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Waves (I)
A pebble thrown into a pond sends out ripples in the water. The disturbance
spreads out on the water surface in a form of concentric circles around the point
of origin. A toy boat in the path of the disturbance will be observed to bob on
the water as the ripples (waves) move outwards. The boat is however not moved
to the side to the pond. The disturbance sets up waves in the water, which only
transfer the energy without dragging the water from one end to the other.
Waves have many uses in daily life. Radio television transmission, mobile
communication, remote control systems and heat energy radiation are all
application of waves.
A view of the wave profile for water and waves appears as illustrated in figure
8.1. The water surface is distorted in the form of crests and troughs.

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 Waves (I)
A wave refers to the transmission of a disturbance. A wave
therefore transmits energy from one point to another.
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves do not require material medium for
transmission, e.g, radio waves, radiant heat, light and microwaves.
Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves require material medium for transmission. This
transmission is effected by the vibration of the particles in the medium.
Examples are water waves and sound waves. Mechanical waves can be
either transverse or longitudinal.
Transverse Waves
In transverse waves, the vibration of the particles is at right angles to
the direction of wave travel. Water waves, waves on a string and
electromagnetic waves (light, radio, microwaves, etc) are examples of
transverse waves.

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 Propagation of transverse waves
To illustrate the formation of transverse waves, a slinky spring or a
rope may be used. The spring or rope is stretched along a smooth
floor or bench top. One end is attached to a rigid support while the
other end is held in the hand. The end held in the hand is swung up
and down at right angles to the spring or rope, as in figure 8.2. Such
a wave travels as a series of crests and troughs.

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 Propagation of Longitudinal waves
In longitudinal waves, the vibration of the particles is in a direction
parallel to the direction of the wave travel. Examples of longitudinal waves are
sound waves.
To illustrate the formation of a longitudinal wave, a slinky spring may
be used. The spring is stretched along a smooth floor or bench top. One end is
fixed to a rigid support and the other held in the hand. This end is vibrated in
a to-and-fro movement continually along its length as shown in figure 8.4.

The continuous to and fro movements at one end result in the

formation of sections of compression alternating with rarefactions along the
length of the spring. Figure 8.5 illustrates the displacement of a particle in a
longitudinal wave in relation to the direction of wave motion.
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Note that individual particles in the slinky spring are set into periodic
vibrations in line with the direction of the wave motion.
The wave motion affects the inter-particle spacing. Particles in the
sections of compression are pushed closer together while those in the
sections of rarefactions are pulled slightly further apart. Variation in
inter-particle separation is accompanied by variation in pressure, so
that sections under compression are at a higher pressure while those
under rarefaction are at low pressure. This pressure variation causes the
wave motion.

Low pressure High pressure

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 Progressive waves
These are waves that move continually away from the source. They can be
transverse or longitudinal. If a long slinky spring is continuously vibrated at one
end, the waves move forward, carrying the energy of the vibrations along its
length. Similarly, if a stone is dropped onto a water surface, the resulting water
waves move outwards, carrying the energy of the impact away from the source,
the energy us spread over an increasingly large area. This causes gradual decrease
in its amplitude.
Pulses
A pulse is generated when a single vibration is sent through a medium. It can be
transverse or longitudinal in nature. Figure 8.6 (a) and (b) represents pulses of
transverse and longitudinal respectively.

compressions Rarefactions
Wave trains are generated as a result of continuous vibrations at a constant rate in a
medium. The medium is distorted into repeated patterns of crests alternating with
troughs for a transverse wave (Figure 8.2), while for the longitudinal wave train, the
medium is set into repeated patterns of sections of compression alternating with those
of rarefaction (figure 8.4).
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 Characteristics of wave motion
The characteristics of wave motion can be explained with reference to
the oscillatory motion of a mass attached to a spring or that of the bob
of a swinging pendulum, see figure 8.7 (a) and (b).

If, for example, the mass starts at M, then M-N-M is not a complete
oscillation. This is because although the mass has returned to its starting
position, it is moving in the opposite direction.
For the pendulum, the bob makes a complete oscillation when, after an initial
displacement to, say, position X, it swings through X-Y-Z-Y-X, see figure 8.7.
if the mass in figure 8.7 (a) takes two seconds to make a complete oscillation,
a sketch of displacement-time for the motion will appear as in figure 8.8.
similar graph would be obtained for the swinging pendulum.
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Terms used in waves
Amplitude
The amplitude (A) of a wave is the maximum displacement on either side of
the mean position. Its SI unit is the metre. In figure 8.7 (a), the amplitude is
the distance LM or MN while in 8.7 (b), the amplitude is distance XY or YZ.
Frequency
The frequency (f) of a wave is the number of complete oscillations made by a
particle in one second. The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz) or cycles per
second.
Period
The period T of oscillation is the time taken by a particle to complete one
oscillation. The SI unit of period is the second (s). In figure 8.8, the particle
takes 2 s to go through 1 complete oscillation and its period is therefore 2
seconds.
1 1
It follows that f = . thus, the frequency for the oscillation shown is; =
T 2
0.5 Hz.
1 1
Periodic Time, T = = seconds Frequency, f =
Frequency f
1 1
= Hertz
Periodic Time T
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Wavelength
A transverse wave train, for example, waves on water viewed from the
side would give a displacement-position graph as in figure 8.17.

