ECE230

Lecture – 3 Date: 17.10.2024

• Gradient of a Scalar Field

• Conservative Vector Field
• Divergence of a Vector Field
• Divergence Theorem
• Curl of a Vector Field
• Stoke’s Theorem
• Solenoidal Vector Field
The Gradient
• Consider the topography of the
Earth’s surface.
We use contours of constant
elevation—called topographic
contours—to express on maps
(a 2-dimensional graphic) the
third dimension being elevation
(i.e., surface height).

Moreover, we can infer the direction of these slopes—a hillside might

slope toward the south, or a cliff might drop-off toward the East.
Thus, the slope of the Earth’s surface has both a magnitude (e.g.,
flat or steep) and a direction (e.g. toward the north). In other words,
the slope of the Earth’s surface is a vector quantity!
The Gradient (contd.)
• Thus, the surface slope at every point across some section of the Earth
(e.g., Dwarka, Shimla, or Asia) must be described by a vector field!

Q: Sure, but is there any

way to calculate this vector
field?

A: Yes, there is a very easy way, called the gradient.

The Gradient (contd.)
• Say the topography of some small section of the earth’s surface can be
described as a scalar function ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦), where ℎ represents the height
(elevation) of the Earth at some point denoted by x and y. e.g.:

2
Height
Y 0

-2

-4
-4 -2 0 2 4
X

• Now, we take the gradient of scalar

field ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) which is denoted by: ∇h(r)
The Gradient (contd.)
• The result of taking the gradient of a scalar field is a vector field, i.e.:
∇h 𝑟 = 𝐴(𝑟)

Q: So just what is this resulting vector

field, and how does it relate to
scalar field ℎ(𝑟)??

For our example here,

taking the gradient of
surface elevation h(x,y)
results in this vector
field:
The Gradient (contd.)
• To see how this vector field relates to the surface height ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦), let’s place
the vector field on top of the topographic plot:

Q: It appears that the vector

field indicates the slope of
the surface topology—both
its magnitude and direction!

A: That’s right! The gradient

of a scalar field provides a
vector field that states how
the scalar value is changing
throughout space—a
change that has both a
magnitude and direction.
The Gradient (contd.)
• It is a bit more “natural” and instructive for our example to examine the
opposite of the gradient of h(x,y) (i.e., 𝐴 𝑟 = −∇h 𝑟 ). In other words,
to plot the vectors such that they are pointing in the “downhill” direction.

Note these important facts:

• The vectors point in the
direction of maximum change
(i.e., they point straight down
the mountain!).
• The vectors always point
orthogonal to the
topographic contours (i.e., the
contours of equal surface
height).
The Gradient (contd.)
• Now, it is important to understand that the scalar fields we will consider
will not typically describe the height or altitude of anything! Thus, the
slope provided by the gradient is more mathematically “abstract”, in the
same way we speak about the slope (i.e., derivative) of some curve.
• For example, consider the relative humidity across USA—a scalar function
of position.
If we travel in some
directions, we find
that the humidity
quickly changes.
But if we travel in
other directions,
the humidity
doesn’t change at
all.
The Gradient (contd.)
Q: Say we are located at some point, how can we determine the direction
where we will experience the greatest change in humidity ?? Also, how can
we determine what that change will be ??
A: The answer to both questions is to take the gradient of the scalar field
that represents humidity!
• If g 𝑟 is the scalar field that represents the humidity across USA, then
we can form a vector field 𝐴 𝑟 by taking the gradient of g 𝑟 :

𝐴 𝑟 = ∇g 𝑟

This vector field indicates the direction of greatest humidity

change (i.e., the direction where the derivative is the
largest), as well as the magnitude of that change, at every
point in the USA!
The Gradient (contd.)

𝐴 𝑟 = ∇g 𝑟

This is likewise true for any scalar field. The gradient of a scalar field
produces a vector field indicating the direction of greatest change (i.e.,
largest derivative) as well as the magnitude of that change, at every
point in space.
The Gradient Operator in Coordinate Systems
• For the Cartesian coordinate system,
g (r ) g (r ) g (r )
the Gradient of a scalar field is g (r )  aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z
x y z
expressed as:
• Now let’s consider the gradient operator in the other coordinate systems.
• Pfft! This is easy! The gradient g (r ) g (r ) g (r )
operator in the spherical coordinate  g ( r )  ˆ
a  ˆ
a  aˆ
r  
r

system is:
Right ??
NO!! The above equation is not correct!
• Instead, for spherical
coordinates, the gradient is g (r )  g (r ) aˆ  1 g (r ) aˆ  1 g (r ) aˆ
 
r r  r sin  
r
expressed as:

