UNIT 2

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as
distribution system.

In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by
the distribution system and the consumers meters. It generally consists of feeders, distributors
and the service mains.

(i) FEEDERS:
A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localised generating station) to
the area where power is to be distributed. Generally, no tappings are taken from the feeder so
that current in it remains the same throughout. The main consideration in the design of a feeder is
the current carrying capacity.

(ii) DISTRIBUTOR:
A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the consumers.
In Fig. 12.1, AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors. The current through a distributor is not
constant because tappings are taken at various places along its length. While designing a
distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration since the statutory limit of
voltage variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.

(iii) SERVICE MAINS: A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the
distributor to the consumers’ terminals.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

A distribution system may be classified according to ;

(i) Nature of current:
According to nature of current, distribution system may be classified as (a) d.c.
distribution system (b) a.c. distribution system.
Now-a-days, a.c. system is universally adopted for distribution of electric power as it is simpler
and more economical than direct current method.

(ii) Type of construction:

According to type of construction, distribution system may be classified as (a) overhead
system (b) underground system.

The overhead system is generally employed for distribution as it is 5 to 10 times cheaper

than the equivalent underground system. In general, the underground system is used at places
where overhead construction is impracticable or prohibited by the local laws.

(iii) Scheme of connection:

According to scheme of connection, the distribution system may be classified as (a)
radial system (b) ring main system (c) inter-connected system. Each scheme has its own
advantages and disadvantages

A.C. DISTRIBUTION:
Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of
alternating current.
 Alternating current in prefered to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be
conveniently changed by means of a transformer.
 High distrubution and distribution voltages have greatly reduced the current in the
conductors and the resulting line losses.
 The a.c. distribution system is the electrical system between the stepdown substation fed
by the distrubution system and the consumers’ meters.
The a.c. distribution system is classified into
(i) primary distribution system and (ii) secondary distribution system.

PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

 It is that part of a.c. distribution system which operates at voltages somewhat higher than
general utilisation than the average low- voltage consumer uses the most commonly used primary
distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6kV and 3·3 kV Primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase,
3-wire system.
Fig. shows a typical primary distribution system.Electric power from the generating
station is transmitted at high voltage to the substation located in or near the city. At this
substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the help of step-down transformer. Power is
supplied to various substations for distribution or to big consumers at this voltage. This forms the
high voltage distribution or primary distribution.

SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

It is that part of a.c. distribution system employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
shows a typical secondary distribution system.
The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called distribution
substations. The substations are situated near the consumers’ localities and contain step down
transformers.
At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is
delivered by 3-phase,4-wire a.c. system. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and
between any phase and neutral is 230 V.
The single phase domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the neutral,.
Motor loads are connected across 3-phase lines directly.
D.C. DISTRIBUTION:
 For certain applications, d.c. supply is absolutely necessary. d.c. supply is required for the
operation of variable speed machinery (i.e., d.c. motors storage battery.
 For this purpose,a.c. power is converted into d.c. power at the substation by using
converting machinery e.g.,mercury arc rectifiers, rotary converters and motor-generator
sets.
 The d.c. supply obtained in the form of (i) 2-wire or (ii) 3-wire for distribution.

2- WIRE D.C. SYSTEM:

As the name implies, this system of distribution consists of two wires.
One is the outgoing or positive wire and the other is the return or negative wire.
The loads such as lamps, motors etc. are connected in parallel between the two wires as shown in
Fig.
This system is never used for distrubution purposes due to low efficiency but may be employed
for distribution of d.c. power.

3- WIRE D.C. SYSTEM:

 It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the substation.
 The voltage between the outers is twice the voltage between either outer and neutral.
 The principal advantage of this system is that it makes available two voltages at the
consumer terminals, V between any outer and the neutral and 2V between the outers.
 Loads requiring high voltage (e.g., motors) are connected across the outers, whereas
lamps and heating circuits requiring less voltage are connected between either outer and
the neutral.
COMPARISON OF D.C. AND A.C. DISTRIBUTION:

The electric power can be distributed either by means of d.c. or a.c. Each system has its own
merits and demerits

D.C DISTRIBUTION:

ADVANTAGES:

(i) It requires only two conductors as compared to three for a.c. distribution.

