PROJECT REPORT

on
ANAYLSIS OF water quality index

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

Requirement for the award of

Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering

Submitted by:

Name: Rahul Roll No: 17BT010139

Name: Rohit Thakur Roll No: 17BT010145

Under the Guidance of

Dr. Vivek

Submitted to:
Department of Civil Engineering
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SUNDERNAGAR, DIST.MANDI (H.P.)
 PROJECT REPORT
on
ANAYLSIS OF water quality index
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the
Requirement for the award of

Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering

Submitted by:

Name: Rahul Roll No: 17BT010139

Name: Rohit Thakur Roll No: 17BT010145

Under the Guidance of

Dr. Vivek

Submitted to:
Department of Civil Engineering
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SUNDERNAGAR, DIST.MANDI (H.P.)

b
 LIST OF FIGURES

CONTENTS PAGE NO.

Acknowledgement i
Declaration by Students ii
Certificate iii
Abstract iv
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi

Chapter 1: Introduction 1..19

1.1. Natural Resource and Distribution 1

1.1.1. Water resource at glance 2
1.1.2. Water resources in Himachal Pradesh 2

1.2. Water Sources 2

1.2.1. Hydrological Cycle 3
1.3. Groundwater 3
1.4. Significance of water 4

1.5. Water Quality 5

1.5.1. Properties of Water 5

1.5.2. Impurities of Water 6

1.5.3. Water quality parameter 6

1.5.4. Water Quality — A Global Scenario 9

1.5.5. Water Quality — Indian Scenario 13

1.5.6. Water Quality in Himachal Pradesh 15

1.6. Application of water quality 16

1.7. Water Pollution 16

1.8. Water Quality Index 16
1.8.1. WQI as tool for quality of water 17
1.8.2. Classification of WQI 17

c
1.9. Study Area 18
1.9.1. Geography 19
1.9.2. Water sources 19

1.9.3. Climate 19

Chapter 2: Literature Review 20..24

Chapter 3: Methodology 25..

3.1. Preservation of Sample and Storage 26

3.2. Method of Analysis 27
3.3. Examination of Sample 28
3.3.1. Instrumentation 29
3.3.1.1. PH Meter 29
3.3.1.2 NAPHLOTURBIDITY Meter 30
3.3.1.3 UV- Spectrometer 31
3.3.1.4 FLAME PHOTOMETER 32
3.3.1.5 Digital Conductivity Meter 33
3.3.2 Determination of Parameters 34
3.3.2.1 Determination of pH 34
3.3.2.2 Determination of Turbidity 35
3.3.2.3 Determination of TDS 36
3.3.2.4 Hardness Determination 37
3.3.2.5 Determination of Nitrate 39
3.3.2.6 Determination of Fluoride 39
3.3.2.7 Determination of alkalinity 40
3.3.2.8 Determination of Iron 41
3.3.2.9 Determination of Sulphate 42
3.3.2.10 Determination of Potassium 43
3.3.2.11 Temperature Determination 44
3.4 Determination of Water Quality Index 44
3.4.1 NSF-Water Quality Index 44
3.4.2 Calculation of WQI on Ms-Excel: 46
3.4.2 CCME WQ INDEX 47
3.4.3 Nemerow’s Pollution Index (Npi) or 51
Row Pollution Index

Chapter 4. Results and Discussion 53..67

4.1 Geographical Location of Sample 53
Collection Point
4.2 Result on the Basis of NSF-WQI 55
4.3 Result on the Basis of CCME-WQI: 57
4.4 Result on the Basis of Rows Pollution 59
Index:
4.5 Discussion 66

d
Chapter 5. Scope and Objective 68..73
5.1 Significance of Water Quality 68
Parameters
5.1.1 Turbidity 68
5.1.2 Total Dissolved Solids 69
5.1.3 pH 69
5.1.4 Alkalinity 70
5.1.5 Hardness 70
5.1.6 Iron 70
5.1.7 Nitrate 71
5.1.8 Chloride 72
5.3 Recommendations 72

Conclusions 74
Reference 76

e
 Civil Engineering Department Jawaharlal Nehru
Govt. Engineering College,
Sundernagar, Mandi (H.P.)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With immense pleasure we (Rahul, Rohit Thakur) presenting “Analysis of Water Quality
Index” project report as a part of curriculum of “Civil engineering”. I wish to thank all the
people who gave us unending support.

My heartful gratitude to our project guide Dr. Vivek for his valuable suggestion and guidance
in the preparation of project report. I thought it is not possible to make project report without
his guidance and visionary approach toward this topic. I again express my profound thanks to
all those who indirectly guided me and helped me to prepare this project.
I did like to acknowledge the assistance of Irrigation and Public Health Department it is not
possible to complete this project without their invaluable contribution.

Rahul
17BT010139

Rohit Thakur
17BT010145

Date: ____________________

i
 Civil Engineering Department Jawaharlal
Nehru Govt. Engineering College,
Sundernagar, Mandi (H.P.)

DECLARATION BY STUDENT
We hereby certify that We have completed Project Work-I (CE-711) in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of 7th semester in Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering. We
have completed my project on Analysis of Water Quality Index.
The matter presented in this report has not been submitted by me for the award of any
other degree elsewhere.

Rahul
17BT010139

Rohit Thakur
17BT010145

ii
 Civil Engineering Department Jawaharlal
Nehru Govt. Engineering College,
Sundernagar, Mandi (H.P.)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that project report entitled Water Quality Index submitted by Rahul and
Rohit Thakur having roll no. 17BT010139, 17BT010145 respectively in partial fulfilment of
the requirement for the award of 7th semester in Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering
is carried out under my supervision and guidance at JNGEC, Sundernagar.

The matter presented in this report has not been submitted by the students for
the award of any other degree elsewhere.

Dr. Vivek
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engg.
J.N. Govt. Engg. College, Sundernagar

Date: ____________________

(Signature of Head of Department)

Examined by:

(Signature of Internal Examiner) (Signature of External Examiner)

iii
 Civil Engineering Department Jawaharlal
Nehru Govt. Engineering College,
Sundernagar, Mandi (H.P.)

ABSTRACT

Water makes about 80% of our body weight. Most living organism contains more than 60%
water A minimum volume of 7.5 litres per capita per day provides sufficient water for hydration
and incorporation into food in most people under most conditions. So, water is an elixir of life.
so, it is important to us to monitor water regularly. In India loses 73 million working days due
to water borne disease, according to WHO it is estimated that almost half of the population live
in water stress region by 2025 The water quality index (WQI) is an important tool to determine
the drinking water quality in urban, rural and industrial area. Water quality index provides a
single value expressing the average quality of water at a time, based on analytical values of
physio-chemical parameters Groundwater is one of the most important source of water usually
it is clean but to interface its suitability water samples are collected from seven station from
different region of Mandi and Kullu and WQI is Calculated by different method on the basis
of physio-chemical parameters the results were obtained by comparing it with bis and who
standards. The ground water is at suitable for drinking in the month of June. whereas in other
station water quality is in between range of good quality, which shows that in this region the
effect of pollution is minimal on water also there is no intermixing of sewage with groundwater
in this region. But turbidity is exceeding its permissible value which could be hazardous for
aquatic life in that region

iv
 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE NO.
Table 1.1: Distribution of water on earth 1
Table 1.2: Water resource at glance 2
Table 3.1: Details of sample 26
Table 3.3: List of Parameters and 28
Equipment
Table no 3.3.2.1: Class of water on basis of 37
Hardness (Mg / L as CaCO3 equivalent)
Table no. 3.4.1: classification of water 46
quality based on NSF-WQI method:
Table of calculation 3.4.2: Calculation of 46
WQI by NSF-WQI
Table 3.4.2: Table the water quality rank 48
according to CCME- WQI
Table 3.4.3: Marking of Parameter Which 49
Fail Test
Table 3.4.4: Table of Value of F1 And F2 49
Table 3.4.5: Table Defining Different 49
Values of Parameters
Table 3.4.4: Calculation of Excrusion 50
Table 3.4.5: Overall Calculation of CCME- 50
WQI
Table 3.4.6: Calculation of Excrusion Value 51
Table 3.4.6: Water quality of different site 52
Table 3.4.7: NPI value of different site 52
Table:4.1.1: Legend and Location 55
Table 4.2.1: Value of Water Quality Index 55
by NSF Method In
Table 4.2.2 Status of Water from Water 56
Quality Index
Table 4.2.: CCME Values in Study Area 57
Table 4.3.2: Classification of Water on 58
Basis Of CCME-WQI
Table 4.4.1: Value of ROW’s Pollution 59
Index for Kanchikoot
Table 4.4.2: Value of ROW’s Pollution 60
Index for Dhalpur(S2)
Table 4.4.3: ROW’s Pollution Index for 61
Shamsi
Table 4.4.4: ROW’s Pollution Index for 62
Luna Pani

v
 TABLE PAGE NO.
Table 4.4.5: ROW’s Pollution Index for 63
Nalsar
Table 4.4.6: ROW’s Pollution Index for 64
Bagla
Table 4.4.7: ROW’s Pollution Index for 65
Jawahar Park Sundernagar

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES
TITLE PAGE NO.
Fig.1.1: Map of water bodies in Kullu 18
Fig.1.2: Map of Mandi district 19
Fig: 4.1: Sampling Point in Kullu District 53
Fig.4.2: Sampling Point in Mandi Area 54
Fig.4.2.1: Bar Graph of NSF-WQI In Station 56
in Different Season
Fig 4.3.1: Graph Between CCME Value and 57
Station
Fig 6.1 : Variation Of Turbidity With Season

Fig:6.2 Variation of alkalinity with season

vii
 1. INTRODUCTION

Water makes about 80% of our body weight. Most living organism contains more than 60%
water. As per WHO the daily per capita consumption of drinking water is 2 litres for adults to
facilitate digestion, regulate body temperature, restore the body fluids and remove impurities
from our internal system. Actual consumption of water depends on climate, activity level and
diet. A minimum volume of 7.5 litres per capita per day provides sufficient water for hydration
and incorporation into food in most people under most conditions58. So, water is an elixir of
life.

