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Chem revision notes

The document covers fundamental concepts in chemistry, including the particulate nature of matter, states of matter, and the properties of atoms, elements, and compounds. It also discusses experimental techniques, stoichiometry, chemical reactions, and the periodic table, along with the characteristics of acids, bases, and metals. Additionally, it addresses the composition of air and water, the significance of sulfur and carbonates, and their reactions.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
7 views

Chem revision notes

The document covers fundamental concepts in chemistry, including the particulate nature of matter, states of matter, and the properties of atoms, elements, and compounds. It also discusses experimental techniques, stoichiometry, chemical reactions, and the periodic table, along with the characteristics of acids, bases, and metals. Additionally, it addresses the composition of air and water, the significance of sulfur and carbonates, and their reactions.

Uploaded by

hamza.omar2511
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as TXT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1.

The Particulate Nature of Matter


Matter: Everything around us is made up of matter, which consists of particles.
These particles are constantly in motion, and this movement determines the
properties of substances.

Particle Theory: States that matter is made up of particles (atoms, molecules) that
are in constant motion. The more energy they have, the faster they move.

Solid: Particles are tightly packed, only vibrating in place. Low energy.

Liquid: Particles are close but can move past each other. Medium energy.

Gas: Particles are far apart and move freely. High energy.

Key Concepts:

States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas. These depend on the arrangement and movement
of particles.

Kinetic Energy: The energy of motion. It increases with temperature.

Diffusion: The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low


concentration. Occurs faster in gases and liquids due to higher particle movement.

2. Experimental Techniques
Separation Techniques:

Filtration: Used to separate solid from liquid (e.g., separating sand from water).

Distillation: Used to separate liquids with different boiling points (e.g.,


separating water from alcohol).

Chromatography: Used to separate mixtures based on different rates of travel across


a medium (e.g., separating pigments in ink).

Measuring Techniques:

Balance: Measures mass of substances.

Thermometer: Measures temperature.

Volumetric Glassware: Used for measuring precise volumes (e.g., burette, pipette).

Key Concept:

Always record data carefully and ensure repeatability of experiments to ensure


accuracy.

3. Atoms, Elements, and Compounds


Atom: The smallest unit of an element, composed of a nucleus (protons, neutrons)
and electrons orbiting the nucleus.

Element: A substance that consists of only one type of atom. Examples: Hydrogen
(H), Oxygen (O), Carbon (C).

Compound: A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond. Examples:
Water (H₂O), Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

Ionic Bonds: Occur between metals and non-metals, where electrons are transferred.
Covalent Bonds: Occur between non-metals, where electrons are shared.

Periodic Table:

Elements are arranged by atomic number (number of protons).

Groups: Vertical columns, elements in the same group have similar properties.

Periods: Horizontal rows, properties change gradually across a period.

4. Stoichiometry (The Mole Concept)


Mole: The amount of substance containing the same number of particles as there are
atoms in 12g of carbon-12. Avogadro’s number:
6.022
×
10
23
6.022×10
23
particles.

Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance, measured in g/mol. It’s equal to
the relative atomic mass for elements.

Stoichiometric Calculations:

Mole Ratios: In chemical reactions, reactants and products react in fixed ratios.

Example: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O. This means 2 moles of hydrogen react with 1 mole of
oxygen to produce 2 moles of water.

Limiting Reactant: The reactant that runs out first and limits the amount of
product formed.

5. Electricity and Chemistry (Electrolysis)


Electrolysis: The process of using electricity to break down a compound into its
elements.

Electrolyte: A substance that conducts electricity when molten or dissolved in


water.

Anode (positive): Where oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs.

Cathode (negative): Where reduction (gain of electrons) occurs.

Applications:

Electroplating: Coating an object with a metal by electrolysis.

Extraction of metals: Some metals like aluminum are extracted using electrolysis
(e.g., from bauxite).

6. Chemical Energetics
Exothermic Reactions: Release energy to the surroundings (e.g., combustion).

Examples: Burning wood, respiration.

Endothermic Reactions: Absorb energy from the surroundings (e.g., photosynthesis).


Examples: Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water.

Energy Changes:

Activation Energy: The minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.

Enthalpy Change (ΔH): The heat energy change during a reaction at constant
pressure. Can be measured using a calorimeter.