• And for the cylindrical coordinate g (r ) 1 g (r ) g (r )

g ( r )  aˆ   aˆ  aˆ z
system we likewise get:    z
The Conservative Vector Field
• Of all possible vector fields 𝐴 𝑟 , there is a subset of
vector fields called conservative fields. A conservative
vector field is a vector field that can be expressed as the 𝐶 𝑟 = Δg 𝑟
gradient of some scalar field g 𝑟 :
In other words, the gradient of any scalar field always results in a
conservative field!
• A conservative field has the interesting property
that its line integral is dependent on the beginning C1
PA
and ending points of the contour only! In other
words, for the two contours: C2

 C (r ).dl   C (r ).dl
C1 C2 PB

• We therefore say that the line integral of a conservative field is path

independent.
The Conservative Vector Field (contd.)
• This path independence is evident
when considering the integral identity:
 g (r ).dl  g  r  r   g  r  r 
C
B A

position vector 𝑟𝐵 denotes the ending point (PB) of contour C, and 𝑟𝐴

denotes the beginning point (PA). 𝑔 𝑟 = 𝑟𝐵 denotes the value of scalar
field 𝑔 𝑟 evaluated at the point denoted by 𝑟𝐵 , and 𝑔 𝑟 = 𝑟𝐴 denotes
the value of scalar field 𝑔 𝑟 evaluated at the point denoted by 𝑟𝐴.

• For one dimension, the above identity xb

g ( x)
simply reduces to the familiar expression: x x dx  g  x  xb   g  x  xa 
a

• Since every conservative field can be written in terms of the gradient of a

scalar field, we can use this identity to conclude:
  C (r ).dl  g  r  rB   g  r  rA 
 C (r ).dl   g (r ).dl
C C C

Consider then what happens then if we integrate over a closed contour.

The Conservative Vector Field (contd.)
Q: What the heck is a closed contour ?? A contour that is not closed
A: A closed contour’s beginning and is referred to as an open
ending is the same point! e.g., contour.

• Integration over a closed

contour is denoted as:
Closed
PA
PB Contour C  A(r ).dl
C

• The integration of a conservative field over a closed contour is therefore:

 C (r ).dl   g (r ).dl
C C
 g  r  rB   g  r  rA  0

This result is due to the fact that 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑟𝐵 g  r  rB   g  r  rA 

The Conservative Vector Field (contd.)
• Let’s summarize what we know about a conservative vector field:

1. A conservative vector field can always be expressed as the gradient of a

scalar field.
2. The gradient of any scalar field is therefore a conservative vector field.
3. Integration over an open contour is dependent only on the value of
scalar field 𝑔 𝑟 at the beginning and ending points of the contour (i.e.,
integration is path independent).
4. Integration of a conservative vector field over any closed contour is
always equal to zero.
Example – 1
• Consider the conservative vector field: A(r )    x 2  y 2  z

• Evaluate the contour integral:  A(r ).dl

C

where A(r )    x 2  y 2  z
PB
and contour C is:
PA
C
• The beginning of contour C is the point denoted as: rA  3aˆ x  aˆ y  4aˆ z
• while the end point is denoted with position vector: rB  3aˆ x  2aˆ z
Note that ordinarily, this would be an impossible
problem for us to do!
Example – 1 (contd.)
• we note that vector field 𝐴 𝑟 is conservative, therefore:

 A(r ).dl   g (r ).dl

C C
 g  r  rB   g  r  rA 

• For this problem, it is evident that: g (r )   x 2  y 2  z

• Therefore, 𝑔 𝑟 = 𝑟𝐴 is the scalar field evaluated at 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧 = 4;

while 𝑔 𝑟 = 𝑟𝐵 is the scalar field evaluated at at 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = −2.
g  r  rA    (3) 2  (1) 2  4  40 g  r  rB    (3) 2  (0) 2   2   18

Therefore:
g  r  rB   (3)2  (0)2  2 18  18  40  58
The Divergence of a Vector Field
 A(r ).ds
• The mathematical definition of divergence is: . A(r )  lim S
v 0 v
where the surface S is a closed surface that completely surrounds
a very small volume Δv at point 𝑟, and 𝑑𝑠 points outward from the
closed surface.
• The divergence indicates the amount of vector field 𝐴 𝑟 that is
converging to, or diverging from, a given point.
• For example, consider the vector fields in the region of a specific
point:
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣

