Chem revision notes
Chem revision notes
Particle Theory: States that matter is made up of particles (atoms, molecules) that
are in constant motion. The more energy they have, the faster they move.
Solid: Particles are tightly packed, only vibrating in place. Low energy.
Liquid: Particles are close but can move past each other. Medium energy.
Gas: Particles are far apart and move freely. High energy.
Key Concepts:
States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas. These depend on the arrangement and movement
of particles.
2. Experimental Techniques
Separation Techniques:
Filtration: Used to separate solid from liquid (e.g., separating sand from water).
Measuring Techniques:
Volumetric Glassware: Used for measuring precise volumes (e.g., burette, pipette).
Key Concept:
Element: A substance that consists of only one type of atom. Examples: Hydrogen
(H), Oxygen (O), Carbon (C).
Compound: A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond. Examples:
Water (H₂O), Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
Ionic Bonds: Occur between metals and non-metals, where electrons are transferred.
Covalent Bonds: Occur between non-metals, where electrons are shared.
Periodic Table:
Groups: Vertical columns, elements in the same group have similar properties.
Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance, measured in g/mol. It’s equal to
the relative atomic mass for elements.
Stoichiometric Calculations:
Mole Ratios: In chemical reactions, reactants and products react in fixed ratios.
Example: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O. This means 2 moles of hydrogen react with 1 mole of
oxygen to produce 2 moles of water.
Limiting Reactant: The reactant that runs out first and limits the amount of
product formed.
Applications:
Extraction of metals: Some metals like aluminum are extracted using electrolysis
(e.g., from bauxite).
6. Chemical Energetics
Exothermic Reactions: Release energy to the surroundings (e.g., combustion).
Energy Changes:
Enthalpy Change (ΔH): The heat energy change during a reaction at constant
pressure. Can be measured using a calorimeter.
7. Chemical Reactions
Types of Reactions:
𝐴
Combination: Two reactants combine to form one product.
𝐵
+
𝐴
→
𝐵
A+B→AB
𝐴
Decomposition: One reactant breaks down into two or more products.
𝐴
→
𝐵
+
AB→A+B
𝐴
Displacement: One element replaces another in a compound.
𝐶
+
𝐴
→
𝐵
+
AB+C→AC+B
Properties:
Bases
Definition: A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H⁺) or releases
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when dissolved in water.
Properties:
Bitter taste.
Common bases:
Ammonia (NH₃)
Alkalis
Definition: An alkali is a base that is soluble in water and releases hydroxide
ions (OH⁻).
Neutralization Reaction
A reaction between an acid and a base to produce a salt and water. This reaction
involves the combination of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻) to form
water.
Example:
HCl
+
NaOH
→
NaCl
+
H₂O
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H₂O (acid + base → salt + water)
Groups
Group 1: Alkali Metals (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium):
Periods
Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.
As you move across a period, the atomic size decreases, and the elements become
less metallic and more non-metallic.
10. Metals
Metals are elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity, and they are
typically shiny and malleable.
Properties of Metals:
Malleable: Can be hammered into thin sheets.
High Melting Points: Due to the strong forces between metal atoms.
Reactivity of Metals:
Alkali Metals: Most reactive (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium). React with water
to form hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
Transition Metals: Less reactive but have useful properties like being strong and
resistant to corrosion (e.g., iron, copper, gold).
Extraction of Metals:
Mining: Metals are extracted from their ores, which are naturally occurring
compounds.
Smelting: Process where metal ores are heated to separate the metal from
impurities.
Electrolysis: Used for extracting metals like aluminum from their ores.
78% Nitrogen (N₂), 21% Oxygen (O₂), 0.04% Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), and small amounts
of noble gases (argon, neon, etc.).
Water
Properties:
Polar Molecule: Water molecules have a slight positive charge on the hydrogen atoms
and a negative charge on the oxygen atom.
Boiling and Freezing Points: Boils at 100°C and freezes at 0°C under standard
conditions.
Water Purification:
12. Sulfur
Sulfur is a non-metal that can form various compounds, such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).
Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Produced during combustion of fossil fuels containing sulfur.
It’s a major air pollutant.
13. Carbonates
Carbonates are compounds containing the carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻).
When carbonates react with acids, they produce a salt, water, and carbon dioxide
gas.
Example:
CaCO₃
+
2
HCl
→
CaCl₂
+
H₂O
+
CO₂
CaCO₃+2HCl→CaCl₂+H₂O+CO₂
Common Carbonates: