Candidates study the following topics:

1 States of matter

2 Atoms, elements and compounds

3 Stoichiometry

4 Electrochemistry

5 Chemical energetics

6 Chemical reactions

7 Acids, bases and salts

8 The Periodic Table

9 Metals

10 Chemistry of the environment

11 Organic chemistry

12 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis

1. States of Matter

Overview:

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. It exists mainly in three states—solid, liquid, and
gas—with additional exotic states (such as plasma and Bose-Einstein condensates) under certain
conditions.

Key Points:

Solids:

Particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) are closely packed in a regular, fixed arrangement.

They have a definite shape and volume.

Vibrational motion occurs around fixed positions.

Liquids:

Particles are still close together but can move past one another.

They have a definite volume but take the shape of their container.

The intermolecular forces are strong enough to keep the volume constant but not the shape.

Gases:
Particles are far apart and move freely.

They have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume.

They expand to fill the container, and intermolecular forces are negligible except during collisions.

Transitions:

Changes between states occur via heating or cooling (melting, freezing, vaporization, condensation,
sublimation, deposition).

Phase diagrams graphically represent the conditions under which distinct phases occur.

2. Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

Overview:

Understanding the building blocks of matter involves studying atoms (the smallest units), elements
(substances made of one type of atom), and compounds (substances formed from two or more different
atoms chemically bonded).

Key Points:

Atoms:

Consist of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electrons orbiting the nucleus.

Defined by their atomic number (number of protons) and mass number (total number of protons and
neutrons).

Elements:

Pure substances made of one type of atom.

Listed in the periodic table, each element has unique properties.

Examples: Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), and Iron (Fe).

Compounds:

Formed when two or more elements chemically combine in fixed ratios.

Properties differ from the constituent elements.

Examples: Water (H₂O) and sodium chloride (NaCl).

Chemical Bonds:

Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.

Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons between nonmetals.

Metallic Bonds: Sea of delocalized electrons in metals.

Overview:

Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the quantitative relationships between the
reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Key Points:

Mole Concept:

A mole is

6.022

10

23

6.022×10

23

particles of a substance.

It provides a bridge between atomic mass units and grams.

Balancing Chemical Equations:

Conservation of mass dictates that the number of atoms for each element must be equal on both sides
of the reaction.

Molar Ratios:

Derived from the coefficients in balanced equations.

Used to calculate amounts (moles, mass, or volume) of reactants and products.

Limiting Reagent:

The reactant that is completely used up first, limiting the extent of the reaction.

Calculations involve determining which reagent runs out first.

Percent Yield:
The ratio of the actual yield (from experiments) to the theoretical yield (calculated) expressed as a
percentage.

4. Electrochemistry

Overview:

Electrochemistry explores the relationship between electricity and chemical change, focusing on redox
(reduction-oxidation) reactions.

Key Points:

Redox Reactions:

Involve the transfer of electrons.

Oxidation: Loss of electrons.

Reduction: Gain of electrons.

Electrochemical Cells:

Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells: Spontaneous redox reactions that generate electrical energy.

Electrolytic Cells: Non-spontaneous reactions driven by an external electrical source.

Standard Electrode Potentials:

Measure the tendency of a chemical species to be reduced.

Used to predict the direction of redox reactions.

Applications:

Batteries, fuel cells, corrosion prevention, and electroplating.

Understanding electrolytic processes in industries (e.g., aluminum extraction).

5. Chemical Energetics

Overview:

Chemical energetics deals with the energy changes that occur during chemical reactions, including
concepts such as enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy.
Key Points:

Enthalpy (ΔH):

The heat change at constant pressure.

Exothermic Reactions: Release heat (

<

ΔH<0).

Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat (

>

ΔH>0).

Entropy (ΔS):

A measure of disorder or randomness in a system.

Generally increases in spontaneous processes.

Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG):

Combines enthalpy and entropy to predict reaction spontaneity:

Δ
𝐻

ΔG=ΔH−TΔS

Negative

ΔG indicates a spontaneous reaction.

Activation Energy:

The minimum energy needed for a reaction to proceed.

Catalysts lower the activation energy, increasing the reaction rate without being consumed.

6. Chemical Reactions

Overview:

Chemical reactions involve the transformation of reactants into products. Understanding different types
of reactions is essential for predicting product formation and reaction behavior.

Key Points:

Types of Reactions:

Synthesis (Combination): Two or more substances combine to form a new compound.

Decomposition: A compound breaks down into simpler substances.

Single Displacement: One element replaces another in a compound.

Double Displacement (Metathesis): Exchange of ions between compounds, often forming a precipitate.

Combustion: Reaction with oxygen producing heat and light, typically yielding CO₂ and H₂O.

Redox Reactions: Involve the transfer of electrons.

Step-by-step sequence of elementary reactions.

Important for understanding kinetics (reaction rates).

Catalysis:

Catalysts speed up reactions by providing alternative reaction pathways with lower activation energies.

They are not consumed in the reaction.

7. Acids, Bases, and Salts

Overview:

This topic covers the properties, theories, and reactions of acids, bases, and salts, which are central to
many chemical processes.

Key Points:

Acids:

Substances that donate protons (H⁺ ions) according to the Brønsted-Lowry theory.

Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).

Properties: Sour taste, ability to turn blue litmus red.

Bases:

Substances that accept protons or donate hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

Examples: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonia (NH₃).