∇.𝐴(𝑟) < 0 ∇.𝐴(𝑟) > 0

The Divergence of a Vector Field (contd.)
• The field on the left is converging to a point, and therefore the divergence
of the vector field at that point is negative. Conversely, the vector field on
the right is diverging from a point. As a result, the divergence of the vector
field at that point is greater than zero.
• Lets consider some other vector fields in the region of a specific point:
∆v ∆v

∇.𝐴(𝑟) = 0 ∇.𝐴(𝑟) = 0

For these vector fields, the surface integral is zero. Over some portions of the
surface, the component is positive, whereas on other portions, the
component is negative. However, integration over the entire surface is equal
to zero—the divergence of the vector field for this region is zero.
The Divergence of a Vector Field (contd.)
• The divergence of a vector • For example, consider the following
field results in a scalar field 2-D vector field 𝐴 𝑥, 𝑦 plotted on
(divergence) that is positive in the x-y plane:
some regions in space,
negative in other regions, and
zero elsewhere.
• For most physical problems,
the divergence of a vector
field provides a scalar field
that represents the sources of
the vector field.

We can take the divergence of this vector field, resulting in the

scalar field 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ∇. 𝐴 𝑥, 𝑦 .
The Divergence of a Vector Field (contd.)
• Plot of field 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ∇. 𝐴 𝑥, 𝑦 on the xy-plane will look as:

Both plots indicate that the divergence is largest in the vicinity of point
x=-1, y=1. However, notice that the value of g(x,y) is non-zero (both
positive and negative) for most points (x,y).
The Divergence of a Vector Field (contd.)
• Consider now this vector field: • The divergence of this vector
field is the scalar field.
The Divergence of a Vector Field (contd.)
• Combining the vector field and
scalar field plots, we can examine
the relationship between each.
• Look closely! Although the
relationship between the scalar
field and the vector field may
appear at first to be the same as
with the gradient operator, the
two relationships are very
different.
Remember:
• gradient produces a vector field that indicates the change in the original
scalar field, whereas:
• divergence produces a scalar field that indicates some change (i.e.,
divergence or convergence) of the original vector field.
The Divergence of a Vector Field (contd.)
• The divergence of this vector field is interesting—it steadily increases as we
move away from the y-axis.

F (r )  xaˆ x
The Divergence of a Vector Field (contd.)
• Yet, the divergence of this vector field produces a scalar field equal to
one—everywhere (i.e., a constant scalar field)!
 
.F  x  0 1
x y HA #1: Part-1
The Divergence of a Vector Field (contd.)
• Likewise, note the divergence of the following vector fields—it is zero at
all points (x, y);
F   yaˆ x  xaˆ y

 
.F   y   x  0
x y

HA #1: Part-2

Although the examples we have examined here were all 2-D,

keep in mind that both the original vector field, as well as the scalar
field produced by divergence, will typically be 3-D!
The Divergence in Coordinate Systems
• Consider now the divergence of vector fields expressed with our
coordinate systems:
Cartesian Ax  r  Ay  r  Az  r 
. A(r )   
x y z

Cylindrical 1     A  r    1 A  r  Az  r 

. A(r )    
      z

1    r Ar  r    1   sin  A  r   1 A  r 
2

Spherical . A(r )  2   
r 

r  r sin   r sin  

Note that, as with the gradient expression, the divergence expressions

for cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems are more complex than
those of Cartesian. Be careful when you use these expressions!
The Divergence Theorem
• Recall we studied volume integrals of the form:  g (r )dv
v

• It turns out that any and every scalar field can be

written as the divergence of some vector field, i.e.: g (r )  . A(r )

• Therefore we can equivalently write any volume

integral as:  . A(r )dv
v

• The divergence theorem states that this integral

is equal to:
 . A(r )dv   A(r ).ds
v S

where S is the closed surface that completely surrounds volume v, and

vector 𝑑𝑠 points outward from the closed surface. For example, if
volume v is a sphere, then S is the surface of that sphere.
The divergence theorem states that the volume integral
of a scalar field can be likewise evaluated as a surface
integral of a vector field!
The Divergence Theorem (contd.)
• What the divergence theorem indicates is
that the total “divergence” of a vector
field through the surface of any volume is
equal to the sum (i.e., integration) of the
divergence at all points within the
volume.

