1.

States of Matter
1.1 Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Properties:

Solids: Fixed shape and volume, particles closely packed in fixed positions.

Liquids: Fixed volume but no fixed shape, particles closely packed but can move over each
other.

Gases: No fixed shape or volume, particles far apart and move freely.

Particle Theory:

Solids: Vibrate in fixed positions.

Liquids: Slide over each other.

Gases: Move randomly at high speeds.

Changes of State:

Melting, boiling, evaporation, freezing, and condensation involve energy changes and
particle movement.

Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Gases:

Increased temperature: particles move faster → increased pressure if volume is constant.

Increased pressure: particles are forced closer → reduced volume.

1.2 Diffusion
Diffusion: Movement of particles from a region of high concentration to low concentration.

Factors affecting diffusion:

Molecular mass: Lighter particles diffuse faster.

Temperature: Higher temperature increases kinetic energy and diffusion rate.

 2. Atoms, Elements, and Compounds
2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
Element: Pure substance with only one type of atom.

Compound: Substance of two or more chemically bonded elements.

Mixture: Two or more substances physically combined, not chemically bonded.

2.2 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

Atomic Structure: Central nucleus with protons and neutrons; electrons in shells.

Relative Mass & Charge:

Proton: Mass = 1, Charge = +1

Neutron: Mass = 1, Charge = 0

Electron: Mass ≈ 0, Charge = -1

Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons.

Mass Number (A): Total number of protons and neutrons.

Electronic Configuration (1–20): e.g., Sodium (11): 2,8,1

Periodic Table Structure:

Groups: Vertical columns – same number of outer electrons.

Periods: Horizontal rows – same number of electron shells.

Group VIII/0: Noble gases – full outer shell.

2.3 Isotopes
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different neutron numbers.

Chemical Properties: Same (due to same electron configuration).

Example Notation: ¹²C, ¹³C, ³⁵Cl⁻

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): Weighted average based on isotopic abundances.

2.4 Ion and Ionic Bonds

Ion Formation:

Cation: Positive ion (loss of electrons).

Anion: Negative ion (gain of electrons).

Giant Ionic Lattice: Regular arrangement of oppositely charged ions (e.g., NaCl).

Dot-and-Cross Diagrams: Show transfer of electrons between metals and non-metals.

Properties of Ionic Compounds:

High melting/boiling points (strong electrostatic forces).

Conduct electricity when molten or in solution.

6.3 Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium Continued

Haber Process:

Conditions: 450°C, 200 atm (20,000 kPa), iron catalyst.

Purpose: Manufacture of ammonia (NH₃) from nitrogen (N₂) and hydrogen (H₂).

Conditions are a compromise between rate of reaction, yield, cost, and safety.

Contact Process (for sulfuric acid manufacture):

Conversion Reaction: 2SO₂(g) + O₂(g) ⇌ 2SO₃(g)

Sources of SO₂: Burning sulfur, roasting sulfide ores.

Conditions: 450°C, 2 atm (200 kPa), vanadium(V) oxide (V₂O₅) catalyst.

Economic and safety considerations influence the chosen temperature and pressure.
6.4 Redox
Oxidation Numbers: Roman numerals indicate oxidation state.

Redox Reactions: Simultaneous oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of

electrons).

Oxidation Defined As:

Gain of oxygen

Loss of electrons

Increase in oxidation number

Reduction Defined As:

Loss of oxygen

Gain of electrons

Decrease in oxidation number

Oxidation Number Rules:

Uncombined element = 0

Monoatomic ion = same as its charge

Sum in a compound = 0

Sum in a polyatomic ion = charge on ion

Identifying Redox Reactions:

Use colour changes with:

Potassium manganate (VII) (purple to colourless if reduced)

Potassium iodide (colourless to brown if oxidized)

Redox Agents:

Oxidising Agent: Causes oxidation, is reduced.

Reducing Agent: Causes reduction, is oxidised.

7.1 Characteristic Properties of Acids and Bases

Acids: Release H⁺ ions in solution.

Bases: Metal oxides/hydroxides; alkalis are soluble bases that release OH⁻ ions.

Reactions of Acids:

With metals → salt + hydrogen

With bases → salt + water

With carbonates → salt + water + carbon dioxide

Reactions of Bases:

With acids → salt + water

With ammonium salts → ammonia + salt + water

Neutralisation:

Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water

H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l)

Indicators:

Litmus: Red (acid), Blue (alkali)

Methyl orange: Red (acid), Yellow (alkali)

Phenolphthalein: Colorless (acid), Pink (alkali)

Strength of Acids:

Strong Acid: Fully dissociates (e.g., HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻)

Weak Acid: Partially dissociates (e.g., CH₃COOH ⇌ H⁺ + CH₃COO⁻)

Comparing Acidity/Alkalinity:

Use pH and universal indicator.

Hydrogen ion concentration determines pH.