The wavelength, λ, is the distance between two pints on a wave train

which are in phase. It may also be defined as the distance between two
successive rarefactions or compressions in a longitudinal wave. The SI
unit for wavelength is the metre. In figure 8.17, distance AC and BX
and EF are all equivalent to one wavelength.
Speed/Velocity
The speed v is the distance covered by a wave in one second. Its SI unit
is metres per second.
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Periodic Time (T) and wavelength (𝝀)

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Relationship between speed, wavelength and frequency
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
For 1 cycle of the wave, distance = λ and time = T
λ
Speed =
𝑇
Therefore V=fλ

The wave equation relates the speed of the wave to its

frequency and wavelength:

wave speed v = frequency f x wavelength λ

in m/s in Hz in m

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 Relationship wavelength and frequency
It should be noted that while the rate of vibration of the source
determines the frequency of the waves, the speed in a given
medium is constant. From the relationship v = fλ, an increase in
frequency results in a decrease in wavelength, see figure 8.18.

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 Phase and Phase difference
Waves can be of the same amplitude but different frequency or same frequency but
different amplitude. Figures 8.9 and 8.10 illustrate the two cases.

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Phase And Phase Difference

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Example 1

Waves on a spring are produced at the rate 20 wavelength every 5 s.

(a) Find the frequency of the wave motion.
(b) If the wavelength of the waves is 0.01 m, find the speed of the
waves.
(c) Find the period of the waves.
Solutions
(a) Frequency =
number of complete wavelengths
time taken
20
Therefore, f =
5
(b) Using v = fλ
v = 4 x 0.01
= 0.04 ms −1
1
(c) Period, T =
f
1
=
4
= 0.25 s
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Example 2

A water wave travels 12 m in 4 s. If the frequency of the waves is 2 Hz,

calculate:
(a) The speed of the wave.
(b) The wavelength of the wave.

Solution
distance
(a) Speed =
time
12
=
4
= 3 ms −4
(b) Speed = frequency x wavelength
(v = fλ)

Therefore, 3 = 2 x λ
3
Hence, λ =
2
The wavelength is 1.5 m.
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Example 3
Figure 8.19 shows a wave form in a string. The numbers in the diagram shows the scale in
centimeters. The speed of the wave is 10.0 ms −1

With the reference to this wave motion, determine the:

(a) Wavelength
(b) Amplitude
(c) Frequency
(d) Period of the oscillation
Solution
(a) Wavelength = 40 cm (b) Amplitude = 5 cm
(b) From f = fλ:
v
f=
λ
10 ms−1
=
40 x 10−2 m
= 25 Hz(d)
1
Period T =
f
1
=
25
= 0.04 s
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1. Explain the following terms and state their S.I units
(i) Wavelength
(ii) Amplitude
(iii) Periodic time
(iv) Frequency
2. Differentiate between;
(i) Mechanical and electromagnetic waves. Give an example of each
(ii) Longitudinal and transverse
3. State ONE difference between mechanical and electromagnet waves.
4. Define the term progressive waves
5. Name two types of progressive wave motion
6. State two differences between sound waves and electromagnetic waves
7. Name a property of light that shows it is a transverse wave.
8. State THREE differences between light waves and sound waves.
9. Explain the term ‘phase’ as used in waves
10. A source generates 40 waves in a second. If the wavelength is 8.5 cm.
Calculate the time taken to reach a wall 102m from the source.
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11. Water waves are observed as they pass a fixed point at a rate of 30 crests
per minute. A particular wave crest takes 2 second to travel between two fixed
points 6m apart. Determine the frequency and the wave length of the wave.
12. A radio wave speed 3 x 108m/s is transmitted at a wavelength of 2 x 10-
6m. Calculate its frequency.

13. One range of frequencies used in broadcasting varies from 5 x 106 Hz to

2.0 x 107 Hz. What is the longest wavelength of this range? Velocity of light
air =3x108 / s.
13. The figure below shows a wave profile

a) Name two sets of points that are

(i) One wavelength apart
(ii) In phase
(iii) Out of phase
b) Determine the frequency of the wave.
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14. Determine the frequency of the wave shown below.

State one reason why ultrasound is preferred to audible sound in echo-

sounding.
15. The figure below shows a longitudinal wave on a spring that takes 0.05s to
move from point X to Y. Calculate the frequency of the wave.

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16. The longitudinal wave below takes 1.5s to move from point M to N.
Calculate
(i) The frequency of the wave
(ii) The speed of the wave if it has a wavelength of 60cm

17. The graphs in figure 4 represent the same wave. Determine the velocity of
the wave.

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