Electrical Technology & Control Systems

3rd Semester
B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Bhinal Mehta

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Technology,
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, Raisan, Gandhinagar.
email: bhinal.mehta@sot.pdpu.ac.in
Google site: https://sites.google.com/view/bhinal-Mehta
(M) 9427045058 (0) 07923275093
1
 UNIT II

AC MACHINES
 Introduction of Induction Motor
• A three phase induction motor runs on a three phase AC supply.
• 3 phase induction motors are extensively used for various industrial applications
because of their following advantages
o They have very simple and rugged (almost unbreakable) or robust construction
o They are very reliable and having low cost
o They have high efficiency
o They have reasonably good power factor
o Minimum maintenance required
o Good speed regulation
o 3 phase induction motor is self starting hence extra starting motor or any
special starting arrangement is not required.

• They also have some disadvantages

 speed decreases with increase in load, just like a DC shunt motor
 if speed is to be varied, we have sacrifice some of its efficiency
 Few Applications of Induction Motor

• Application wise induction motor find in different industrial sectors such as food, chemical,
textile, metallurgical and paper industries.

• These motors are widely used for most of the industrial applications such as centrifugal
pumps, conveyers, compressors, crushers, punch presses etc.

• Applications everywhere from a small workshop to large industry.

 Construction of Three Phase Induction motor
Basically the induction motor consists of two main parts:
• The part which is stationary called stator.
• The part which rotates and is connected to the mechanical load
through shaft called rotor.

Basically there are two types of 3 phase IM

1. Squirrel cage induction motor
2. Phase Wound induction motor (slip-ring induction motor).
Both types have similar constructed stator, but they differ in construction of
rotor.
 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor
Squirrel cage IM Slip ring IM
• Rotor type – squirrel cage • Rotor type – slip ring
• Simple and rugged const. 90% of this type • Used for special cases for high starting
torques
• Low cost • High cost
• Low starting torques 1.5 to 2 times the full • Very high starting torque by inserting
load torque.. Hence not used where the external resistances – has to start against
motor has to start against heavy loads. heavy load.
• High starting current, 5 to 7 times of full • Comparatively low starting current.
load current.
• Can be started by starter : DOL, star-delta, • Rotor – rheostat starter is used for
auto transformer starters. starting motor.
• No slip rings • Three slip rings are used.
• Comparatively higher efficiency. • Comparatively lower efficiency.
Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor
Example 1 : A 4 pole, 3 phase induction motor is supplied from 50 Hz supply. Determine its
synchronous speed. On full load, its speed is observed to be 1410 r.p.m. calculate its full
load slip.
Solution : Given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz , N = 1410 r.p.m.
Ns = 120f / P
= 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
Full load absolute slip is given by,
s = ( Ns - N)/ Ns
= (1500-1410 )/ 1500 = 0.06
... %s = 0.06 x 100 = 6 %
Example 2 : A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has a full
load slip of 4 %. Calculate full load speed of the motor.
Solution : Given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, % sfl = 4%
sfl = Full load absolute slip = 0.04
Ns = 120f / P
= 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
sfl = (Ns - Nfl ) / Ns = where = full load speed of motor
... 0.04 = (1500 - Nfl )/ 1500
... Nfl = 1440 r.p.m.
Example : A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs at a speed of 1470 r.p.m. speed.
Find the frequency of the induced e.m.f in the rotor under this condition.