1.1 Natural Resource and Distribution

Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are valuable in their relatively
unmodified form. A natural resources value rests in the amount of the material available and
the demand for it. Unplanned urbanization because of pressure of anthropological activities on
hydro – geomorphologic results in alteration of the existing recharge process and causes many
adverse environmental effects. As per continuous exploitation of the natural resources, beyond
their threshold limit of resilience causes imbalance in natural ecosystem.[2]
Water is a unique natural resource among all sources available on earth. It plays an important
role in economic development and the general well-being of the country. The dynamic and
renewable nature of the water resources and the recurrent need for its utilization requires that
water resources are measured in terms of its flow rates. It is the basic duty of every individual
to conserve water resources. Water resource problems are of three main types (i) too little water
(ii) two much water and (iii) polluted water. This resource has also reached unhealthy
contamination levels due to pollution associated with the region's economic development and
dependence on fossil fuels. These limited water resources are depleting rapidly while the
demands on them are increasing. So, there is an increasing demand for water technology that
can help improve the supply, distribution and quality of water. Misuse and mismanagement
have resulted in a rapid and widespread decline in source – water quality and supply. Recent
episodes of anthropogenic chemicals in groundwater have raised the question of environmental
safety and sustainability of industrial applications of chemicals in different sectors of human
development.[16]

Water distribution earth- Water is one of the most basic and essential components to all life.
Water covers more than 71% of the earth surface. It occurs in the oceans as a vast reservoir of
salt water, in polar icecaps as solid ice, on land as surface water, underground as groundwater,
as a water vapor in atmosphere and in context of anthrosphere such as in boilers or municipal
water distribution systems. Over 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the ocean. It is high salt
content and unfit for human consumption and other uses. The lake water is also unsuitable for
drinking and propagation of wildlife and fish culture due to the dumping of wastes from
municipal and domestic sources and agricultural runoff1. Only 1% is available as fresh water
in rivers, streams, reservoirs and ground water which is suitable for human consumption.[24]
Table 1.1: Distribution of water on earth

S.no. Water source Percent of total water

1 Oceans 97.23%

2 Icecaps, glaciers 2.14%

3 Ground water 0.61 %

4 Freshwater lakes 0.01%

1.1.1. Water resource at glance

Water is the fluid of life not only for human being but also for any living organism, industrial
process, agricultural production and domestic uses. Chemically pure water does not exist for any
appreciable length of time in nature. In rainy seasons water accumulates small amounts of gases,
dust, ions and particulate matter from the atmosphere leads to contaminations.[7]

Table 1.2: Water resource at glance

Item Volume (Million BCM)

Polar Ice and Glaciers 28200
Ground Water < 800 m deep 3740
800 - 4000 m deep 4710
Lakes and Rivers 127
Others (soil moisture and atmospheric
704
vapours)

1.1.2.Water resources in Himachal Pradesh

Water is one of the most vital natural resources of Himachal Pradesh. The state is richly
endowed with a hilly terrain having an enormous volume of water from the catchment areas of
Satluj, Beas, Ravi and Chenab rivers. As such, the state has enormous potential of water
resources in the form of glaciers and rivers but ground water resources are limited. The major
consumptive use of water in the State has been for irrigation. The gross irrigation potential of
the State is estimated to be 3.35 lakh hectare, while the irrigation potential created has reached
2.56 lakh hectare by September 2013.[22]

1.2. Water Sources

Water is not uniformly distributed in time and space. It is constantly changing its form. Water
on the earth is depends on where it is and where it comes from. It is in a continuous circulatory
movement called - hydrologic cycle. Water from the transpiring plants, oceans, rivers and lakes
evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapours subsequently cool and condense to form
clouds and water. Water returns to the earth as rain and snow. Drinking water supplies in many
parts of India are intermittent because the transmission and distribution networks are generally

2
old and badly maintained and are deteriorating. Quality of the drinking water is the vital
concern for human health and sustenance of life. As per survey of WHO, 60% diseases in the
Asian countries are water borne.[19] The water used for drinking purpose should be free from
toxic elements, living and non –living organism and excessive amount of minerals that may be
harmful to health. Industrial waste water, sewage sludge and solid waste material are
discharged into the environment indiscriminately and enter subsurface aquifers leads to
pollution of irrigation and` in drinking water. The problems of contamination, conservation
and quality management pertaining to water are assumed in a very complex shape. Sources of
drinking water are given below:

Deep groundwater – The existence of deep groundwater table under neath is due to the
rainfall for many decades or even hundred years. Such water emerges as springs or
extracted from boreholes or wells. Soil and rock layers naturally filter the groundwater
to a high degree of clarity before it is pumped to the treatment plant. This water is rich
in dissolved solids, (carbonate and sulphate of calcium and magnesium). Deep
groundwater is generally of very high bacteriological quality (i.e., a low concentration
of pathogenic bacteria, pathogenic protozoa).

Shallow groundwater – Bacteriological quality of shallow groundwater can be variable

depending on the nature of the catchments and a variety of soluble materials also present
including toxic metals like zinc, copper, and arsenic and more turbid with high
concentration of salts.

Upland lakes and reservoirs – In this source bacteria and pathogen levels are low. Many
up landed sources have low pH which requires adjustment and permeability in soil is
increased.

Rivers, canals and land reservoirs – Low land surface waters have a significant bacterial
load and contain suspended solids, algae, and a variety of dissolved constituents.

1.1.3.Hydrological Cycle
The hydrologic or water cycle is the continuous movement of water between the earth and
the atmosphere. Water reaches land as precipitation such as rain and snow. Then the water
evaporates, condenses in the atmosphere to form clouds, and falls to the earth again as
precipitation, continuing the cycle. When water falls to the ground it can collect on the land
becoming streams, rivers, lakes, or soaks in to the ground to become groundwater. Plants take
up groundwater either using it or releasing it to the atmosphere.[16]

1.3 Groundwater
Groundwater occurs almost everywhere beneath the earth surface not in a single wide
spread aquifer but in thousands of local aquifer systems and compartments that have similar
character. Due to discrepancy in monsoonal rainfall, over drafting of ground -

3
water resources and insufficient surface waters recovery of groundwater and knowledge of the
occurrence and replenishment has special significance in semi-arid and arid regions. Variation
of ground water quality is a function of physicochemical parameters which depends on the
temporal changes in the origin, constitution of the recharged water, inland surface water,
atmospheric precipitation, sub-surface geochemical processes and human factor. Ground water
is one of the earth’s widely distributed, renewable and most important resources which exist in
the zone of saturation, so it may be fresh or saline. As for contamination, groundwater cannot
be polluted easily compared to with surface water because it is protected naturally, less affected
by drought even when close to point of use, and does not require much. Natural impurities in
rainwater which replenishes groundwater system get removed by infiltrating through soil strata.
Surface water are rich in turbidity, suspended decaying organic matter, sand, bacteria and small
amount of mineral but ground water contains negligible amounts of suspended and organic
matter and appreciable amount of minerals (like calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron,
aluminium, manganese, chloride, sulphate, carbonate, bicarbonate etc.). Because of the greater
interaction with various materials in geologic strata, the level of the inorganic constituents in
ground water is of constituents in the soils and rock. Quality of water is controlled by
geochemical constraints including solubility of ions, adsorption, kinetics of geochemical
process and the drainage of water contact with geological materials. It is becoming increasingly
common for the concentration of the dissolved constituents to be influenced by human
activities.[16]

Ground water quality is as important as the quantity. Its poor quality harmfully affects the
plant growth and human health. The chemical composition of ground water is controlled by
the composition of precipitation, mineralogy of the water shad and aquifer, climate and
topography. Pollution of ground water occurs when waste products or any foreign materials in
filters percolate water which degrades the quality and effect on human health. The ground water
and the pollutants move with low velocity and it may take considerable role for contamination
and degradation of, in the groundwater quality. Several factors such as discharge of industrial,
agricultural and domestic waste, land use practices, geological process occurring within the
groundwater and the reaction with aquifer minerals, rainfall patterns and infiltration rate,
leaching of pollutants from the landfill affect the ground water quality. Once it is polluted,
cannot be treated and the effect is long lasting and problem is of vital concern. The type of
aquifer as well as its depth may also influence water quality. The TDS of groundwater may
range from less than 100 ppm to more than 300,000 ppm depending on the kinds of rocks
making up the aquifers. Water from aquifer in igneous and metamorphic rocks generally is of
good quality with low TDS. Aquifer in unconsolidated sediments and sedimentary rocks carry
water with the widest range in TDS, from less than 100 ppm to saturated brines with several
hundred thousand ppm of salt.[26]

