meter Encoder AB. Click OK to
close the Record Settings dialog box.
13. Make the armature voltage of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor vary from 0
to +48 V in about 8 to 10 steps by adjusting the Voltage parameter in the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window. For each voltage
setting, record the motor armature voltage and the motor rotation speed of
the Permanent Magnet DC Motor in the Data Table by clicking the
Record Data button in this table.
14. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the

Voltage parameter to 0 V to stop the motor.
Make the armature voltage of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor vary from 0
to -48 V in about 8 to 10 steps by adjusting the Voltage parameter in the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window. For each voltage
setting, record the motor armature voltage and the rotation speed of the
Permanent Magnet DC Motor in the Data Table by clicking the Record Data
button in this table.
15. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the

Voltage parameter to 0 V to stop the motor. Stop the DC Voltage Source by
clicking the Start/Stop button or by setting the Status parameter to Stopped.
Save the data recorded in the Data Table.
16. From the results recorded in the Data Table, plot the curve of the rotation
speed at the shaft of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor as a function of the
motor armature voltage.
According to the obtained curve, is the rotation speed of a permanent

magnet dc motor operating as a motor proportional to the voltage applied to
the motor armature?
Yes No
Does the direction of rotation of the permanent magnet dc motor depend on
the polarity of the voltage applied to the motor armature? Explain.

17. In LVDAC-EMS, close the Data Table.
Torque-versus-current and speed-versus-torque characteristics of a

permanent magnet dc motor operating as a motor
In this section of the exercise, you will use a battery to make the Permanent
Magnet DC Motor rotate. You will vary the opposition (load) torque applied to the
shaft of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor and measure the armature voltage and
current, as well as the rotation speed and torque at the motor shaft.
18. On the Permanent Magnet DC Motor, make sure that switch S1 is set to the
O (off) position.
On the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply, set the Operating Mode

switch to Dynamometer.
19. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 46. Use the high-
current (40 A) terminal of input I1 on the Data Acquisition and Control
Interface (DACI).
In the Data Acquisition and Control Settings window of LVDAC-EMS, set the
Range of current input I1 to High.
High-current
range
ͳ
Constant-torque
prime mover/brake
48 V
Permanent
Magnet
DC Motor
Figure 46. Setup used to plot the torque-versus-current and speed-versus-torque

characteristics of a permanent magnet dc motor operating as a motor.
Clockwise rotation

following settings:
Set the Function parameter to Negative Constant-Torque Prime

Dynamometer/Power Supply operate as a rotating machine producing
negative constant torque, i.e., constant torque in the counterclockwise
direction, the constant torque setting corresponding to the Torque
parameter. Consequently, the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply is set to oppose rotation of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor
(i.e., apply load torque to this motor).

respectively.
Make sure that the Torque Control parameter is set to Knob. This allows
the torque of the Negative Constant-Torque Prime Mover/Brake to be
controlled manually.
Set the Torque parameter to -0.1 N·m (or -0.9 lbf·in) by entering this
value in the field next to this parameter. This sets the torque command of
the Negative Constant-Torque Prime Mover/Brake to -0.1 N·m
(or -0.9 lbf·in).

Negative Constant-Torque Prime Mover/Brake by setting the Status
parameter to Started or by clicking the Start/Stop button.
On the Permanent Magnet DC Motor, set switch S1 to the I (on) position to

start the motor.
In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, the Speed meter

indicates the rotation speed of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor, while the
Torque meter indicates the torque developed at the shaft of the motor.
Observe that the motor rotation speed and torque are of positive polarity,
indicating that the motor is rotating in the clockwise direction. Record the
motor rotation speed and torque below.
Motor rotation speed ൌ r/min
Motor torque ൌ N·m or lbf·in
In the Metering window, meter E1 indicates the dc voltage applied to the

armature of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor, while meter I1 indicates the
dc current flowing in the armature of the motor. Record the armature voltage
and current below.
Motor armature voltage ൌ V
Motor armature current ൌ A
the motor rotation speed and torque (indicated by the Speed and Torque
meters in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window), as well
as the motor armature voltage and current (indicated by meters E1 and I1 in
the Metering window).
23. Make the torque produced by the Negative Constant-Torque Prime

Mover/Brake vary from 0 to -0.6 Nām (or from 0 to about -5.0 lbfāin) in steps
of 0.1 Nām (or about 1 lbfāin) by adjusting the Torque parameter in the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window. For each torque setting,

record the motor armature voltage and current, as well as the motor rotation
speed and torque in the Data Table.
Make sure not to exceed the current rating of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor for
extended periods of time. Perform this manipulation in less than 5 minutes.