• In other words, if the vector field is diverging from some point in the volume, it
must simultaneously be converging to another adjacent point within the volume—
the net effect is therefore zero!
• Thus, the only values that make any difference in the volume integral are the
divergence or convergence of the vector field across the surface surrounding the
volume—vectors that will be converging or diverging to adjacent points outside
the volume (across the surface) from points inside the volume. Since these points
just outside the volume are not included in the integration, their net effect is non-
zero!
The Curl of a Vector Field
Say ∇ × 𝐴 𝑟 = 𝐵(𝑟). The mathematical definition of Curl is given as:

 A(r ).dl This rather complex equation requires

Bi (r )  lim
Ci
s 0 si
some explanation !

• 𝐵𝑖 (𝑟) is the scalar component of vector 𝐵 𝑟 in the direction defined by

unit vector 𝑎𝑖 (e.g., 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎ρ , 𝑎θ ).
• The small surface Δsi is centered at point 𝑟, and oriented such that it is
normal to unit vector 𝑎𝑖 .
• The contour Ci is the closed contour that surrounds surface Δsi.
Note that this derivation must be
Ci completed for each of the three
𝑎𝑖 orthonormal base vectors in
𝑟 order to completely define
∇ × 𝐴 𝑟 = 𝐵(𝑟).
The Curl of a Vector Field (contd.)
Q: What does curl tell us ?
A: Curl is a measurement of the circulation of vector field 𝐴 𝑟 around point 𝑟.
• If a component of vector field 𝐴 𝑟 is pointing in the direction 𝑑𝑙 at every
point on contour Ci (i.e., tangential to the contour). Then the line integral, and
thus the curl, will be positive.
• If, however, a component of vector field 𝐴 𝑟 points in the opposite direction
(−𝑑𝑙 ) at every point on the contour, the curl at point 𝑟 will be negative.

𝐵𝑖 > 0 𝐵𝑖 < 0
The Curl of a Vector Field (contd.)
• following vector fields will result in a curl with zero value at point 𝑟:

𝐵𝑖 = 0
𝐵𝑖 = 0
• Generally, the curl of a vector field result in another vector field whose
magnitude is positive in some regions of space, negative in other regions,
and zero elsewhere.
• For most physical problems, the curl of a vector field provides another
vector field that indicates rotational sources (i.e., “paddle wheels” ) of the
original vector field.
The Curl of a Vector Field (contd.)
• For example, consider this vector field 𝐴 𝑟 :

x
The Curl of a Vector Field (contd.)
• If we take the curl of 𝐴 𝑟 , we get a vector field which points in the
direction 𝑎𝑧 at all points (x, y). The scalar component of this resulting
vector field (i.e., 𝐵𝑧(𝑟)) is:

x
The Curl of a Vector Field (contd.)

x
The Curl of a Vector Field (contd.)
• The relationship between the original vector field 𝐴 𝑟 and its resulting
curl perhaps is best shown when plotting both together:

Note this scalar component

is largest in the region near
point x=-1, y=1, indicating a
y “rotational source” in this
region. This is likewise
apparent from the original
plot of vector field 𝐴 𝑟 .

x
Curl in Coordinate Systems
• Consider now the curl of vector fields expressed using our coordinate
systems.
 Ay (r ) Az (r )   Az (r ) Ax (r )   Ax (r ) Ay (r ) 
  A(r )     aˆ x     aˆ y     aˆ z
 z y   x z   y x 

 1 Az (r ) A (r )   A (r ) Az (r )  1  1 A (r ) 

  A(r )     ˆ
a      ˆ
a     A ( r )    aˆ z
   z   z        

 1  1 A (r )   1 Ar (r ) 1  
  A(r )    sin  A (r )    ˆ
a     rA ( r )   aˆ
 r sin   r sin     r sin   r r
r

1  1 A (r )
  rA (r )   r  aˆ
 r r r  

Yikes! These expressions are very complex. Precision, organization, and

patience are required to correctly evaluate the curl of a vector field !
Stokes’ Theorem
• Consider a vector field 𝐵 𝑟 where: B(r )    A(r )

• Say we wish to integrate this vector field

over an open surface S:  B(r ).dS     A(r ).dS
S S

• We can likewise evaluate this

integral using Stokes’ Theorem:    A(r ).dS   A(r ).dl
S C

• In this case, the contour C is a

closed contour that surrounds C
surface S. The direction of C is
defined by 𝑑𝑠 and the right -
hand rule. In other words C
rotates counter clockwise
around 𝑑𝑠. e.g.,
𝑑𝑠
Stokes’ Theorem (contd.)
• Stokes’ Theorem allows us to
evaluate the surface integral of a curl
as a contour integral !
• Stokes’ Theorem states that the
summation (i.e., integration) of the
circulation at every point on a
surface is simply the total
“circulation” around the closed
contour surrounding the surface.