1.4 Significance of water

Water is used for different purposes like for drinking, domestic, irrigation and industrial,
depends on its intrinsic quality. Ground water is replenishing able resource and has greater
advantage over surface water. Greater access and an improvement in the socio-economic

4
situation in rural India will likely result in higher demand for water from these sectors in the
coming years. Water required for different activities is correlated with various climatic
conditions, life behaviour, culture, traditions, diet, advanced technology, and wellbeing. Hence
it is of prime importance to have prior information on the quality and the quantity in the region.
Increase in pollution and expansion of economic activities leads to increasing demand of water
use for various purposes. Agricultural, industrial and domestic uses are competing more and
more for a limited supply. Agricultural area dominates water use because of population
explosion and continued importance along with industrial demands are continuous to grow
however domestic requirement claim small portion of the annual water withdrawals as access
to adequate water and sanitation supplies remains low throughout most of the country.
Adequate domestic water is required for routine tasks which are also, be important for health,
in income generation and amenity uses. Estimates reveal that by 2020, India's demand for water
will exceed all sources of supply. Within 50 years water-rich nation has been reduced to a
water-insecure one and needs clearly an urgent action. Recent data from the World Bank
indicates that demand over the next twenty years will double from 25-billion-meter cube to 52-
billion-meter cube. In India over 80% of the rural domestic water comes from groundwater
sources since it is more reliable in terms of water quantity and quality. The current rate of water
consumption is 90 litres per person per day in rural areas and 270 litres in urban areas. The
volume of water utilized for domestic needs is far less than that used for irrigated agriculture.

1.5 Water Quality

Quality of water is described by means of its physical, chemical, and microbial characteristics
and impurities of these. It was developed to give an indication of how suitable the water is for
human consumption. It is certainly affected by the quantity and quality of water supplies of
different sources and influenced by natural and anthropogenic effects including local climate,
geology, and irrigation practices. Changes in local topography or circumstances and
determination the probability for the drainage system directly affect both quality and
occurrence of such hazards. Water quality may yield information about the environments
through which the water has circulated. Water quality indicators reflects mineralization
process, reservoir properties and sensitiveness of groundwater recharge rate and flow direction.
Quality of water has a priority role for not only drinking purpose but also for agricultural,
industrial and other uses since it is directly related to human welfare.[5]

1.5.1 Properties of water

Water is the medium for almost all the organisms on the planets and animals. All the
biochemical reactions in cell are because of this. Water has several unique properties and has
the ability to change phases very easily under earth conditions because of simple arrangement
in water molecule and electro negatively difference between oxygen and hydrogen. More
relevant properties are:
(i) Water has high specific heat which allows for the moderation of climate and assets
for regulation of temperature more effectively in organism. (ii) Density of water is

5
 approximately one gram per cubic centimetre and depends on dissolved salt content and
temperature of the water. Accordingly, maximum density of water at atmospheric pressure is
40C by which ice or water at any other temperature will float on it. This is because of
hydrogen bonding. In cold seasons when surface water approaches 40C, its sinks to bottom
so only surface of lake is frozen by which organism is alive.[26]
(iii) Water is neutral (pH is 7). (iv) Water conducts heat more easily than any liquid except
mercury. By this property large bodies of water resources like lakes and oceans have
essentially a uniform vertical temperature gradient. (v) Water molecules exist in liquid form
over an important range of temperature from 0 - 100° C. This range allows water molecules
to exist as a liquid in most places of the planet. (vi) Water is able to dissolve a large number
of different chemical compounds so it is a universal solvent. It enables water to carry solvent
nutrients in runoff, penetration, groundwater flow, and living organisms also. (vii) Water has
a high surface tension (72.8 mN/m at room temperature). It has adhesive and elastic property,
and tends to aggregate in drops rather than spread out over a surface as a thin film. Capillary
action from their roots to their leaves as well as movement of blood through tiny vessels in
the bodies of animals is also because of water. Water in soil can rise by capillary action
because of adherence to soil particle where an oxygen atom of silica attracts the hydrogen
atom of water molecule. (viii) Water molecules on Earth are in solid, liquid and gas phases
and changes of state requires more amounts of heat exchange by which redistribution of heat
energy in earth's atmosphere circulates. Heat being transferred into the atmosphere and by the
evaporation and condensation of water appears which explains heat exchange in thermal
power plants. (ix) The freezing of water molecules causes their mass to occupy a larger
volume. When water freezes it expands rapidly. Water is the only substance on this planet
where the maximum density of its mass does not occur when it becomes solidified. (x) Pure
water has a low electrical conductivity, around 0.055 μS/cm at 25 °C but this increases
significantly with the dissolution of a small amount of ionic materials.[18]

1.5.2 Impurities of water

Due to universal solvent, water is not pure because gases or minerals in soil and rock are present
in water. Water helps to dissolve chemicals in foods, and transports these to cells. Sometimes
harmful substances can dissolve in water. Substance that harms the quality of water is known
as pollutants or contaminants. Contaminants in water are not toxic and are in little amounts but
some substances dissolve rapidly in water in very low concentrations can be harmful. Human
can cause contamination through the improper use of pesticides or fertilizers and disposal of
waste in the water which are present in small amount. These parameters are measured either as
parts per million (ppm) or milligram/liter (mg/L) and some parameters are measured in parts
per billion (ppb) or micrograms per liter (μg/L). The anthropogenic discharges constitute a
point polluting source, while surface runoff is a seasonal phenomenon. It is largely affected by
climate within the basin.[6]

1.5.3 Water quality parameter

Natural parameters (temperature and discharge), the inorganic parameter (total solids) and
organic nutrients (nitrate) are the most significant parameters which contribute to water quality
variations for all seasons.

6
 Physical parameters of water: The physical characteristic of water include turbidity,
colour, taste, odour and temperature.
Turbidity - Turbidity in natural water is caused by the presence of clay, silt, organic matter,
soil erosion, waste discharge, urban runoff, bottom feeders like carp that stir up sediments,
household pets playing in the water and algal growth other microorganisms. Many pathogenic
organisms may be encased in the particles and protected from the disinfectant. Turbidity may
indicate the presence of disease-causing organisms like bacteria, viruses and parasites that can
cause nausea, cramp, diarrhoea and associated headaches. The standards of turbidity in
drinking water remain limited up to 5 NTU. Excessive turbidity of 5NTU is easily detected in
a glass of water and is usually objectionable for aesthetic reasons. Excessive turbidity is the
food source for microorganisms, allowing them to survive and multiply and protects
microorganisms from chlorine and other disinfectants. In this way turbidity interferes with the
maintenance of chlorine residual and test for coli form bacteria. Excessive turbidity must be
removed by filtration and coagulation.[15]

Colour – Dissolved organic material from decaying vegetation, presence of minerals, inorganic
chemicals and metals (e.g., iron and manganese) cause colour in water. Colour itself is not
usually objectionable from a health standpoint but its presence is aesthetically objectionable
and suggested that the water needs appropriate treatment.

Taste and odour – Taste and odour in water can be caused by foreign matter such as inorganic
compounds, organics or dissolved gases which may come through agricultural, domestic
additions or natural sources. Water should be free from any objectionable taste or odour at the
point of use.
Temperature –The temperature of water has extremely important ecological consequences.
Temperature is basically important for the chemical and biological reactions of organisms in
water. The increase in temperature decreases the potability of water because at elevated
temperature carbon di oxide and other volatile gases which impart taste are expelled.

pH - pH, an aqueous solution is a measure of the number of hydrogen ions or protons present
and measured with a pH meter. It is expressed as the negative logarithm the hydrogen ion
concentration in water. Waters are considered acidic when the pH is less than 7 and basic when
the pH exceeds 7. Water with a pH value equal to 7 is termed neutral and is not considered
either acidic or basic. The types of dissolved constituents in ground water can influence pH
levels. The pH of ground water can be lowered by organic acids from decaying vegetation or
by dissolution of sulphide minerals. The pH level has profound effect on all body chemistry,
health and disease. All regulatory mechanism like breathing, circulation, digestion, hormonal
production) serves the purpose of balancing pH.[24]

Chemical parameter –The chemical characteristics of water include natural substances

such as dissolved minerals, manmade toxic metals and organic chemicals. Some chemical
parameters are:

7
 Total dissolved solids – Total dissolved solids are the total amount of mobile charged ions,
including minerals, salts or metals dissolved in a given volume of water. It is expressed in mg/L
and parts per million. Total dissolved solids concentration is the sum of the cations and anions
in the water. An important aspect of TDS with respect to drinking water quality is the affect on
test. High concentrations of TDS in water reduce water clarity; decrease the rate of
photosynthesis, and join with toxic compounds and heavy metals. Amount of TDS in the water
depends on where the water comes from i.e., water that passes through soils in high in soluble
salts or minerals have higher TDS levels. Higher TDS also occur from natural sources, sewage,
urban and agricultural runoff and industrial waste water, salts used for road de-icing.[21]