Negative Constant-Torque Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the Start/Stop
button or by setting the Status parameter to Stopped.
On the Permanent Magnet DC Motor, set switch S1 to the O (off) position to

stop the motor.
On the Lead-Acid Battery Pack, reverse the battery connections to

reverse the polarity of the voltage applied to the Permanent Magnet
DC Motor.
a Reversing the power supply connections at the two terminals of a dc motor

reverses the direction of rotation of the motor.

following settings:
Set the Function parameter to Positive Constant-Torque Prime

Dynamometer/Power Supply operate as a rotating machine producing
positive constant torque, i.e., constant torque in the clockwise direction,
the constant torque setting corresponding to the Torque parameter.
Consequently, the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply is once
again set to oppose rotation of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor
(i.e., apply load torque to this motor).
Make sure that the Torque Control parameter is set to Knob.
Set the Torque parameter to the minimum value (0.0 N·m or 0.0 lbf·in).
This sets the torque command of the Positive Constant-Torque Prime
Mover/Brake to 0.0 N·m (0.0 lbf·in).
Start the Positive Constant-Torque Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the

Start/Stop button or by setting the Status parameter to Started.
26. Start the Permanent Magnet DC Motor by setting its power switch S1 to
the I (on) position.

Make the torque produced by the Positive Constant-Torque Prime

Mover/Brake vary from 0 to 0.6 Nām (or from 0 to about 5.0 lbfāin) in steps
of 0.1 Nām (or about 1 lbfāin) by adjusting the Torque parameter in the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window. For each torque setting,
record the motor armature voltage and current, as well as the motor rotation
speed and torque in the Data Table.
Make sure not to exceed the current rating of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor for
extended periods of time. Perform this manipulation in less than 5 minutes.
27. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the Positive

Constant-Torque Prime Mover/Brake by clicking the Start/Stop button or by
setting the Status parameter to Stopped.
On the Permanent Magnet DC Motor, set switch S1 to the O (off) position to

stop the motor
28. From the results recorded in the Data Table, plot the curve of the motor
torque as a function of the motor armature current.
According to the obtained curve, is the torque developed at the shaft of a

permanent magnet dc motor operating as a motor proportional to the current
flowing in the motor armature?
Yes No
Does the direction of the torque developed at the shaft of the motor reverse
when the polarity of the armature current is reversed? Explain.
29. From the results recorded in the Data Table, plot the curve of the motor
rotation speed as a function of the motor torque.
According to the obtained curve, does the motor speed decrease as the
torque developed at the motor shaft increases? Explain why.

Exercise 3 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Motor Conclusion
30. Close the Data Table. Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
off by setting the main power switch to O (off). Close the LVDAC-EMS
software. Disconnect all leads and return them to their storage location.
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you familiarized yourself with the operation of a permanent
magnet dc motor used as a motor. You learned that when a dc power source is
connected to the motor terminals, current flows in the wire loops of the armature
and a magnetic field is produced in the wire loops. The interaction between the
magnetic field produced in the armature wire loops and the magnetic field of the
stator permanent magnets results in forces that produce torque that makes the
rotor rotates continually in the same direction. The rotation speed of the rotor is
proportional to the voltage applied to the motor armature, while the direction of
rotation depends on the polarity of this voltage. For instance, when the voltage
applied is of positive polarity, the rotor rotates clockwise, and vice-versa. When a
load (opposition) torque is applied to the dc motor, a torque is developed at the
shaft of the motor. This torque is in the same direction as the direction of rotation.
When the load torque applied increases, the current flowing in the motor
armature increases and, thus, the torque developed at the motor shaft increases.
For a fixed armature voltage, the motor rotation speed decreases as the torque
developed at the motor shaft increases.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. By referring to Figure 34, Figure 35, and Figure 36, briefly describe the
magnetic field produced by the armature of a dc motor when the rotor
rotates.
2. Refer to Figure 37. Explain why the rotor starts to rotate when it is placed
within the permanent magnets at the stator of a dc motor.