7.2 Oxides
Amphoteric Oxides: React with acids and bases to form salt and water (e.g., Al₂O₃, ZnO)

Acidic Oxides: Non-metal oxides (e.g., SO₂, CO₂)

Basic Oxides: Metal oxides (e.g., CuO, CaO)

7.3 Preparation of Salts

Soluble Salts:

Prepared by reacting acid with:

Alkali (by titration)

Excess metal

Excess base

Excess carbonate

Insoluble Salts:

Prepared by precipitation (mixing two solutions to form a solid)

Solubility Rules:

All nitrates, sodium, potassium, ammonium salts = soluble

Chlorides = soluble (except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺)

Sulfates = soluble (except Ba²⁺, Pb²⁺, Ca²⁺)

Carbonates, hydroxides = mostly insoluble (except Na⁺, K⁺, NH₄⁺)

Hydrated and Anhydrous Salts:

Hydrated = with water (e.g., CuSO₄·5H₂O)

Anhydrous = no water

8. Periodic Table
Arrangement:

Elements arranged by atomic number.

Periods = horizontal, Groups = vertical.

Trends:

Across a period: metallic → non-metallic

Group trends help predict reactivity, physical/chemical properties.

8.2 Group I (Alkali Metals)

Soft metals: lithium, sodium, potassium.

Trends down the group:

Decreasing melting point

Increasing density

Increasing reactivity
8.3 Group VII (Halogens)

Diatomic non-metals: Cl₂, Br₂, I₂.

Trends:

Increasing density

Decreasing reactivity

Appearances:

Cl₂ = pale yellow-green gas

Br₂ = red-brown liquid

I₂ = grey-black solid

Displacement: More reactive halogens displace less reactive ones from salt solutions.

8.4 Transition Elements

High density, melting point.

Variable oxidation states.

Form colored compounds.

Used as catalysts.

8.5 Noble Gases

Group VIII: Inert, monatomic gases.

Full outer electron shells = stable.

9.1 Properties of Metals

High conductivity (thermal and electrical)

Malleable, ductile

High melting/boiling points

Chemical Properties:

Reactions with:

Acids → salt + hydrogen

Water/Steam → metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Oxygen → metal oxides

10. Chemistry of the Environment

10.1 Water

1. Tests for Water:

Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride: Blue → Pink (if water is present).

Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate: White → Blue.

2. Purity of Water:

Pure water has a fixed melting point (0°C) and boiling point (100°C) at 1 atm pressure.

Impurities change these points: lower melting, higher boiling.

3. Distilled Water vs Tap Water:

Distilled water contains no dissolved salts or impurities—used in labs for accuracy.

Tap water has dissolved minerals and impurities.

4. Substances in Natural Water:

(a) Dissolved oxygen

(b) Metal compounds (e.g., iron, calcium salts)

(c) Plastics (pollutants)

(d) Sewage (organic waste)

(e) Harmful microbes (e.g., bacteria, viruses)

(f) Nitrates and phosphates (from fertilizers/detergents)

5. Beneficial Substances:

Dissolved oxygen → supports aquatic life.

Some metal ions → essential for biological processes (e.g., iron).

6. Potentially Harmful Substances:

Toxic metal compounds → heavy metal poisoning.

Plastics → harm aquatic life via ingestion/entanglement.

Sewage → spreads disease.

Nitrates/phosphates → eutrophication (not required to explain).

7. Water Treatment:

(a) Sedimentation & Filtration: Removes suspended solids.

(b) Activated Carbon: Removes tastes and odors.

(c) Chlorination: Kills microbes.

10.2 Fertilisers

1. Common Fertilisers:

Ammonium salts (e.g., ammonium nitrate)

Nitrates (e.g., potassium nitrate)

2. NPK Fertilisers:

Provide:

Nitrogen (N) for leaf growth

Phosphorus (P) for root development

Potassium (K) for flowers/fruit

10.3 Air Quality and Climate

1. Air Composition:
78% Nitrogen (N₂)

21% Oxygen (O₂)

1% Noble gases & CO₂

2. Sources of Air Pollutants:

CO₂: Complete combustion of carbon fuels.

CO: Incomplete combustion.

Particulates: From incomplete combustion.

CH₄ (Methane): Animal digestion, vegetation decay.

NOₓ: Car engines.

SO₂: Fossil fuels with sulfur.

3. Adverse Effects:

CO₂ & CH₄ → Global warming.

CO → Toxic, reduces O₂ transport in blood.

Particulates → Respiratory issues.

NOₓ → Acid rain, smog.

SO₂ → Acid rain.

4. Greenhouse Effect (CO₂ & CH₄):

Absorb, reflect, and re-emit thermal energy.

The rays of the sun are emitted to the earth surface but are absorbed by the greenhouse
present at the ozone layer. Some rays are absorbed by the greenhouse’s gases present near
the space. They re-emit it in various directions and keep some to themselves causing global
warming.

5. Strategies to Reduce Pollution:

Climate change: Plant trees, reduce fossil fuel use, adopt renewables.
Acid rain: Use catalytic converters, remove SO₂ with calcium oxide (flue gas desulfurization).

6. Catalytic Converter Reaction:

2CO + 2NO → 2CO₂ + N₂

Converts harmful gases like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide to nitrogen and carbon
dioxide to less harmful gases.

Catalyst of platinum is used.

7. Photosynthesis:

Word: Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen

Symbol: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