Solution : The given values are,

P = 4, f = 50 Hz, N = 1470 r.p.m.
Ns = (120 f )/ P = (120 x 50)/4 = 1500 r.p.m.
s = (Ns - N)/Ns = (1500-1470)/1500 = 0.02
fr = s f = 0.02 x 50 = 1 Hz
It can be seen that in running condition, frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. is very small.
Example 1 : A 3 phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole induction motor has star connected stator winding.
The rotor resistance and reactance are 0.1 Ω and 1 Ω respectively. The full load speed is 1440
r.p.m. Calculate the torque developed on full load by the motor.
Assume stator to rotor ratio as 2 :1.
Solution : The given values are, P = 4, f = 50 Hz, R2 = 0.1 Ω, X2 = 1 Ω, N = 1440 r.p.m.
Stator turns/Rotor turns = 2/1 ... K = E2 /E1 = Rotor turns/Stator turns = 1/2 = 0.5
Ns=120f/P = 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
E1line = 400 V ..............Stator line voltage given
... E1ph = E1line /√3 = 400/√3 = 230.94 V
But E2ph /E1ph = 0.5 = K
... E2ph = 0.5 x 230.94 = 115.47 V
Full load slip, s = (Ns-N)/Ns = (1500-1400)/1500 = 0.04
ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.s.
= Ns/60 = 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.

= 87.81 N-m
 Condition of Maximum Torque
• From the torque equation, it is clear that torque depends on slip at which motor is running.
• The supply voltage to the motor is usually rated and constant and there exists a fixed ratio
between E1 and E2. Hence E2 is also constant.
• Similarly R2, X2and ns are constants for the induction motor.
• Hence while finding the condition for maximum torque, remember that the only parameter
which controls the torque is slip s.
• Mathematically for the maximum torque we can write, dT/ds = 0
• where T = (k1 s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)
• While carrying out differential remember that E2, R2, X2 and k1 are constants.
• The only variable is slip s. As load on motor changes, its speed changes and hence slip
changes. This slip decides the torque produced corresponding to the load demand.
 Condition of Maximum Torque

• T = (k s E22 R2)/(R22 + s2 X22) .......Writing (s X2)2 = s2 X22

... k s E22 R2 (2s X22) - (R22 + s2 X22)(k E22 R2) = 0

... 2 s2 k X22 E22 R2 - R22 k E22 R2 - k s2 X22 E22 R2 = 0
... k s2 X22 E22 R2 - R22 k X22 R2 = 0
... s2 X22 - R22 = 0 Taking k E22 R2 common.
... s2 = R22/X22
... s = R2/X2 Neglecting negative slip
This is the slip at which the torque is maximum and is denoted as sm.
... sm= R2/X2
• It is the ratio of standstill values of resistance and reactance of rotor, when the torque
produced by the induction motor is at its maximum.
 Magnitude of Maximum Torque

This can be obtained by substituting sm = R2/X2 in the torque equation. It is denoted by Tm.
Tm = (k sm E22 R2)/(R22 +(sm X2)2)

From the expression of Tm, it can be observed that

1. It is inversely proportional to the rotor reactance.
2. It is directly proportional to the square of the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill.
3. The most interesting observation is, the maximum torque is not dependent on the rotor
resistance R2. But the slip at which it occurs i.e. speed at which it occurs depends on the value
of rotor resistance R2.
Example 1 : A 400 V, 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz star connected induction motor has a rotor resistance and reactance per phase equal to
0.01 Ω and 0.1 Ω respectively. Determine i) Starting torque ii) slip at which maximum torque will occur iii) speed at which maximum
torque will occur iv) maximum torque v) full load torque if full load slip is 4 %. Assume ratio of stator to rotor turns as 4.
Solution : The given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, stator turns/ rotor turns = 4, R2 = 0.01 Ω, X2 = 0.1 Ω
E1line = stator line voltage = 400 V
E1ph = E1line/√3 = 400/√3 = 230.94 V ............star connection
K = E2ph/E1ph = Rotor turns/ Stator turns = 1/4
.
.. E2 = (1/4) x E1ph = 230.94/4 = 57.735 V
Ns = 120f/P = 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
i) At start, s =1
... Tst = (k E22 R2)/(R22 +( X2)2) where k = 3/(2 π ns)
ns = Ns/60 = 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.
.
.. k = 3/(2π x 25) = 0.01909
.
.. Tst = ( 0.01909 x 57.7352 x 0.01 )/( 0.012 + 0.12 ) = 63.031 N-m
ii) Slip at which maximum torque occurs is,
sm = R2/X2 = 0.01/0.1 = 0.1
%sm = 0.1 x 100 = 10%
iii) Speed at which maximum torque occurs is speed corresponding to,
N = Ns (1 - sm ) = 1500 (1 - 0.1) = 1350 r.p.m.
iv) The maximum torque is,
Tm = (k E22)/(2 X2) = (0.01909 x 57.7352)/(2 x 0.1) = 318.16 N-m
v) Full load slip, sf = 0.04 as % sf = 4 %
... Tf.l. = (k sf E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2) = (0.01909 x 0.04 x 57.7352 x 0.01)/( 0.012 + (0.04 x 0.1)2)
= 219.52 N-m
 Torque-Slip Characteristics