Exercise 3 – Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Motor Review Questions
3. Refer to Figure 37. Explain why the rotor rotates continually in the same
direction.
4. What happens to the direction of rotation of the dc motor in Figure 37 when

the dc power source connections are reversed? Explain.
5. When a fixed armature voltage is applied to a permanent magnet dc motor,

what happens to the current flowing in the armature, the torque developed at
the motor shaft, and the motor rotation speed as the load (opposition) torque
applied to the motor increases?

Appendix A
Equipment Utilization Chart
The following equipment is required to perform the exercises in this manual.
Equipment Exercise
Model Description 1 2 3
(1)
8131 Workstation 1 1 1
8213 Permanent Magnet DC Motor 1 1 1
8802 Lead-Acid Battery Pack 1 1 1
8942 Timing Belt 1 1 1
8946-2 Multimeter 1 1 1
8951-L Connection Leads and Accessories 1 1 1
8960-C(2) Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply 1 1 1
8990 Host Computer 1 1 1
9063-B Data Acquisition and Control Interface 1 1 1
30004-2 24 V AC Power Supply 1 1 1
(1)
The Workstation, Model 8134-2, or the Mobile Workstation, Model 8110-2, can also be used.
(2)
Model 8960-C consists of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply, Model 8960-2, with control
Function sets 8968-1 and 8968-2.

Appendix B
Glossary of New Terms

alternating current Alternating current is the type of current supplied to most houses and places of
(ac) business. This type of current changes direction (polarity) many times each second.
Examples of devices that produce ac current are alternators and ac generators.
attraction and Like poles on magnets repel each other, while unlike poles attract each other.
repulsion Therefore, when a pole on a magnet is moved toward a similar pole on another
magnet, the magnets repel each other. Conversely, when a pole on a magnet is
moved toward an opposite pole on another magnet, the magnets attract each other.
brushes Stationary parts usually made of carbons which conduct current between the
armature windings and the motor terminals.
commutator An assembly of conducting segments connecting the armature windings to terminals
on the motor stator, via a pair of brushes.
counter- Force that causes a voltage to be induced across the armature of a permanent
electromotive magnet dc motor when the motor rotates.
force (CEMF)
direct current (dc) This is the type of current produced by batteries and dc power sources. This type of
current flows in one direction (conventional direction) only: from the positive (+)
terminal of the battery or dc power source towards the negative (-) terminal.
dynamometer A dynamometer is a device used to measure the speed of rotation and the torque
produced by a motor by allowing a variable braking force (load torque or opposition
torque) to be applied to the motor under test.
electromagnet An electromagnet is a device that produces a magnetic field when an electric current
flows through it. A coil of wire wound around an iron core is a common example of an
electromagnet.
electromagnetic Electromagnetic induction consists of the production of an electromotive force
induction (i.e., an induced voltage) in a circuit resulting from a change in the magnetic flux
cutting that circuit.
permanent magnet A permanent magnet is a piece of iron or metal surrounded by a magnetic field. This
magnetic field is constant, i.e., it persists naturally without the need of an electrical
current. The magnet has a north (N) pole and a south (S) pole. These poles are
situated near the ends of the magnet where the magnetic field strength is the
greatest.
permanent magnet Rotating machines that operate using direct current (i.e., they are dc powered). They
dc motor can be used as either generators or motors.
prime mover A prime mover is a device that is used to drive a rotating machine (i.e., to make the
machine rotate with the prime mover).
rotor (armature) The rotating part of a rotating machine. The rotor of a permanent magnet dc motor
consists of several loops of wire and commutator segments.
stator The fixed part of a rotating machine in which the rotor turns. The stator of a
permanent magnet dc motor consists of permanent magnets aligned so that poles of
opposite polarities face each other. Therefore, lines of magnetic field pass from one
permanent magnet to the other through the metallic armature.

Appendix B Glossary of New Terms
torque The torque ܶ produced by a rotating machine indicates the magnitude of the twisting
force that the machine applies to an object in rotation. Torque can be expressed in
newton-meters (N·m) or in pound-force inches (lbfήin). A motor rotates due to the
torque produced by the motor when electrical power is supplied to it, while a
generator rotates due to the torque applied to the generator shaft by an external
force (e.g., a prime mover).