(ii) There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems in d.c.
distribution.

(iii) Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c. distribution line is less than the
a.c. line for the same load and sending end voltage. For this reason, a d.c. distrib ution line
has better voltage regulation.

(iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-section of the line conductor is
utilized.

(v) For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in case of d.c.
system than that in a.c. system. Therefore, a d.c. line requires less insulation.

(vi) A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.

(vii) The high voltage d.c. distrubution is free from the dielectric losses, particularly in the case of
cables.

(viii) In d.c. distrubution, there are no stability problems and synchronising difficulties.

DISADVANTAGES:

(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to commutation problems.

(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for distrubution of power at high voltages.

(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
A.C. DISTRIBUTION:

ADVANTAGES:
(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.

(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.

(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and efficiency.
This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.

DISADVANTAGES:
(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.

(ii) The construction of a.c. distrubution line is more complicated than a d.c. distrubution line.

(iii) Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is increased.

(iv) An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due to charging
current even when the line is open.

OVERHEAD VERSUS UNDERGROUND SYSTEM:

 The distribution system can be overhead or underground.

 Overhead lines are generally mounted on wooden, concrete or steel poles which are
arranged to carry distribution transformers in addition to the conductors.

 The underground system uses conduits, cables and manholes under the surface of streets
and sidewalks.

The choice between overhead and underground system depends upon a number of widely
differing factors.

(i) Public safety: The underground system is more safe than overhead system because all
distribution wiring is placed underground and there are little chances of any hazard.

(ii) Initial cost: The underground system is more expensive due to the high cost of trenching,
conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipment. The initial cost of an underground
system may be five to ten times than that of an overhead system.

(iii) Flexibility: The overhead system is much more flexible than the underground system. In the
latter case, manholes, duct lines etc., are permanently placed once installed and the load
expansion can only be met by laying new lines. However, on an overhead system, poles, wires,
transformers etc., can be easily shifted to meet the changes in load conditions.
(iv) Faults: The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as the

cables are laid underground and are generally provided with better insulation.

(v) Appearance: The general appearance of an underground system is better as all the
distribution lines are invisible. This factor is exerting considerable public pressure on electric
supply companies to switch over to underground system.

(vi) Fault location and repairs: In general, there are little chances of faults in an underground
system. However, if a fault does occur, it is difficult to locate and repair on this system. On an
overhead system, the conductors are visible and easily accessible so that fault locations and
repairs can be easily made.

(vii) Current carrying capacity and voltage drop: An overhead distribution conductor has a
considerably higher current carrying capacity than an underground cable conductor of the same
material and cross-section. On the other hand, under ground cable conductor has much lower
inductive reactance than that of an overhead conductor because of closer spacing ofconductors.

(viii) Useful life: The useful life of underground system is much longer than that of an over head
system. An overhead system may have a useful life of 25 years, whereas an underground system
may have a useful life of more than 50 years.

(ix) Maintenance cost: The maintenance cost of underground system is very low as compared
with that of overhead system because of less chance of faults and service interruptions from
wind, ice, lightning as well as from traffic hazards.

(x) Interference with communication circuits: An overhead system causes electromagnetic

interference with the telephone lines. The power line currents are superimposed on speech
currents, resulting in the potential of the communication channel being raised to an undesirable
level. However, there is no such interference with the underground system.

It is clear from the above comparison that each system has its own advantages and disadvantage

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the most important factor
responsible for delivering good service to the consumers. For this purpose, design of feeders and
distributors requires careful consideration.

(i) Feeders: A feeder is designed from the point of view of its current carrying capacity while
the voltage drop consideration is relatively unimportant. It is because voltage drop in a feeder
can be compensated by means of voltage regulating equipment at the substation.

(ii) Distributors: A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage drop in it. It is
because a distributor supplies power to the consumers and there is a statutory limit of voltage
variations at the consumer’s terminals (± 6% of rated value). The size and length of the
distributor should be such that voltage at the consumer’s terminals is within the permissible
limits.