Nitrate – Most common contaminant in the ground water is dissolved nitrogen in the form of
nitrate because of its high water solubility. Nitrogen in municipal waste water results from
human excreta, ground garbage, and industrial waste, particularly from food processing.
Greatest source of nitrogen in waste water is from human feccal matter. Nitrate is usually
introduced into ground water through non-point sources like leaching of chemical fertilizer,
leaching of animal manure, from septic and sewage discharges etc.[23]
In agricultural regions, groundwater can have significant concentrations of nitrate from unused
fertilizer leaching into the underlying aquifers. Porous soil profile permits rainfall and irrigation
water to transport this high – nitrate pore water to the groundwater table without measurable
denitrification loss. Nitrate is the end product of aerobic stabilization of organic nitrogen and a
product of conversion of nitrogenous material, and as such occurs in polluted water. It can be
removed by demineralizing water or by distilling it. Nitrite and nitrate in nature are determined
by colorimetric method. Ammonia, nitrate, nitrite and gaseous nitrogen and organic nitrogen
are common forms of nitrogen. Nitrogenous organic matter is decomposed and releases
ammonia to solution. Under aerobic conditions, nitrifying bacteria oxidize ammonia to nitrite
and then to nitrate.
NH3 + O2 NO2- + energy ……… (1)
NO2- + O2 NO3- + energy ……… (2)

Fluoride - Fluoride mainly occurs in ground water through fluoride bearing minerals in the hot
rock, such as fluorite (CaF2), fluorapatite Ca5F(PO4)3, apatite Ca5(PO4)3, due to chemical
properties like decomposition, dissolution and their interaction with water. Other causes of
fluoride in water come from runoff and infiltration of chemical fertilizers in agricultural areas,
septic and sewage treatment system which discharges in communities with fluoridated water
supplies and liquid waste from industrial sources. Fluorides in drinking water of Rajasthan
have been found to originate from indigenous rocks, and the geological distribution of rocks
reveals that fluorite ores occupy large areas of eastern and southeast parts of the state. Fluoride
enters the body through various ways like food, water, industrial exposure, drugs, cosmetics
etc. in which drinking water is the major contributor. Trace amount of fluoride in the diet are
important to the development of strong bones and teeth but too much fluoride has detrimental
effect on human health.

8
Electrical conductance –EC is a useful indicator of TDS and correlated with each other
because the conduction of current in an electrolyte solution is primarily dependent on the
concentration of ionic species present in water. Correlation between EC and TDS is very
complex and depends on chemical composition and ionic strength. Electrical conductivity
depends upon ionic concentration, types of ions present in the water and temperature. For
estimation of TDS in parts per million in fresh water, the specific conductance of the in
micromhos should be multiplied by 0.743.
Hardness – Water hardness is the measure of the capacity of water to react with soap and
derived from the solution of CO2, released by bacterial action in water containing soil, in
percolating rain water and rock formation. Hard water is because of thick topsoil and contains
minerals and metals constituents which dissolve limestone formations. Soft water is present
where soil is sandy and the topsoil layer is thin and limestone is sparse or absent. Hardness of
water is of two types namely:
(i) Permanent hardness (ii) Temporary hardness
Permanent hardness is caused by chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium and transition
metals. Temporary hardness is caused by bicarbonates, carbonates of calcium and magnesium.
Permanent hardness is not destroyed by boiling and needs special treatment to remove it.
Hardness is due to dissolution of alkaline earth metal salts from geological matter. Hardness of
drinking water is a problem found in both ground & surface water. There is evidence that death
rates from cardiovascular disease are inversely correlated with the hardness of water.

Chloride – Chlorides are widely distributed in nature as salts of NaCl, CaCl2 and KCl58. Much
of the water contain some amount of chloride caused by use of inorganic fertilizers, leaching
of marine, sedimentary deposits and by pollution from sea water, animal feeds, landfill
leachates, septic tank effluents, industrial effluent, irrigation drainage. Chloride concentrations
in excess of about 250 mg/L usually produce a noticeable taste in drinking water. Where only
water of very high natural chloride content are available, reverse osmosis or electro dialysis
units may be used to produce potable water.[11]

Potassium – Potassium is an essential element for humans, plants, animals. It is derived from
food chain mainly from vegetation and soil. Sources of potassium are due to silicate minerals,
orthoclase, microcline, hornblende, muscovite and biotite in igneous and metamorphic rocks
and evaporate deposits gypsum. Potassium into groundwater increases due to agriculture
activities. High potassium values may cause nervous and digestive disorder.

Sodium – Sodium is a highly soluble chemical element which is naturally found in ground
water. The primary source of sodium in natural water is from the release of the soluble products
during the weathering of plagioclase feldspars. Sodium does not contribute to the hardness of
water. Groundwater containing considerable quantities of sodium carbonate or sodium
bicarbonate is alkaline and may have pH values of 9 or more. Sewage effluents, seawater spray,
saline intrusion, mineral deposits and salt used in road de-icing can all contribute significant
quantities of sodium to water.[12]

9
1.5.4 WATER QUALITY — A GLOBAL SCENARIO

Studies are regularly conducted to assess the quality of water in various regions in the world.
A study in Asan agri District in Korea shows relatively high contents of Si and HCO3−
in the groundwater due to the effect of water-rock interaction and high contents of Cl, NO3− and
Ca to the pollution of various sources. Statistical models using Mann Whitney U-test and
correlation and regression analysis show that the NO− 3 concentration in Seoul area, Korea
varied depending on land use, well depth and rainfall.

Many samples of groundwater in Kikuka-town, Kumamoto, Japan contain F ion at more than
0.8 mg/L. A study in Gifu Prefecture in Japan shows that the Groundwater Ca, Mg, SO−4 and
−
NO3 exhibited correlations and reflected the pollution nature of unconfined and permeable
Kakamigahara aquifer.

The CO2 produced through biodegradation of organic pollutants and conversion of inorganic
pollutants including salts in wastewater and carbonate sediments of the environment is found
to be the major cause for the hardness enhancement in ground water in China. An investigation
of Togtoh County, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China shows that 62% of the wells
have high Fluorine with the highest value of 8.0 mg/L. High Fluorine bearing groundwater in
relation to fluorosis occurs mainly in North China. Infiltration of sewage through calcite and
dolomite contaminating strata and over pumping of groundwater has increased the Ca and Mg
in groundwater around Beijing. A regional trend and local anomaly of groundwater hardness
in Shijiazhuang City in China shows the presence of four' main hardness anomaly zones In
Beijing, the groundwater hardness has increased due to mixing of resin regeneration wastes.
Groundwater in most of the wells in Changchun City in Jilin Province of China is not suitable
for drinking due to high contents of NO− −
3 , NO2 and manganese ions. The groundwater resources
in the Heihe River basin show that the water presents a large spatial variability of chemical
species viz. SO− − −
4 , HCO3 and SO4 —CI as the groundwater flows from the recharge area to
discharge area.[4]

A hydro geochemical survey of the ore-bearing terrain along the Highland-eastern Vijayan
boundary of Sri Lanka, reveals anomalous concentrations of F” in groundwater. Base metals
such as Cu, Zn, V, and Co also show relative enrichment. Water quality studies show that the
NO−3 and ammonia are high in many water sources in Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley.

Water well fields of the Al-Shagaya area which supplies water to Kuwait City show that the
groundwater solids content is as high as 2,800 mg/L. The groundwater in Al-Atraf water well
fields of Kuwait is mainly brackish, of NaCl and Na2 SO4 water types. High SO2− 4 content in
the aquifer relates to the dissolution of anhydrite and gypsum layers in the lower parts of the
Dammam Formation. The ground waters of Minjur and Jubaila, near Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
contain Ca, Mg, Na, Cl− and SO2− −
4 in higher concentrations than that of K and HCO3 Nitrate
pollution of groundwater and surface water in the Izmir area, Turkey shows that heavily
polluted rivers also contribute to NO−3 contamination of the groundwater. A study in the region

10
of Torbali (Izmir, Turkey) shows that the groundwater has bicarbonate alkalinity, NO2 and
ammonia.”' Some shallow and deep wells in the north-western coast of Egypt have high
fluoride concentrations and chemical pollutants. Chemical properties and pollution of water
sources studied in the Chah basin located in the Hamadan province, western Iran show that the
water quality is characterized according to its major constituents and geological features of the
area.