• As the induction motor is loaded from no load to full load, its speed decreases hence slip
increases.
• Due to the increased load, motor has to produce more torque to satisfy load demand.
• The torque ultimately depends on slip as explained earlier.
• The behavior of motor can be easily judged by sketching a curve obtained by plotting
torque produced against slip of induction motor.
• The curve obtained by plotting torque against slip from s = 1 (at start) to s = 0 (at
synchronous speed) is called torque-slip characteristics of the induction motor.
• It is very interesting to study the nature of torque-slip characteristics.
 Torque-Slip Characteristics
• We have seen that for a constant supply voltage, E2 is also constant. So we can write
torque equations as,

• Now to judge the nature of torque-slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (s = 0 to s
= 1) into two parts and analyse them independently.
i) Low slip region : In low slip region, 's' is very very small. Due to this, the term (s X2)2 is so
small as compared to R22 that it can be neglected.

• Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip.

• So as load increases, speed decreases, increasing the slip.
• This increases the torque which satisfies the load demand.
• Hence the graph is straight line in nature.
• At N = Ns , s = 0 hence T = 0. As no torque is generated at N = Ns, motor stops if it tries to
achieve the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this region, of low slip values.
 Torque-Slip Characteristics
ii) High slip region : In this region, slip is high i.e. slip value is approaching to 1. Here it can be
assumed that the term R22 is very very small as compared to (s X2)2. Hence neglecting from the
denominator, we get

• So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip.

• Hence its nature is like rectangular hyperbola.
• Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As speed decreases,
slip increases.
• In high slip region as T α1/s, torque decreases as slip increases.
• But torque must increases to satisfy the load demand.
• As torque decreases, due to extra loading effect, speed further decreases and slip further
increases.
• Again torque decreases as T α1/s hence same load acts as an extra load due to reduction
in torque produced. Hence speed further drops. Eventually motor comes to standstill
condition. The motor can not continue to rotate at any point in this high slip region. Hence
this region is called unstable region of operation.
 Torque-Slip Characteristics
So torque - slip characteristics has two parts,
1. Straight line called stable region of operation
2. Rectangular hyperbola called unstable region of operation.

• Now the obvious question is upto which value of slip, torque - slip characteristics represents
stable operation ?
• In low slip region, as load increases, slip increases and torque also increases linearly.
• Every motor has its own limit to produce a torque.
• The maximum torque, the motor can produces as load increases is Tm which occurs at s = sm.
• So linear behaviour continues till s = sm.
 Torque-Slip Characteristics
• If load is increased beyond this limit, motor slip acts dominantly pushing motor into high slip
region.
• Due to unstable conditions, motor comes to standstill condition at such a load.
• Hence i.e. maximum torque which motor can produce is also called breakdown torque or
pull out torque.
• So range s = 0 to s = sm is called low slip region, known as stable region of operation.
• Motor always operates at a point in this region.
• And range s = sm to s = 1 is called high slip region which is rectangular hyperbola, called
unstable region of operation.
• Motor can not continue to rotate at any point in this region.
• At s = 1, N = 0 i.e. start, motor produces a torque called starting torque denoted as Tst.
 Torque-Slip Characteristics
The entire torque - slip characteristics is shown in the Fig.
 Full load torque

