1.

The Particulate Nature of Matter

Matter: Everything around us is made up of matter, which consists of particles.
These particles are constantly in motion, and this movement determines the
properties of substances.

Particle Theory: States that matter is made up of particles (atoms, molecules) that
are in constant motion. The more energy they have, the faster they move.

Solid: Particles are tightly packed, only vibrating in place. Low energy.

Liquid: Particles are close but can move past each other. Medium energy.

Gas: Particles are far apart and move freely. High energy.

Key Concepts:

States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas. These depend on the arrangement and movement
of particles.

Kinetic Energy: The energy of motion. It increases with temperature.

Diffusion: The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low

concentration. Occurs faster in gases and liquids due to higher particle movement.

2. Experimental Techniques
Separation Techniques:

Filtration: Used to separate solid from liquid (e.g., separating sand from water).

Distillation: Used to separate liquids with different boiling points (e.g.,

separating water from alcohol).

Chromatography: Used to separate mixtures based on different rates of travel across

a medium (e.g., separating pigments in ink).

Measuring Techniques:

Balance: Measures mass of substances.

Thermometer: Measures temperature.

Volumetric Glassware: Used for measuring precise volumes (e.g., burette, pipette).

Key Concept:

Always record data carefully and ensure repeatability of experiments to ensure

accuracy.

3. Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

Atom: The smallest unit of an element, composed of a nucleus (protons, neutrons)
and electrons orbiting the nucleus.

Element: A substance that consists of only one type of atom. Examples: Hydrogen
(H), Oxygen (O), Carbon (C).

Compound: A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond. Examples:
Water (H₂O), Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

Ionic Bonds: Occur between metals and non-metals, where electrons are transferred.
Covalent Bonds: Occur between non-metals, where electrons are shared.

Periodic Table:

Elements are arranged by atomic number (number of protons).

Groups: Vertical columns, elements in the same group have similar properties.

Periods: Horizontal rows, properties change gradually across a period.

4. Stoichiometry (The Mole Concept)

Mole: The amount of substance containing the same number of particles as there are
atoms in 12g of carbon-12. Avogadro’s number:
6.022
×
10
23
6.022×10
23
particles.

Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance, measured in g/mol. It’s equal to
the relative atomic mass for elements.

Stoichiometric Calculations:

Mole Ratios: In chemical reactions, reactants and products react in fixed ratios.

Example: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O. This means 2 moles of hydrogen react with 1 mole of
oxygen to produce 2 moles of water.

Limiting Reactant: The reactant that runs out first and limits the amount of
product formed.

5. Electricity and Chemistry (Electrolysis)

Electrolysis: The process of using electricity to break down a compound into its
elements.

Electrolyte: A substance that conducts electricity when molten or dissolved in

water.

Anode (positive): Where oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs.

Cathode (negative): Where reduction (gain of electrons) occurs.

Applications:

Electroplating: Coating an object with a metal by electrolysis.

Extraction of metals: Some metals like aluminum are extracted using electrolysis
(e.g., from bauxite).

6. Chemical Energetics
Exothermic Reactions: Release energy to the surroundings (e.g., combustion).

Examples: Burning wood, respiration.

Endothermic Reactions: Absorb energy from the surroundings (e.g., photosynthesis).

Examples: Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water.

Energy Changes:

Activation Energy: The minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.

Enthalpy Change (ΔH): The heat energy change during a reaction at constant
pressure. Can be measured using a calorimeter.

7. Chemical Reactions
Types of Reactions:

𝐴
Combination: Two reactants combine to form one product.

𝐵
+

𝐴
→

𝐵
A+B→AB

𝐴
Decomposition: One reactant breaks down into two or more products.

𝐴
→

𝐵
+

AB→A+B

𝐴
Displacement: One element replaces another in a compound.

𝐶
+

𝐴
→

𝐵
+

AB+C→AC+B

Redox Reactions: Involves transfer of electrons. Reduction is gain of electrons,

oxidation is loss of electrons.8. Acids, Bases, and Salts
Acids
Definition: An acid is a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved
in water.

Properties:

Sour taste (e.g., lemon juice, vinegar).

Turns blue litmus paper red.

Reacts with metals to produce hydrogen gas.

Reacts with bases to form salts.

Common acids:

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)

Nitric acid (HNO₃)

Bases
Definition: A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H⁺) or releases
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when dissolved in water.

Properties:

Bitter taste.

Slippery feel (e.g., soap).

Turns red litmus paper blue.

Common bases:

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

Ammonia (NH₃)

Alkalis
Definition: An alkali is a base that is soluble in water and releases hydroxide
ions (OH⁻).

Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an alkali because it dissolves in water and

releases OH⁻ ions.

Neutralization Reaction
A reaction between an acid and a base to produce a salt and water. This reaction
involves the combination of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻) to form
water.

Example:
HCl
+
NaOH
→
NaCl
+
H₂O
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H₂O (acid + base → salt + water)

9. The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table organizes elements based on their atomic number and similar
chemical properties. The table has rows (periods) and columns (groups).

Groups
Group 1: Alkali Metals (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium):

Very reactive, especially with water.

Form alkalis when reacting with water.

Low melting points and densities.

Group 7: Halogens (e.g., chlorine, bromine, iodine):

Very reactive non-metals.

Form salts when combined with metals (e.g., sodium chloride).

Group 8: Noble Gases (e.g., helium, neon, argon):

Non-reactive, as they have full outer electron shells.

Periods
Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.

As you move across a period, the atomic size decreases, and the elements become
less metallic and more non-metallic.

10. Metals
Metals are elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity, and they are
typically shiny and malleable.

Properties of Metals:
Malleable: Can be hammered into thin sheets.

Ductile: Can be drawn into wires.

High Melting Points: Due to the strong forces between metal atoms.

Good Conductors: Conduct electricity and heat well.

Reactivity of Metals:
Alkali Metals: Most reactive (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium). React with water
to form hydroxides and hydrogen gas.

Transition Metals: Less reactive but have useful properties like being strong and
resistant to corrosion (e.g., iron, copper, gold).

Extraction of Metals:
Mining: Metals are extracted from their ores, which are naturally occurring
compounds.

Smelting: Process where metal ores are heated to separate the metal from
impurities.

Electrolysis: Used for extracting metals like aluminum from their ores.

11. Air and Water

Air
Composition of Air: Air is a mixture of gases.

78% Nitrogen (N₂), 21% Oxygen (O₂), 0.04% Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), and small amounts
of noble gases (argon, neon, etc.).

Water
Properties:
Polar Molecule: Water molecules have a slight positive charge on the hydrogen atoms
and a negative charge on the oxygen atom.

Boiling and Freezing Points: Boils at 100°C and freezes at 0°C under standard
conditions.

Water Purification:

Filtration: Removes suspended particles.

Distillation: Separates water from other dissolved substances.

Chlorination: Adds chlorine to disinfect water.

12. Sulfur
Sulfur is a non-metal that can form various compounds, such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Produced during combustion of fossil fuels containing sulfur.
It’s a major air pollutant.

Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄): Used in the manufacture of fertilizers, detergents, and

other chemicals.

13. Carbonates
Carbonates are compounds containing the carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻).

Reaction with Acids:

When carbonates react with acids, they produce a salt, water, and carbon dioxide
gas.

Example:
CaCO₃
+
2
HCl
→
CaCl₂
+
H₂O
+
CO₂
CaCO₃+2HCl→CaCl₂+H₂O+CO₂

Common Carbonates:

Calcium Carbonate (CaCO₃): Found in limestone, marble, and chalk.

Sodium Carbonate (Na₂CO₃): Used in glass manufacturing.