A groundwater quality monitoring study conducted in Kent and Sussex Counties show high
NO2 in 32% of wells due to poultry manure, septic tanks, and fertilizers. Nitrate concentrations
in UK waters are raising, with the highest levels occurring in the south and east of England,
particularly Lincolnshire. Concentrations in underground waters are expected to reach 150-200
mg NO− 3 /L. A study in the province of Vaasa, Finland shows that high Mg content of well water
(but not the Ca content) resulted in lower death percentage due to cardiovascular diseases Trend
analysis of NO2 concentration in British rivers shows that the increase in mean concentration
of NO3− is noticed in farmed lowland areas in winter.[2]

In the Baden-Wuerttemberg State of Germany data from over 32,000 wells are regularly stored
and the data output is available in various listing formats, graphical representations of time
series and plotting of the measuring points which meet the selection criteria. Groundwater
quality monitoring in the Heinsberg district, North-Rhine Westphalia, Germany shows
variations in pH, electrical conductivity, CO2 , Ca, Mg, Na, K and chlorine. A case study in
Fichtelgebirge region in South-East Germany shows interdependence of soil hydrology and_
soil chemistry parameters. Time and spatial changes in shallow vulnerable aquifers have been
evaluated in several areas of Czechoslovakia.’ Groundwater quality studies in Sweden reveal
true upward trends in acid-neutralizing capacity and downward trends in SO2− 4 . Groundwater
quality monitoring in the Katowice Regional Water Management Council, Poland shows that
water quality has progressively deteriorated, as shown by most pollution indicators, but best
reflected in nitrate-nitrogen concentration changes.’ The change in groundwater quality with
respect to the depth, soil type, land use and region is studied regularly in Netherlands. A 20-
year time-series data of inorganic pollutants in Denmark show that groundwater modelling
supports traditional monitoring to improve the conceptual geological understanding and to
assess the quantitative status and the interaction between groundwater and surface water.’ In
the Argun, USSR, increased Fluoride occurs in groundwater of volcanogenic fluorite ore-
bearing formations. Migration of fluorine ion is influenced by high concentrations of alkali
metal bicarbonates. A new map of the NO− 3 concentrations in the major shallow groundwater
bodies in France describes the mapping methodology and its limits, as well as the main results.
The physicochemical parameters, e.g., electrical conductivity, chlorides, sulphates, total
hardness, as well as levels of pollutants such as NO3− , ammonia, Fe and Mn have been used for
classification method to water resources in the Italian Alps planes. Data for waters of the
Pineios River in Thessaly, Greece indicate the mineralogical makeup of the surfaces in contact
with the river water. A study in Finland shows that the groundwater quality is more affected
by marine influences and anthropogenic pollution and the most sensitive indicators are NO− 3,
Cl and ck Study of twelve main chemical components in 5,000 water supply wells in Hungary

11
shows that the majority of groundwater problems arise due to water-rock interactions. Due to
demographic and industrial growth the quality of groundwater in Palermo plain area of Italy is
poor. Here the aquifer is fed by surrounding Limestone Mountains.
Based on studies conducted in Italian Alps planes an experimental method has been proposed
for classification of groundwater according to hydro geological and hydro geochemical
parameters.

Poor well construction procedures have resulted in elevated pH in western USA. Monitoring
of groundwater quality conditions in the San Joaquin Valley, California is carried out using
two regional networks viz. an ideal network and an actual network. Groundwater with total
dissolved solids (TDS) ranging from 10 to >50 g/L exists at depths between 90 and 140 m in
Devonian oil-bearing formations in the shallow Michigan Basin of southwestern Ontario.
These formations comprise mainly limestone and dolomite, and the cause of the salinity of
groundwater is cross-formational fluid flow from depth, vertically on the scale of several
hundred meters since glaciation. A water quality study around Portneuf County (Quebec-
Canada) shows that intensive potato culture can influence the NO− 3 concentration in
groundwater. County-median fluoride levels in approximately 7,000 wells distributed among
237 Texas counties show four regions with high fluoride levels.[18]

Statistical analysis of data from Khouribga province, Morocco shows a good correlation
between concentration of fluoride and dental fluorosis in this region. A study in Bongo area
(Ghana) shows groundwater fluorine from 0.11 to 4.60 ppm. Twenty-three percent of the wells
have concentrations above the recommended maximum guideline limit of 1.5 mg/L fluorine.
The groundwater in rural communities in the Tema District of the Greater Accra region of
Ghana shows that the chemical and physical properties vary considerably and the water is
mildly acidic (pH 4.3-7.4) and brackish to fresh. Hadrochemical data for the fractured aquifers
in parts of northern Ghana indicate that NO− 3 and Fluoride concentrations in some boreholes
are high. It is reported that the effluents recharged from septic tank, waste dumping sites and
irrigation return flow induce dissolution of carbonate minerals and enhance the solute load in
groundwater in the coastal region, Barka, Sultanate of Oman. The groundwater along the
eastern fringes of Nile valley at El Minia district shows that the chemical water type varies
between Na-bicarbonate and Na-Chloride. The variation in water type could be attributed to
the leaching of halite, gypsum and calcareous sediments during water movement. A high
concentration of Fe and Mn has been recorded due to reduction process. A study in Western
Karoo (South Africa) shows that an understanding of the chemical evolution of groundwater
provides insight into the interaction of water with the environment and contributes to better
resource management. Fluoride occurrence in groundwater in Senegal is related to endemic
dental fluorosis. A study of different hydrogeological basins in Mexico shows that Specific
Conductance (SC) vs. total dissolved solids (TDS) curve is useful to monitor drinking water
supplies such as wells and reservoirs and a relation has been established between SC and TDS
as SC = 1.4 TDS + 18. The fluoride content in water samples from Los Altos de Jalisco region,
Mexico is 0.14-12.97 mg/L.°8 Use of high quantities of water by beer industries and
fertilization by phosphate is affecting the Puelchense sub aquifer serving the Buenos Aires in
Argentina.

12
1.5.5 WATER QUALITY — INDIAN SCENARIO
Studies show that many parts of India have water quality problems. More than 90% of the rural
population uses groundwater for domestic purposes but in rural areas of India only one-third
of the groundwater sources could fit drinking water quality. The Fluoride content data in water
belonging to nine different Indian States which cover almost the entire country reveal an
elevated concentration as high as 20 ppm which is much higher than the permissible limit of
1.5 ppm.

In Bhagalpur, India, located on the south bank of the Ganga River, the high amounts of nitrate-
nitrogen, Cl and fluoride. coli organisms in the water indicate the presence of high levels of
fecal contamination. Water quality at Hasanpur situated at the bank of River Ganga in
J.P.Nagar district, U.P is alkaline, hard, and highly contaminated with reference to almost all
the parameters studied. Fifty seven percent of groundwater of the lower Varuna River basin in
Uttar Pradesh has higher NO− 3 content. The Fluoride ion concentration in rural communities of
Tehsil Purwa district (Uttar Pradesh) ranged from 1.5 to 2.5 mg/L.[19]

The highest fluoride concentration of 12.80 mg/L and a significant correlation of F with pH,
alkalinity, Na, SiO, and phosphate are observed in 261 villages in Tehsil Kheragarh of District
Agra. Groundwater quality assessment of 70 villages in Bichpuri Block of Agra District, India,
shows that out of the total 243 samples 17.28% samples have 2.6-5.0 mg/L of Fluoride.

In Rajasthan, Fluoride in groundwater is distributed in all 31 districts and nearly 3 million

people consume excess fluoride containing water and problems of dental and skeletal fluorosis
are widespread. In the western Rajasthan Region, 38-45% of groundwater resources contain F
and NO3− . In the Pali, Jalore, and Nagaur districts, the Fluoride problem is more acute.
Groundwater samples from Bali, Desuri, Jaitaran, Kharchi, Pali, Rani, Raipur, Sojat, and
Sumerpur blocks of Pali district are slightly to moderately saline. As much as 4,750 mg NO3− /L
is observed in groundwater; and in district Churu more than 75% of waters contained NO3− >100
mg/L. Alkalinity is one of the deciding factors for the high incidence of fluoride in natural
waters in Amreli district. About 80% of water samples from Churu district and 65% of water
samples from Balmer district in Rajasthan show high NO− 3 of above 50 mg/L and the NO3
−

concentrations increased with total hardness, Ca and Mg and decreased as the depth of water
table increased.

Water quality data for 170 shallow dug wells in the unconsolidated Quaternary sediment
aquifers in the Ahmedabad Urban Complex and its hinterlands, Gujarat State show that the
groundwater composition is mainly of two types: the more dominant sulphate type at a greater
depth (25-40 m), and the less significant NO−3 type in the shallower aquifer (40 m). The sulfate-
type ions are the major contributors to the total dissolved solids (TDS).

Majority of the samples in four villages of Jind District of Haryana State are not potable. The
Fluoride concentration in the underground water of these villages varies from 0.3 to 6.9
mg/L.™ The results for Bhilwara District show that the overall quality of the groundwater in

13
the district is deteriorating. A study of fluoride levels in the groundwater of seven villages of
the Tosham subdivision, Bhiwani District, Haryana shows a negative correlation of fluoride
with pH and a positive correlation with electrical conductivity (r = 0.3259) and total alkalinity
(r =0.1212).

50% of Delhi area in India is affected by fluoride contamination and high fluoride levels in
groundwater is mostly found in the vicinity of brick kilns.

Samples from 16 hydrographic stations in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh show that basicity is the
major factor for increase of fluoride in water. A positive correlation between fluoride and Na
is noticed. Studies in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh show that the maximum alkalinity, hardness,
Ca-hardness and Mg-hardness are 482 mg/L, 549mg/L, 553 mg/L and 595 mg/L respectively.

Water quality data for deep bore-wells and dug-wells located in different zones of Ranchi area,
Jharkhand State show high fluoride in southern, western and southwestern zones of the city.
The water is slightly acidic in nature and high in iron concentration in most of the study zones.