Appendix C
Circuit Diagram Symbols
Various symbols are used in the circuit diagrams of this manual. Each symbol is
a functional representation of a particular electrical device that can be
implemented using the equipment. The use of these symbols greatly simplifies
the number of interconnections that need to be shown on the circuit diagram, and
thus, makes it easier to understand the circuit operation.
For each symbol other than those of power sources, resistors, inductors, and
capacitors, this appendix gives the name of the device which the symbol
represents, as well as the equipment and the connections required to properly
connect the device to a circuit. Notice that the terminals of each symbol are
identified using circled letters. The same circled letters identify the corresponding
terminals in the Equipment and Connections diagram. Also notice that the
numbers (when present) in the Equipment and Connections diagrams
correspond to terminal numbering used on the actual equipment.
Symbol Equipment and Connections

Data Acquisition and
Control Interface (9063)
Voltage Current
inputs inputs
Isolated voltage and

current measurement inputs
a When a current at inputs I1, I2, I3, or I4 exceeds 4 A (either permanently or

momentarily), use the corresponding 40 A input terminal and set the Range
parameter of the corresponding input to High in the Data Acquisition and Control
Settings window of LVDAC-EMS.

Appendix C Circuit Diagram Symbols

Four-Pole Squirrel Cage Induction
Motor (8221-0)
Induction
machine
Three-phase induction
machine
Three-Phase Induction
Machine (8221-2)
Induction
machine
Three-phase induction
machine
Synchronous
Motor / Generator (8241-2)
Synchronous
motor
Three-phase synchronous
motor

Synchronous
Motor / Generator (8241-2)
Synchronous
generator
Three-phase synchronous
generator
Three-Phase Wound-Rotor
Induction Machine (8231-B)
Wound-
rotor
induction
machine
Three-phase wound-rotor
induction machine


Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Machine (8245)
V
PMSM
Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Machine
Rectifier and Filtering
Capacitors (8842-A)
Power diode three-phase

full-wave rectifier
Power Thyristors
(8841)
Power thyristor
three-phase bridge


IGBT Chopper / Inverter
(8837-B)
Three-phase inverter

Appendix D
Preparation of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack
This appendix explains how to prepare (fully charge) each Lead-Acid Battery
Pack, Model 8802, before a laboratory period. The Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply, Model 8960, is used to charge either a single
battery pack or several battery packs (connected in parallel) at a time.
Charging procedure
The charging procedure below can be performed overnight so that the equipment
is ready to be used by another group of students the following day.
Perform the following steps:
1. To charge a single Lead-Acid Battery Pack, start the procedure at step 2. To

charge several battery packs (connected in parallel) at the same time, start
the procedure at step 3.
2. Connect the positive (red) terminal of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack to the
yellow Power Supply terminal of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply. Connect the negative (black) terminal of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack
to the white Power Supply terminal of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/
Power Supply. Go to step 4.
3. Connect the Parallel Charging Input (red) terminal of each Lead-Acid Battery
Pack to the yellow Power Supply terminal of the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply. Connect the negative (black) terminal of each
Lead-Acid Battery Pack to the white Power Supply terminal of the Four-
Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply. Go to the next step.
4. Make sure the main power switch of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power

Supply is set to O (off), then connect the Power Input to an ac power outlet.
5. Set the Operating Mode switch of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power

Supply to Power Supply.
6. Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply on by setting the main

7. On the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply, select the Pb-Acid

Battery Float Charger function using the Function button, and set the
charging voltage to 55.2 V using the Command knob.

Appendix D Preparation of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack
8. Start battery charging by depressing the Start/Stop push button. The display
indicates Started, signifying that battery charging has begun.
9. Once battery charging is completed, stop the Pb-Acid Battery Float Charger
by depressing the Start/Stop push button, then turn the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply off. Disconnect each Lead-Acid Battery Pack
from the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply. Test each Lead-Acid
Battery Pack for sulfation as described in the Sulfation test section of this
appendix.
Sulfation test
a This test must be performed on a single Lead-Acid Battery Pack at a time.
Perform the following steps:
1. Connect the positive (red) terminal of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack to the
Power Supply (yellow) terminal of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply. Connect the negative (black) terminal of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack
to the Power Supply (white) terminal of the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply.
2. Make sure the main power switch of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power

Supply is set to O (off), then connect the Power Input to an ac power outlet.
3. On the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply, make the settings

required so that it operates as a negative current source [Current Source (–)
function].
4. Set the current command to -4 A, then start the negative current source.
5. Observe the battery pack voltage. If the battery pack is unable to maintain its
voltage above 48 V for one minute, it may be sulfated.
6. Stop the negative current source.
7. Repeat the sulfation test if you have other battery packs to test.
8. Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply off.
9. Faulty battery packs can be desulfated by using a desulfator, otherwise they

must be replaced.