Properties: Bitter taste, slippery feel, ability to turn red litmus blue.

Salts:

Formed from the neutralization reaction between an acid and a base.

Composed of cations (usually metal ions) and anions.

Theories of Acids and Bases:

Arrhenius Theory: Acids produce H⁺ in water; bases produce OH⁻.

Brønsted-Lowry Theory: Acids donate protons; bases accept protons.

Lewis Theory: Acids accept electron pairs; bases donate electron pairs.

pH Scale:

Measures the acidity or basicity of a solution.

pH < 7 indicates acidic, pH = 7 neutral, and pH > 7 basic.

8. The Periodic Table

Overview:

The periodic table organizes elements based on their atomic structure and recurring chemical
properties, providing a powerful tool for understanding chemical behavior.

Key Points:

Structure and Organization:

Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

Rows (periods) show periodic trends in properties.

Columns (groups or families) contain elements with similar chemical behavior.

Periodic Trends:

Atomic Radius: Generally decreases across a period and increases down a group.

Ionization Energy: Increases across a period and decreases down a group.

Electronegativity: Tends to increase across a period and decrease down a group.

Categories of Elements:
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids: Each with distinct physical and chemical properties.

Transition Metals: Known for their ability to form complex ions and exhibit multiple oxidation states.

Lanthanides and Actinides: Placed separately at the bottom of the table.

9. Metals

Overview:

Metals are a major category of elements characterized by their physical and chemical properties, such as
conductivity, malleability, ductility, and luster.

Key Points:

Properties of Metals:

High electrical and thermal conductivity.

Malleable (can be hammered into sheets) and ductile (can be drawn into wires).

Lustrous appearance (shiny).

Generally form positive ions in chemical reactions.

Reactivity:

Varies significantly among metals.

Alkali metals (Group 1) and alkaline earth metals (Group 2) are highly reactive.

Transition metals often exhibit variable oxidation states.

Applications:

Construction materials, electronics, transportation, and catalysis.

Alloys (mixtures of metals) enhance properties like strength and corrosion resistance.

Extraction and Refinement:

Methods include mining, smelting, and electrolysis.

Extraction techniques depend on the metal’s reactivity and occurrence in nature.

Overview:

Environmental chemistry focuses on chemical processes occurring in the environment and how human
activities affect these processes.

Key Points:

Pollution and Its Types:

Air Pollution: Emission of harmful gases and particulates.

Water Pollution: Contamination of water bodies with chemicals, heavy metals, or biological agents.

Soil Pollution: Deposition of hazardous substances leading to degradation of soil quality.

Chemical Cycles:

Carbon Cycle: Involves the exchange of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, and living organisms.

Nitrogen Cycle: Conversion of nitrogen into various chemical forms, crucial for plant growth.

Water Cycle: Movement of water through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.

Green Chemistry:

Designing chemical processes to reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances.

Emphasis on sustainability and minimal environmental impact.

Climate Change:

Role of greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane) in global warming.

Chemical reactions in the atmosphere that contribute to ozone depletion and acid rain.

11. Organic Chemistry

Overview:

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds, their structures, properties, reactions,
and synthesis.
Key Points:

Structure and Bonding:

Carbon’s tetravalency leads to diverse structures (chains, rings, and frameworks).

Functional groups (e.g., hydroxyl, carbonyl, amino) determine chemical reactivity.

Types of Organic Compounds:

Hydrocarbons: Compounds made solely of carbon and hydrogen (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatic
compounds).

Heteroatom-Containing Compounds: Molecules that include atoms like oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.

Polymers: Large molecules composed of repeating units.

Reactions:

Substitution Reactions: Exchange of one atom or group for another.

Addition Reactions: Atoms add to a molecule without the loss of any atoms.

Elimination Reactions: Removal of elements from a molecule to form double bonds.

Rearrangement Reactions: Structural reorganization of atoms within a molecule.

Synthesis and Mechanisms:

Stepwise construction of complex organic molecules.

Detailed reaction mechanisms explain how and why reactions occur, often involving intermediates and
transition states.

Applications:

Pharmaceuticals, plastics, fuels, and agrochemicals.

Understanding organic reactions is key for drug design and material science.

12. Experimental Techniques and Chemical Analysis

Experimental techniques and chemical analysis are essential for investigating chemical substances,
reactions, and processes, allowing chemists to determine composition, structure, and properties.

Key Points:

Laboratory Techniques:

Qualitative Analysis: Identifying the components of a substance (e.g., flame tests, precipitation
reactions).

Quantitative Analysis: Measuring the amount of a substance (e.g., titrations, gravimetric analysis).

Instrumentation:

Spectroscopy:

UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Measures absorbance of ultraviolet and visible light.

Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy: Identifies functional groups by their characteristic vibrational frequencies.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): Provides detailed information on molecular structure.

Chromatography: Separates mixtures into individual components (e.g., gas chromatography, high-
performance liquid chromatography).

Mass Spectrometry: Determines the molecular mass and structure of compounds by ionizing molecules.

Safety and Good Laboratory Practice:

Proper handling of chemicals, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), and adherence to safety
protocols.

Calibration and maintenance of instruments for accurate results.

Data Analysis and Interpretation:

Statistical analysis to validate experimental results.

Error analysis and method validation ensure reliability and reproducibility.