Groundwater quality in Guwahati, India, shows that the fluoride content has a positive
correlation with Na, K, total alkalinity and the depth of source and a negative correlation with
Mg, Ca and total hardness. Fluoride concentration is 0.10-2.06 mg/L in the tube wells and dug
wells in parts of Imphal area/valley, Manipur State, India.[19]

1.5.6 WATER QUALITY IN HIMACHAL PRADESH

The rivers and lakes play an important role in lives of human beings. The rivers provide
irrigation, potable water, cheap transportation, hydroelectricity and livelihood to large
population on the earth. The Indian river system is classified in to four major categories i.e.
The Himalayan, the rivers traversing the Deccan Plateau, the Coastal and those in the inland
drainage basin. Indus river of Himalayan system consist of the Chenab, the Jhelum, the Ravi,
the Satluj and the Beas. River Beas, an important contributory of the Indus system, is the only
tributary of system confined to India. The river Beas is a perennial river fed by snow, rainfall
and is covered with extensive cover of vegetation in Himachal Pradesh. River Beas originates
from Beaskund, in Pirpanjal range near Rohtang pass at 13326 ft above mean sea level. Total
length of river Beas is 470 km, out of which it flows 256 km in Himachal Pradesh. The Parvati,
Bakkar, Binwa, Neugal, Mankhad, Baner, Banganga and Chakki river are the major
tributaries of river Beas in Himachal Pradesh. The important settlements on the bank of river
Beas in Himachal Pradesh are Manali, Kullu, Bhuntar, Pandoh, Mandi, Ladbharol, Dharampur,
Jaisinghpur, Sujanpur Tira, Nadaun and Dehra Gopipur. The river water quality is highly
variable by nature due to environmental conditions such as basin lithology, vegetation and
climate. There are three major natural sources of dissolved and soluble matter carried by rivers,
the atmospheric inputs of material, the degradation of terrestrial organic matter and weathering
of surface rocks. With continuous growth of population, rapid developments in agriculture,
mining, urbanization, industrialization, hydro-electrical generation activities and motor vehicle

14
pollution, the river water contamination with hazardous waste is becoming common
phenomena. The rate of discharge of pollutants in to the water is far higher than rate of
purification. As water quality and human health are closely related and it is in this context,
that the water quality assessment is critical for pollution control and protection of surface and
ground water. The drinking water requirement of the population of Kullu, Mandi, Hamirpur
and Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh is met by uplifting water from river Beas. Besides
this, Beas river water is also used for irrigation and hydroelectricity generation.[25]

1.6 Application of water quality

Water quality has a direct bearing on human health as a number of chemical components of
water which have been identified to be hazardous. The quality of water also plays an important
role in judging its use for different purposes. Thus, water should be free from such chemical
constituents, which impair health. Quality of water is an important factor in development and
use of ground water as resources. There are two types of objectives of water quality: (i)
Narrative (ii) Numerical Narrative objectives present general descriptions of water quality that
must be attained through pollutant control measures and water shed management. Numerical
objectives are developed primarily to limit the adverse effect of pollutants in the water column
and describe pollutant concentrations, physical and chemical conditions of the water itself and
the toxicity of the water to aquatic organism.[18]

1.7 Water Pollution

When insoluble solid particles, soluble salts, sewage garbage, human animal activities,
agricultural activities, bacteria, industrial wastes, algae, low level radioactive substances etc.
go into water, water gets polluted. This water pollution not only affects water quality but also
threats economic and social developments including human wellness.
Freshwater resources all over the world are threatened not only by over exploitation and poor
management but also by ecological degradation. It is a generally accepted fact that the
developed countries suffer from problems of chemical discharge into the water sources mainly
groundwater. Polluted water like chemicals in drinking water causes problem to health and
leads to water-borne diseases. The groundwater becomes polluted when toxic substances
become dissolved in water at the land surface and are leached to the aquifer with the percolated
water. Due to local pollutants alarming salts contain in ground water affect the groundwater
quality adversely. Since groundwater moves slowly in many years and pass before a pollutant
released on the land surface above the aquifer is detected in water taken from the aquifer some
distance away. Groundwater becomes depleted in an area where more water is being drawn out
on an aquifer and consumptively used than in entering or recharging the aquifer. Ground water
quality is deteriorated mainly because of following factors:

1. Natural contaminants from air, land, e.g., fluoride, arsenic, iron, nitrate, sulphate,
carbonate, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate, sodium.

2. Man-made sources e.g., agricultural chemicals, industrial effluents and domestic

sewage.

15
Types of water pollution: Two types of water pollution occur: (i) Point source and (ii) Non-
point source Point source pollution is the pollution that comes from a particular source. The
main point sources are the discharges of waste waters coming from commercial industrial and
agricultural area. Non-point source pollution comes from wide spread areas, not just a
particular point. It is not always easy to identify the specific source of non-point pollution. Non
point sources would be the drainage water coming from runoff, the ground water including
leach ate and the discharge of waste waters from unknown sources.[17]
Causes of water pollution There are two primary causes of water pollution: (i) Natural and
(ii) Man-made (anthropogenic activities) Natural sources are less harmful compared to
hazardous chemicals generated by human activities. These chemicals can be either organic or
inorganic. Organic chemical in drinking water not often exceeds trace concentration while they
are much more added in water resources. The man-made sources of surface and ground water
pollution in India are:
(i) Industrial effluent
(ii) Domestic sewerage
(iii) Fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural lands
(iv) Leachate from solid water disposal sites
Classification of health problem because of water pollutants Depending on the chronic
health problems appeared by water pollutants are typically grouped in the following three
classes:
(i) Carcinogen
(ii) Mutagens
(iii) Tetragons.
Carcinogen is a chemical that causes cancer, either directly or indirectly. Chemical which
are capable of producing an inheritable change in the genetic material is called mutagen
and any chemical which produces a birth defect is called a tetragon. Organic pollutants
cause hypertension, bronchitis, arteriosclerosis, emphysema, heart diseases, kidney and
liver dysfunction. They can also stimulate abnormal production of enzymes.[29]

1.8 Water Quality Index

Accurate and timely information on quality of water is essential to shape a sound public
policy for interest of health and to implement the water quality improvement programme
effectively. There are a number of methods to analyse water quality data that vary depending
on informational goal, the type of samples, and the size of the sampling area. One of the most
effective ways to communicate information on the water quality trends is with indices as
certain health related parameters.

16
 Water Quality Index is one of the most effective tools to communicate information on the
quality of water to the concerned citizens and policy makers. It is an important parameter for
the assessment and management of ground water. It is defined as a rating reflecting the
composite influence of different water quality parameters. The WQI method for ground water
quality assessment is widely used around the world due to the capability of fully expression of
the water quality information. The main objective of WQI is to turn complex water quality data
into information that is understandable and useable by the public. These include drinking,
irrigation, recreation and livestock watering where such uses are naturally sustainable, and
suitable for fish and wildlife. A Water Quality Index is a numeric expression used to transform
large number of variables data into a single number as index at different times and in different
places, which represents the water quality level and to translate this information into a single
value defining the period of time and spatial unit involved and to be easily understood by
managers. Water Quality Index depends upon normalizing, data parameter according to
expected concentrations and interpretation of good versus bad concentration. Then parameters
are weighted according to their perceived importance to overall water quality and the index is
calculated as the weighted average of all observations of interest. The index is based on the
attainment of water quality objectives. Quality objectives are for safe limits, set by the ministry
in areas of human areas, to protect the most sensitive water uses of water resources. Water
index defines a systematic way of interpretation and measurements of water quality naturally
or desirables. The index of water quality into five categories: excellent, good, fair, borderline,
and poor. Every area describes the state of water quality with objectives usually represent the
natural state including water quality requisites.[26]

1.8.1 WQI as tool for quality of water

Water Quality Indices are aggregating and communicating tools to monitoring the water
quality. Water Quality Index can be used to assess water quality for general beneficial uses. A
single WQI value makes information more easily and rapidly understood than a long list of
numerical values for a large variety of parameters. A Water Quality Index can provide a way
to summarize overall water quality conditions in a manner that can be communicated to a
general audience. An index can tell us whether the overall quality of water bodies possess a
potential threat to various uses of water. Index is used as a broad tool and indicates success in
protection and remediation efforts. It is used to compare a water supply quality with other water
supplies in the region or from around the world.

1.8.2 Classification of WQI

Water Quality Indices can be broadly classified into objective and subjective types.
Objective indices are those which do not make use of any subjective inference and are based
on the expert opinion, questionnaires, etc. These are called the statistical indices. Subjective
indices need two important specification such as weights (values according to importance of
water quality parameters) and rating functions and are drawn out of questionnaire analysis
inquiring the opinion of the experts. Unlike the objective indices, the subjective indices have
some causal basis for representing the multivariate (consisting of more than one water quality
parameter) data. According to parameter the indices are broadly characterized into two parts:

17
 (i) Physico – chemical indices and
(ii) Biological indices

The physico chemical indices are based on the values of various physico chemical parameters
in a water sample, while biological indices are derived from the biological information and are
calculated using the species composition of the sample, the diversity of species, their
distribution pattern, the presence or absence of the indicator species or groups. All indexing
systems require measurements to be made for a selection of water quality determinants from
these measurements, a sub –index rating values are then aggregated to produce the final index
score.