In other words, if the vector field is rotating counter clockwise

around some point in the volume, it must simultaneously be
rotating clockwise around adjacent points within the
volume—the net effect is therefore zero!
Stokes’ Theorem (contd.)
• Thus, the only values that make any difference in the surface integral is
the rotation of the vector field around points that lie on the surrounding
contour (i.e., the very edge of the surface S). These vectors are likewise
rotating in the opposite direction around adjacent points—but these
points do not lie on the surface (thus, they are not included in the
integration). The net effect is therefore non-zero!
• Note that if S is a closed surface, then there is no contour C that exists! In
other words:

   A(r ).dS   A(r ).dl  0

S C

Therefore, integrating the curl of any vector field over a closed surface
always equals zero.
The Curl of Conservative Fields
• Recall that every conservative field can be written as the C (r )  g (r )
gradient of some scalar field:
• Consider now the curl of a conservative field:   C (r )    g (r )
• Recall that if 𝐶 (𝑟) is expressed using the Cartesian coordinate system, the
curl of 𝐶 (𝑟) is:
 Cz C y   Cx Cz   C y Cx 
  C (r )     aˆ x     aˆ y     aˆ z
 y z   z x   x y 

 C C   C C   C C 
• Likewise, the gradient of 𝑔(𝑟) is:   C (r )   z  y  aˆ x   x  z  aˆ y   y  x  aˆ z
 y z   z x   x y 

Therefore: g (r ) g (r ) g (r )
Cx (r )  C y (r )  Cz (r ) 
x y z
• Combining these two results:
  2 g (r )  2 g (r )    2 g (r )  2 g (r )    2 g (r )  2 g (r ) 
  g ( r )    C ( r )     aˆ x     aˆ y     aˆ z
 yz zy   zx xz   xy yx 
The Curl of Conservative Fields (contd.)
 2 g (r )  2 g (r )
• We know: 
yz zy

• each component of ∇ × ∇𝑔(𝑟) is then equal to

  g ( r )    C ( r )  0
zero, and we can say:
The curl of every conservative field is equal to zero !
Q: Are there some non-conservative fields whose curl is also equal to zero?
A: NO! The curl of a conservative field, and only a conservative field, is equal
to zero.
• Thus, we have way to test whether some vector field 𝐴 𝑟 is conservative:
evaluate its curl!
1. If the result equals zero—the vector field is conservative.
2. If the result is non-zero—the vector field is not conservative.
The Curl of Conservative Fields (contd.)
• Let’s again recap what we’ve learnt about conservative fields:
1. The line integral of a conservative field is path independent.
2. Every conservative field can be expressed as the gradient of some
scalar field.
3. The gradient of any and all scalar fields is a conservative field.
4. The line integral of a conservative field around any closed contour is
equal to zero.
5. The curl of every conservative field is equal to zero.
6. The curl of a vector field is zero only if it is conservative.
The Solenoidal Vector Field
1. We know that a conservative vector field 𝐶 (𝑟) can be   C (r )  0
identified from its curl, which is always equal to zero:
• Similarly, there is another type of vector field 𝑆(𝑟), called a
.S (r )  0
solenoidal field, whose divergence always equals zero:

Moreover, it should be noted that only solenoidal vector

have zero divergence! Thus, zero divergence is a test for
determining if a given vector field is solenoidal.

We sometimes refer to a solenoidal field

as a divergenceless field.
The Solenoidal Vector Field (contd.)
2. Recall that another characteristic of a conservative vector field is that it
can be expressed as the gradient of some scalar field (i.e., 𝐶 (𝑟)=∇𝑔(𝑟) ).
• Solenoidal vector fields have a similar characteristic!
Every solenoidal vector field can be expressed as the curl S (r )    A(r )
of some other vector field (say 𝐴(𝑟)).
• Additionally, it is important to note that only solenoidal vector fields can
be expressed as the curl of some other vector field.
The curl of any vector field always results in a solenoidal field!

• Note if we combine these two previous equations, we get a vector

identity:
a result that is always true for any
.  A(r )  0
and every vector field 𝐴(𝑟).
The Solenoidal Vector Field (contd.)
3. Now, let’s recall the divergence theorem:  . A(r )dv   A(r ).ds
v S

• If the vector field 𝐴(𝑟) is solenoidal, we

can write this theorem as:  .S (r )dv   S (r ).ds
v S

But the divergence of a solenoidal field is zero: .S (r )  0

As a result, the left side of the divergence

theorem is zero, and we can conclude that:
 S (r ).ds  0
S

In other words the surface integral of any and every solenoidal

vector field across a closed surface is equal to zero.

• Note this result is analogous to evaluating a line

integral of a conservative field over a closed contour:  C (r ).dl  0
C
The Solenoidal Vector Field (contd.)
• Lets summarize what we know about solenoidal vector fields:
1. Every solenoidal field can be expressed as the curl of some other vector
field.
2. The curl of any and all vector fields always results in a solenoidal vector
field.
3. The surface integral of a solenoidal field across any closed surface is
equal to zero.
4. The divergence of every solenoidal vector field is equal to zero.
5. The divergence of a vector field is zero only if it is solenoidal.
HA #1: Part-3

• Find the divergence of 𝐹 = 2𝑥𝑧𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦𝑎𝑦 − 𝑧𝑎𝑧

Also use MATLAB to demonstrate 2-D and 3-D plots of the vector and
the divergence operation.

HA #1: Part-4

• Find the divergence of 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑎𝑥

Also use MATLAB to demonstrate 2-D and 3-D plots of the vector and
the divergence operation.
HA #1: Part-5

• Find the divergence of 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎𝑦

Also use MATLAB to demonstrate 2-D and 3-D plots of the vector and
the divergence operation.
HA #1: Part-6

• Find the divergence of 𝐹 = −𝑥𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦𝑎𝑦

Also use MATLAB to demonstrate 2-D and 3-D plots of the vector and
the divergence operation.
Some Important Identities

 U  V   U  V  UV   U V  V U V n  nV n1V

 
. U1  U 2  .U1  .U 2

 
 A B   A B  
.   A  0    V   0
Miscellaneous
• Let us consider the generic Maxwell’s equations:
B D
.D  v  E   .B  0  H  J 
t t
• 𝐸 and 𝐷 are the electric field intensity and electric flux density
respectively
• 𝐵 and 𝐻 are the magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux density
respectively
• Under static conditions, none of the quantities appearing above are
𝜕
functions of time (i.e., = 0) → this happens when all charges are
𝜕𝑡
permanently fixed in space, or, if they move, they do so at steady rate so
that ρv and 𝐽 are constant in time.
• Under the static conditions we get:
.D  v  E  0 .B  0  H  J
Miscellaneous (contd.)
.D  v  E  0 .B  0  H  J

Electric and Magnetic fields become decoupled under

static conditions

Enables us to study electricity and magnetism as distinct separate

phenomena

We refer the study of electric and magnetic phenomena

under static conditions as electrostatics and magnetostatics

The experience gained through studying electrostatics and

magnetostatics phenomena will prove invaluable in tackling the more
involved concepts which deal with time-varying fields
Miscellaneous (contd.)
• Oh yes! We do not study electrostatics just as a prelude to the study of
time-varying fields.
• Electrostatics is an important concept in its own right.
• Many electronics devices and systems are based on the principles of
electrostatics.
• Examples include: x-ray machines, oscilloscopes, ink-jet electrostatic
printers, liquid crystal displays, copy machines, micro-electro-mechanical
switches (MEMS), accelerometers, and solid-state-based control devices
etc.
• Electrostatic principles also guide the design of medical diagnostic sensors,
such as the electrocardiogram, which records the heart’s pumping pattern,
and electroencephalogram, which records brain activity.
Miscellaneous (contd.)

Q: I see ! Electrostatics is important as a

distinct phenomena but not Magnetostatics.
Right?

A: that is not correct! Magnetostatics is equally important and this

concept is utilized in design of systems such as Loudspeakers, Door Bells,
Magnetic Relays, Maglev Trains etc.