• When the load on the motor increases, the torque produced increases as speed decreases
and slip increases.
• The increases torque demand is satisfied by drawing motor current from the supply.
• The load which motor can drive safely while operating continuously and due to such load,
the current drawn is also within safe limits is called full load condition of motor.
• When current increases, due to heat produced the temperature rise.
• The safe limit of current is that which when drawn for continuous operation of motor,
produces a temperature rise well within the limits.
• Such a full load point is shown on the torque-slip characteristics torque as TF.L.
 Full load torque
• The interesting thing is that the load on the motor can be increased beyond point C till
maximum torque condition.
• But due to high current and hence high temperature rise there is possibility of damage of
winding insulation, if motor is operated for longer time duration in this region i.e. from point
C to B.
• But motor can be used to drive loads more than full load, producing torque upto maximum
torque for short duration of time.
• Generally full load torque is less than the maximum torque.
• So region OC upto full load condition allow motor operation continuously and safely from
the temperature point pf view.
• While region CB is possible to achieve in practice but only for short duration of time and not
for continuous operation of motor.
• This is the difference between full load torque and the maximum or breakdown torque.
• The breakdown torque is also called stalling torque.
 Torque Ratios
• The performance of the motor is sometimes expressed in terms of comparison of various
torques such as full load torque, starting torque and maximum torque.
• The comparison is obtained by finding out ratios of these torques.
 Full load and Maximum Torque Ratio
In general, Tα (s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)
Let sf = Full load slip
... TF.L. α (sf E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2)
and sm = Slip for maximum torque Tm
... Tm α (sm E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2)
Dividing both numerator and denominator by X22 we get,

But R2/X2 = sm
TF.L./Tm = (sf x 2 sm2)/(sm x (sm2+ sf2))
TF.L./Tm = (2 sf sm)/(sm2 + sf2)
 Torque Ratios
 Starting Torque and Maximum Torque Ratio
Again starting with torque equation as,
T α (s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)
Now for Tst, s =1
Tst α (E22 R2)/(R22 +( X2)2)
While for Tm, s = sm
Dividing both numerator and denominator by X22 we get,
Substituting R2/X2 = sm

Infact using the same method, ratio of any two torques at two different slip values can be
obtained.Sometimes using the relation, R2 = a X2 the torque ratios are expressed in terms of
constant a as, TF.L./Tm = (a sf )/(a2+ sf2)
and Tst/Tm = 2 a/ (1 + a2)
where a = R2/X2 = sm
Example 1 : A 24 pole, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has rotor resistance of 0.016 Ω per
phase and rotor reactance of 0.265 Ω per phase at standstill. It is achieving its full load torque at
a speed of 247 r.p.m. Calculate the ratio of
i) Full load torque to maximum torque ii) starting torque to maximum torque
Solution : Given values are,
P = 24, f = 50 Hz, R2 = 0.016 Ω, X2 = 0.265 Ω, N = 247 r.p.m.
Ns = 120f / P = (120x50)/24 = 250 r.p.m.
sf = (Ns - N)/Ns = (250-247)/250 = 0.012 = Full load slip
sm = R2/X2 = 0.016/0.265 = 0.06037
i) TF.L./Tm = (2 sm sf )/(sm2+ sf2) = (2 x 0.06037 x 0.012)/(0.060372 + 0.0122)
ii) Tst/Tm = (2 sm )/(1 + sm2) = (2 x 0.06037)/(1 + 0.060372) = 0.1203
 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque
It is shown that in slip ring induction motor, externally resistance can be added in the rotor. Let
us see the effect of change in rotor resistance on the torque produced.
Let R2 = Rotor resistance per phase
Corresponding torque, T α (s E22 R2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2)
Now externally resistance is added in each phase of rotor through slip rings.
Let R2' = New rotor resistance per phase
Corresponding torque T' α (s E22 R2' )/√(R2'2 +(s X2)2)
Similarly the starting torque at s = 1 for R2 and R2' can be written as
Tst α (E22 R2 )/√(R22 +(X2)2)
and T'st α (E22 R'2 )/√(R'22 +(X2)2)
Maximum torque Tm α (E22)/(2X2)
 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque
Key Point : It can be observed that Tm is independent of R2 hence whatever may be the rotor
resistance, maximum torque produced never change but the slip and speed at which it occurs
depends on R2.
For R2, sm = R2/X2 where Tm occurs
For R2', sm' = R2'/X2' where same Tm occurs
As R2' > R2, the slip sm' > sm. Due to this, we get a new torque-slip characteristics for rotor
resistance . This new characteristics is parallel to the characteristics for with same but
Tm occurring at sm'. The effect of change in rotor resistance on torque-slip characteristics
shown in the Fig. 1.
It can be seen that the starting torque T'st for R2' is more than Tst for R2. Thus by changing
rotor resistance the starting torque can be controlled.
If now resistance is further added to rotor to get resistance as R2' and so on, it can be
seen that Tm remains same but slip at which it occurs increases to sm' and so on. Similarly
starting torque also increases to T'st and so on.
 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque

If maximum torque Tm is required at start then sm = 1 as at start slip is always unity, so

sm = R2/X2 = 1
R 2 = X2 Condition for getting Tst = Tm
 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque

Key Point : Thus by adding external resistance to rotor till it becomes equal to X2, the maximum
torque can be achieved at start.
It is represented by point A in the Fig. 1.
If such high resistance is kept permanently in the circuit, there will be large copper losses
(I2 R) and hence efficiency of the motor will be very poor. Hence such added resistance is cut-
off gradually and finally removed from the rotor circuit, in the normal running condition of the
motor. So this method is used in practice to achieve higher starting torque hence resistance in
rotor is added only at start.
Thus good performance at start and in the running condition is ensured.

Key Point : This is possible only in case of slip type of induction motor as in squirrel cage due to
short circuited rotor, extra rotor resistance can not be added.
Example : Rotor resistance and standstill reactance per phase of a 3 phase induction motor are 0.04 Ω and 0.2 Ω
respectively. What should be the external resistance required at start in rotor circuit to obtain. i) maximum torque at
start ii) 50% of maximum torque at start.

Solution :
R2 = 0.04 Ω, X2 = 0.2 Ω
i) For Tm = Tst , sm = R2'/X2 = 1, ... R2' = X2 = 0.2
Let Rex = external resistance required in rotor. R2' = R2 + Rex ... Rex = R2' - R2 = 0.2 - 0.04 = 0.16 Ω per phase

ii) For Tst = 0.5 Tm, Now Tm= (k E22)/(2 X2) and Tst = (k E22 R2)/(R22 + X22)
But at start, external resistance Rex is added. So new value of rotor resistance is say R2'.
R2' = R2 + Rex ... Tst = (k E22 R2')/(R2'2 + X22) with added resistance but Tst = 0.5Tm required.
Substituting expressions of Tst and Tm, we get
(k E22 R2')/(R2'2 + X22) = 0.5 (k E22)/ (2X2)
. .. 4 R2' X2= (R2'2 + X22)
. .. (R2'2) - 4 x 0.2 x R2' + 0.22 = 0
. .. (R2'2) - 0.8 R2' + 0.04 = 0
. .. R2' = {0.8 + √(0.82 - 4 x 0.04)}/2
... R2' = 0.0535 , 0.7464 Ω
But R2' can not greater than X2 hence,
R2' = 0.0535 = R2 + Rex
. .. 0.0535 = 0.04 + Rex
. .. Rex = 0.0135 Ω per phase
This is much resistance is required in the rotor externally to obtain Tst = 0.5 Tm.
Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic
Main points to be remember Torque-Slip Characteristics

N=Ns, slip = 0; Torque = 0 curve will start from origin

When speed nearly equals to Ns,

sX2 is very small compared to R2, straight line

As slip increases speed drops with increase in load,

torque increases, reaches up to maximum torque,
breakdown torque
Further increase in slip, drop in speed due to increase
in load, beyond the point of maximum torque,
torque begins to decrease.
Motor operates between zero to breakdown torque.

Higher values of slip R2 is negligible compared to X2

and T is inversely proportional to s.