1.9 Study Area:

Fig.1.1: Map of water bodies in Kullu.[31]

18
 Fig.1.2: Map of Mandi district.[32]

The state is richly endowed with a hilly terrain having an enormous volume of water from the
catchment areas of Satluj, Beas, Ravi and Chenab rivers. As such, the state has enormous
potential of water resources in the form of glaciers and rivers but ground water resources are
limited.
The area under consideration are Kullu and Mandi Districts, in this report the Shamshi, Raisan,
Nalsar, lunapani , kanchikoot , Dhalpur and Baggi etc. area are focused and the data of these
places are included under the report.

1.9.1 Geography:
Kullu is a hilly and a mountainous tract with altitude ranging from about 1,278 m or 4,193 ft
above mean sea level. The major river system of the region is Beas. Regional Setting: The
town, of Kullu, situated at a height of 1220mtr.
The climate varies from hot and sub-humid tropical in the southern tracts to cold, alpine and
glacial in the northern and eastern mountain ranges with more elevation. Mandi has an average
elevation of 1044 meters (3425 feet) and is situated on the banks of Beas The city of Mandi

19
falls in the lowest Himalayan region. These regions enjoy a mild wet climate on foot hills (450
to 900 meters) compared to the cold, dry alpine climate and snowfall in the highlands (2400-
4800 meters). The average annual rainfall for Mandi is 1380 mm

1.9.2 Water sources:

The main sources of water in Kullu and Mandi districts are Beas river, lakes and Monsoon etc.
The Beas River is a river in north India. The river rises in the Himalayas in central Himachal
Pradesh, India, and flows for some 470 kilometres to the Sutlej River in the Indian state of
Punjab. Its total length is 470 kilometres and its drainage basin is 20,303 square kilometres
large.[33]

1.9.3 Climate:
There is a huge variation in the climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh due to variation in
altitude (450–6500 metres). The climate varies from hot and sub-humid tropical (450–900
metres) in the southern low tracts, warm and temperate (900–1800 metres), cool and temperate
(1900–2400 metres) and cold glacial and alpine (2400–4800 metres) in the northern and eastern
high elevated mountain ranges.

By October, nights and mornings are very cold. Snowfall at elevations of nearly 3000 m is
about 3 m and lasts from December start to March end. About 4500 m, is perpetual snow. The
spring season starts from mid-February to mid-April. The weather is pleasant and comfortable
in the season. The rainy season start at the end of the month of June. The landscape lushes
green and fresh. During the season streams and natural springs are replenished. The heavy rains
in July and August cause erosion, floods and landslides.[34]

20
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Groundwater resources are slowly being depleted by human labour pressures, urbanization,
and industrial development. So clean, safe, healthy, and odourless drinking water is a matter
of great concern. Various staff members conducted extensive studies in the appropriate field.
Ochir Altansukh et al. (2011) analysed the index to assess the water level of the Tuul River
in Mongolia.
Mouna Ketata et al. (2011) used the location information system and water quality of EI
Khairat aquifer deep.
Brown, R. M., McClelland, N. I., Deininger, R. A., and Toozer, R. G. A Water Quality
Indicator - Are We Brave ?, Water and Sanitation Services (October 1970); presented at the
National Symposium on Data and Instrumentation for Water Quality Management, July
1970.
Standard Methods of Water and Sewage Testing, 19 '"Edition, 4-61, APHA (1995).
JM Ishaku (2011) examined the groundwater quality index of the Jimeta YZXSalo area,
north-eastern Nigeria. The result shows a high amount of WQI mainly from chloride, nitrate,
dissolved oxygen, chromium hexavalent, and EC. The source of these contaminants is caused
by anthropogenic origin.
Canadian Council for Environmentalists, Guidelines for the Canadian Level of
Protection of Aquatic Life: CCME Water Quality Index 1.0, Technical Report. In: Canadian
natural quality guidelines, 1999,
AL- JANABI EL AT (2012) Tigris River Water Quality Assessment using the Water
Quality Index (CCME WQI) the use of the Canadian Council of Ministers for the
Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) at 3 stations along the Tigris River in
Baghdad, Iraq. Field work was carried out on time from February to December 2010. CCME
WQI was implemented using eleven water quality parameters (pH value, Total Dissolve
Solids, Calcium, Total Alkalinity, Ammonia, Nitrate, Nitrite, Turbidity, Lead Chromium ,
Iron). According to the results obtained from the index, the water quality of the Tigris River
was between 37-42 indicating that the river is very poor due to various sources of urban
pollution. This work confirms the need to take drastic measures to monitor the river in order
to manage it properly.
KS Parmar et al. (2011) examined the seasonal variability of Physico-chemical parameters
and the Water Quality Indexing of the Lake.
Salman el.(2015) in the test of quality of water hilla drinking water purpose by the use of the
Canadian Water Quality Index . (CCME WQI) was used using six set and the standard
parameter of the river Al-Hilla, pH-electric , total strength, Ca, Mg, Cl). Environmental and
chemical boundaries along the Euphrates River were monitored monthly during the study to
calculate the WQI to assess the suitability of drinking water and human consumption in the
WQI winter, spring, summer and autumn calculations from August, 2013 to August, 2014,
according to the results found in the index, the water quality of the River was between 60-65
indicating that the river is low due to the impact of Al-Hilla on various urban polluting
resources

21
UPJ Puri et al. (2011) assessed the surface water level (lake) of the city of Nagpur using
WQI. The results showed that the water level was good in rainy conditions which changed to
mid-winter and worse in summer.
Quality Guidelines for Drinking Water, Health Practices and Other Supporting
Information, WHO, Geneva, Volume 2, Chapter 13, 131, 1984
AR Karbassi et al. (2011) developed the NSF WQI with a variety of features and described
the characteristics of the Gorrorood River such as land, hydrological, emissions, and
pollutants.
Gajanand Thakre et al. (2011) used WQI to explore the Tapti River for public use. The
result shows a higher WQI value due to higher values of TDS, phosphate, sulphate, COD,
and turbidity.
May Afif Massoud (2011) used WQI to assess water quality in the recreational section of the
Damour River in Lebanon. The result was that the water quality of the river was affected by
anthropogenic activities.
Deepshikha Sharma and Arun Bansal (2011) analyzed the water quality of the Yamuna
River in the area of the national capital using WQI138.
S.Islam et al. (2011) assessed the water level of the Titas River using NSF WQI. The result
shows that water can be used for recreational purposes, for cooking and watering purposes
but needs to be treated before it can be used for drinking.
Sami G. Daraigan et al. (2011) studied the analysis of the integration of drinking water
quality data from the city of Almukalla, Hadadhramunt, Yemen. Vikram Bhardwaj and
Dhruv Sen Singh (2011) assessed the quality of groundwater and groundwater in the Deoria
region, Ganga plain, India to assess the suitability of surface and groundwater for domestic,
agricultural and industrial purposes.
.
Rizwan Reza and Gurdeep Singh (2010) assessed groundwater quality using the Water
Quality Index method in Orissa, India. The result shows that the water level is lower during
the rainy season compared to the summer season due to high water and groundwater
movement during the latter rain.
M. Vasanthavigar et al. (2010) examined the Water Quality Index using the hydro
geochemical parameter (large cations and anions) in the Thirumanimuttar sub-basin. He
found that pre-rain samples showed a significantly lower rate compared to background
rainfall due to excessive use of groundwater, direct emissions, efficient ion leakage, and
impact on agriculture.

Jisa and T. Jimoh (2010) analyzed the WQI of the landzu river. The results show that due to
the high iron content, chromium, and manganese, COD and high turbidity of WQI were
found in this river. Charmaine Jerome (2010) reviewed WQI and linked it to quality of life in
an industrial area in Bangalore, South India

22
Ashok Kumar Yadav et al. (2010) examined the WQI of groundwater in the Todarisingh
tehsil state of Rajasthan. The result shows that drinking water is polluted due to the hardness
of the salt
Pradyusa samantray et al. (2009) assessed water quality in the Mahanadi and Atharabanki
rivers and the Taldanda Canal in the Paradip, India area using WQI. Results show that due to
industry and human activities the water level in the rivers is declining
UCR Ramakrishnaiah (2009) assessed groundwater quality through the Water Quality
Index in Tumkur Taluk, Karnataka province, India. The result shows a high amount of WQI
especially from high amounts of iron, nitrate, soluble solids, hardness, fluorides, bicarbonate,
and manganese in groundwater
Adriano A. Bordalo (2006) used the Scottish WQI in the international pit assigned to the
Douro which was used to convert nine parameters and monitor the monthly water quality of
the Duoro River. This study shows that water levels in all study areas were moderate to low
and decreased from winter to summer.
Wang, Pai-Ping. Chu, Chi-Cheng Industrial water damage and emerging economic losses.
Huanjing Baohu (Beijing, China), 5, 14-15 (1979).
Kataria, H. C. Shandilya, A. K. Physical characteristics of Bhopal (MP) water chemistry
III.Eastern Journal of Chemistry, 12 (2), 225-226, 1996
UMK Chaturvedi et al. (2010) assessed WQI using five parameters of nitrate, pH, TDS,
turbidity and temperature in water sources and the Delhi water treatment plant. You will find
that WQI on site 3, shows “good,” water quality in site 1 and site 2. WQI shows that these
water resources were considered “medium” water quality
Hien L et al. Infant gastroenteritis due to water has high sulphate content. Canadian medicine
Association Journal, 99, 102-104, 1968.