Appendix D Preparation of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack
Battery maintenance
In order to optimize the cycle life of the batteries in the Lead-Acid Battery Pack
and to prevent sulfation, the battery pack should be charged as soon as possible
after a discharge cycle (e.g., after completion of a laboratory exercise). The
Lead-Acid Battery Pack should never be stored with the batteries discharged for
an extended period of time.

Index of New Terms
a The bold page number indicates the main entry. Refer to the Glossary of
New Terms for definitions of new terms.

alternating-current (ac) ................................................................................... 35, 38
armature ............................................ 33, 38, 40, 41, 42, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62
attraction and repulsion .................................................................................. 41, 55

brushes ............................................................5, 33, 34, 35, 38, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60

commutator ......................................................................33, 34, 35, 38, 56, 57, 58
counter-electromotive force (CEMF) .................................................................... 60

direct-current (dc) ................................................................................................. 35
dynamometer ......................................................................................................... 7

electromagnet ..............................................................................27, 56, 57, 58, 59
electromagnetic induction .............................................................................. 29, 30

permanent magnet ................................................................... 5, 25, 27, 30, 33, 58
permanent magnet dc motor .............................................. 5, 33, 34, 40, 42, 55, 60
power ................................................................................................... 2, 7, 8, 9, 10
prime mover ............................................................................................. 7, 8, 9, 10

rotor ............................................................................33, 34, 35, 40, 56, 57, 58, 59

stator .................................................................................................. 33, 34, 41, 55

torque .......... 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 40, 41, 42, 60, 62, 78

work ................................................................................................................ 1, 2, 3

Bibliography
Wildi, Theodore, Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, 2nd edition,
New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1991. ISBN 0-13-251547-4.

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Electricity and New Energy

Permanent Magnet DC Motor

By the staff of Festo Didactic

© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2011

DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

Caution, risk of electric shock

Caution, hot surface

Caution, risk of danger

Caution, lifting hazard

Caution, hand entanglement hazard

Notice, non-ionizing radiation

Both direct and alternating current

Three-phase alternating current

Earth (ground) terminal

© Festo Didactic 86357-00 III

Protective conductor terminal

Frame or chassis terminal

Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

In position of a bi-stable push control

Out position of a bi-stable push control

IV © Festo Didactic 86357-00

Introduction Permanent Magnet DC Motors .................................................... 1

Exercise 1 Prime Mover and Brake Operation ............................................. 7

PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 11

Exercise 2 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator........ 25

© Festo Didactic 86357-00 V

PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 43

Exercise 3 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Motor ............... 55

Appendix A Equipment Utilization Chart ...................................................... 75

Appendix B Glossary of New Terms.............................................................. 77

Appendix C Circuit Diagram Symbols ........................................................... 79

Appendix D Preparation of the Lead-Acid Battery Pack ............................. 85

Index of New Terms ............................................................................................. 89

VI © Festo Didactic 86357-00

The Electric Power Technology Training Program.

© Festo Didactic 86357-00 VII

Do you have suggestions or criticism regarding this manual?

If so, send us an e-mail at did@de.festo.com.

VIII © Festo Didactic 86357-00

© Festo Didactic 86357-00 IX

Permanent Magnet DC Motors

DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of Fundamentals covers the following points:

 Work, torque, and power

DISCUSSION OF Work, torque, and power

Figure 1 shows the example of a block that is moved over a distance  of 1 m

‫ ܨ‬ൌ 1 N (0.22 lbf)

Figure 1. Work required to move a block.

© Festo Didactic 86357-00 1

Figure 2. Moving a block using a pulley.

where ܶ is the torque exerted on the pulley shaft, expressed in newton-

2 © Festo Didactic 86357-00

When work ܹ is expressed in pound-force inches (lbf·in), the following equation

In Equation (4) and Equa-

ͳ  ͳ  ݊ήܶ

Basic dc motor operation

A dc motor is a rotating electromechanical machine that operates using direct

Work, torque, and power

Figure 1 shows the example of a block that is moved over a distance of 1 m

ͳ ͳ ݊ήܶ

Introduction to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply

Setup and connections

Set the Function parameter to Two-Quadrant, Constant-Torque Brake.