7. Chemical Reactions
Types of Reactions:

𝐴
Combination: Two reactants combine to form one product.

𝐵
+

𝐴

𝐵
A+B→AB

𝐴
Decomposition: One reactant breaks down into two or more products.

𝐴

𝐵
+

AB→A+B

𝐴
Displacement: One element replaces another in a compound.

𝐶
+

𝐴

𝐵
+

AB+C→AC+B

Redox Reactions: Involves transfer of electrons. Reduction is gain of electrons,


oxidation is loss of electrons.8. Acids, Bases, and Salts
Acids
Definition: An acid is a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved
in water.

Properties:

Sour taste (e.g., lemon juice, vinegar).

Turns blue litmus paper red.

Reacts with metals to produce hydrogen gas.

Reacts with bases to form salts.


Common acids:

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)

Nitric acid (HNO₃)

Bases
Definition: A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H⁺) or releases
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when dissolved in water.

Properties:

Bitter taste.

Slippery feel (e.g., soap).

Turns red litmus paper blue.

Common bases:

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

Ammonia (NH₃)

Alkalis
Definition: An alkali is a base that is soluble in water and releases hydroxide
ions (OH⁻).

Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an alkali because it dissolves in water and


releases OH⁻ ions.

Neutralization Reaction
A reaction between an acid and a base to produce a salt and water. This reaction
involves the combination of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻) to form
water.

Example:
HCl
+
NaOH

NaCl
+
H₂O
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H₂O (acid + base → salt + water)

9. The Periodic Table


The Periodic Table organizes elements based on their atomic number and similar
chemical properties. The table has rows (periods) and columns (groups).

Groups
Group 1: Alkali Metals (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium):

Very reactive, especially with water.


Form alkalis when reacting with water.

Low melting points and densities.

Group 7: Halogens (e.g., chlorine, bromine, iodine):

Very reactive non-metals.

Form salts when combined with metals (e.g., sodium chloride).

Group 8: Noble Gases (e.g., helium, neon, argon):

Non-reactive, as they have full outer electron shells.

Periods
Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.

As you move across a period, the atomic size decreases, and the elements become
less metallic and more non-metallic.

10. Metals
Metals are elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity, and they are
typically shiny and malleable.

Properties of Metals:
Malleable: Can be hammered into thin sheets.

Ductile: Can be drawn into wires.

High Melting Points: Due to the strong forces between metal atoms.

Good Conductors: Conduct electricity and heat well.

Reactivity of Metals:
Alkali Metals: Most reactive (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium). React with water
to form hydroxides and hydrogen gas.

Transition Metals: Less reactive but have useful properties like being strong and
resistant to corrosion (e.g., iron, copper, gold).

Extraction of Metals:
Mining: Metals are extracted from their ores, which are naturally occurring
compounds.

Smelting: Process where metal ores are heated to separate the metal from
impurities.

Electrolysis: Used for extracting metals like aluminum from their ores.

11. Air and Water


Air
Composition of Air: Air is a mixture of gases.

78% Nitrogen (N₂), 21% Oxygen (O₂), 0.04% Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), and small amounts
of noble gases (argon, neon, etc.).

Water
Properties:
Polar Molecule: Water molecules have a slight positive charge on the hydrogen atoms
and a negative charge on the oxygen atom.

Boiling and Freezing Points: Boils at 100°C and freezes at 0°C under standard
conditions.

Water Purification:

Filtration: Removes suspended particles.

Distillation: Separates water from other dissolved substances.

Chlorination: Adds chlorine to disinfect water.

12. Sulfur
Sulfur is a non-metal that can form various compounds, such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Produced during combustion of fossil fuels containing sulfur.
It’s a major air pollutant.

Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄): Used in the manufacture of fertilizers, detergents, and


other chemicals.

13. Carbonates
Carbonates are compounds containing the carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻).

Reaction with Acids:

When carbonates react with acids, they produce a salt, water, and carbon dioxide
gas.

Example:
CaCO₃
+
2
HCl

CaCl₂
+
H₂O
+
CO₂
CaCO₃+2HCl→CaCl₂+H₂O+CO₂

Common Carbonates:

Calcium Carbonate (CaCO₃): Found in limestone, marble, and chalk.

Sodium Carbonate (Na₂CO₃): Used in glass manufacturing.

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