Sandow Mark Yidana and Adadow Yidana (2010) tested water quality using Water
Quality Index and multivariate analysis. Studies show that the three main features of the
celestial climate, the alternating cation exchange, mineral climate and chemicals from
agricultural activities regulate the hydrochemistry of groundwater
Water Quality Assessment, Biota User Guide, Sediments and Environmental
WaterMonitoring, Second Edition, Published on behalf of UNESCO, WHO and UNEP, 40,
1996.
IJenkins, S.R. & E.C. Moore. Suggested modification of the old alkalinity calculation
method in natural water. J. Amer. Water Works Assoc. 69, 56, 1977.
Further, WF Temperature effect on natural pH of water, J. Amer. Water Works Assoc. 38:
179,1946
Fluorides and human health. Geneva, World Health Organization, Monograph series No.
59, 2-15, 1970

23
Guidelines for quality drinking water in Canada, Quebec, Department of Water Supply
and Services _(supporting documents) p 49-52, 1978
Krishna, J.S.R . Rambabu.K. Rambabu, C. A study of the water quality parameters of the
curved water in KUMMAU Mandal. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 16 (2), 91-
98, 1996
Sawer, C.N. and Mina Carty, H.M. Chemistry for Sanitary Engineers, 2 "ed., Me Graw
Hill, New York: 518, 1997
Sinha, K.G.K. and Ritesh Saxena. Drinking water level and the effect of heavy rainfall in
Hasanpur, JP Nagar: A Quality Assessment, 2007
UR Nagarajan et al. (2010) assessed the quality of groundwater and its suitability for
drinking and agricultural purposes using five parameters of electricity consumption, pH,
temperature, high ions, and nitrate in the city of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India. The study
concluded that 34% of the samples were unsafe to drink because of man-made actions
Swati s and Umesh s (2015) Nemerow’s pollution index for ground water quality
assessment, journal of environmental sciences and pollution research. The present study was
intended to assess the ground water quality for drinking purpose and to determine principal
pollutants of ground water through Nemerow’s Pollution Index (NPI) in Bassi Tehsil of
district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India or this ground water samples from 71 sampling sites of 50
villages of study area were collected from tube wells and hand pumps of varying depths in
pre and post monsoon seasons and analysed for ten physico-chemical parameters namely pH,
total alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, nitrate, fluoride, total dissolved
solid and electrical conductivity. Analysis of results showed that almost all parameters were
exceeding the permissible limits prescribed by BIS, ICMR and WHO. According to NPI
values the observed principal pollutants (pollution causing parameters) in the present study
are total alkalinity, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity
in both pre- and post-monsoon seasons.
Anyanwu Emeka Donald Index approach to water quality assessment of a south eastern
Nigerian river international Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies 2019; 7(1): 153-159
Vinay Nannapaneni (2019) determination of water quality index(wqi) for groundwater of
kakumanu mandal p-issn: 2395-0072
Sharma and Sonika(2014) Water quality index of Jaipur and its agglomerates
Chandrika D(2020)Water Quality assessment and statistical analysis indexing and mapping
of data for namakkal and vellore districts and chennai city in Tamil Nadu

However, the literature study reveals that there is no systematic and significant study in the
Water Quality Index of the city of mandi city and its agglomerate for drinking purposes;
therefore, the current academic work has been done with the help of irrigation and public
health department

24
 3. METHODOLOGY
Water is a universal solvent and therefore has the potential to dissolve almost all-natural
compounds. Some things are important for very little money to a person while the same high
concentration can cause a toxic effect. There is a difference between clean water and safe
drinking water. In the case of pure water minerals or chemicals, there are none and they do not
exist naturally in nature. Safe drinking water contains minerals and naturally occurring
chemicals such as calcium, potassium, sodium, and fluoride which are actually beneficial to
human health. This conveys a taste to the water which can take some familiarity. The rapid
urbanization that created groundwater pollution has affected the availability and quality of
groundwater due to its overuse and improper waste disposal. Once groundwater is polluted, it
is difficult to stop pollution and restore water quality. It is necessary to regularly monitor the
groundwater level and protect. But it is not an easy task to monitor the quality of groundwater
continuously but we can access it periodically by calculating WQI index of that ground
water.[35]

Water levels have a direct impact on human health as many chemical substances have been
identified as harmful. Water quality plays an important role in determining its use for a variety
of purposes. Water should be free of chemicals, which are harmful to health. Water quality can
be determined by its chemical composition, which is subject to the state of hydrochemistry and
the chemical, physical and chemical properties of water bacteria to determine their suitability
for a specific purpose.
Hydrochemistry mainly includes:
Ensuring the quality of water chemistry
Determining the suitability of water for specific uses
Obtaining an idea of the origin of water
Monitoring temporary variations in water quality.

Ideally, rainwater should be pure H2O in the formulation, however, in fact, water is reported
to have a salt content of <25 to 300,000 mg / L because the chemical composition of natural
water is affected by rock and decay products.

25
3.1 PRESEVATION OF SAMPLE AND STORAGE
Selection of sample containers, sample collection processes, as well as storage and saving
techniques before sampling of analysis was followed in terms of ‘General Water Testing
Methods and Wastewater, 19 "edition, APHA 'and the following procedures are
introduced[37]:
Table 3.1 Details of sample

NO. Parameter Container Recommended Preservation Maximum

Recommended Storage

1 TURBIDITY polyethene Analyse same day ; in 24/48 hours

dark up to 24 hours
refrigerate
2 TOTAL polyethene Refrigerate 7 days
DISSOLVE
SOILDS
3 pH polyethene Analyse immediately 2 hours

4 Alkanity total polyethene Add HN𝑂3 to 24 hours

pH < 2.0
5 Hardness total polyethene Add HN𝑂3 to 6 months
pH < 2.0

6 Iron Polyethene(A) Analyze as soon as 6 months

possible or refrigerate

7 Nitrate polyethene None 48 hours

8 Chloride polyethene None 28 days

9 Fluoride polyethene None 28 days

10 sulpHate polyethene refrigerate 28 days

(A) —and acidic

Following the similarity, one-litre polythene containers were used as a collection of samples.
The collected samples were taken to an internal laboratory 24h. Tests for pH, alkalinity, and
hardness were performed on the same day or the next day after the refrigerator at night.
Remaining samples for testing. The balance parameters are maintained as above and are
checked immediately thereafter. For metals, samples are stored with HNO; at pH <2.0. All tests
were completed within two weeks from the date of sampling.

26
3.2 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
Analysis Method There are five important types of quantitative analysis methods that are
important in analytical chemistry[39]. These are as follows:
Gravimetric Analysis
(I) Volumetric Analysis
(II) Optical Methods
(III) Electromagnetic Methods
(IV) Methods of Separation

(I) Gravimetric analysis –This method involves the separation of a substance from the
solution of the weighed sample into a pure weighable form of a stable compound of
known percentage composition. Gravimetric analysis by precipitation is the
chemical analysis in which the constituents of the substances in solution are
determined by the measurement of weight of the corresponding precipitate. The
various operations in obtaining a pure sample by precipitation are:
(a)Precipitation of the desired constituent
(b) Filtration
(c) Drying
(d) Weight of the precipitate
(II) Volumetric methods – In this technique a gas volume is measured or a volume of a
titrant is measured. The procedure in which volume of a titrant is measured is called
a titration. Titrant is titrated against the sample solution or unknown solution, using
a suitable indicator for detecting the end point at which the stoichiometric reaction
between the titrant and the sample is complete. Volumetric titrations are of four
types namely

(a) Acid base titrations (neutralization reaction)

(b) Oxidation –reduction titrations
(c) Precipitation titrations
(d) Complex metric titration

(III) Optical methods – This method is based on how the sample acts towards
electromagnetic radiation. These measurements are made use of instruments which
involve the use of lenses, mirrors, prisms and gratings.

(IV) Electrical methods – This method involve electronic instruments that are used to
measure or produce electrical phenomena. Current flow as a function of time.

27
 3.3 EXAMINATION OF SAMPLE:
Water samples from various groundwater sources are analysed using the standard method of
determining the Water Quality Index in terms of the following parameters. Different Physico-
chemical parameters will be used to obtain the Water Quality Index. The description of the
water samples in the sample above will be done using standard methods.[42]

Table 3.2: List of Parameters and Equipment

S.no. Parameter Method Equipment /Instrument

1 pH Electrometric 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
method
2 Conductance Electrometric 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
method
3 Total Evaporation -
Dissolved methods5
Solid
4 Turbidity Electrometric 𝑁𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑙𝑜 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 5
method
5 Total Titration by -
Hardness(Calci EDTA
um Method5
,Magnesium)
6 Sodium Flame Flame PHotometer -128
emission
7 Potassium Flame Flame PHotometer
emission
8 Chloride Titration by
AgNo3 method -
Argentmetric
𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑 5
9 Nitrate Ultraviolet U.V–Visible
screening SpectropHotometer
10 Fluoride Ultraviolet U.V–Visible
screening SpectropHotometer
11 Temperature - 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

28
3.3.1 INSTRUMENTATION

3.3.1.1 PH Meter
In digital pH meter glass electrode is used the pH electrodes are made of a special synthetic
glass that feels the concentration of hydrogen ions. This glass is usually made of metal alkalis.
Glass metal ions and hydrogen ions in the solution meet ion-exchange reactions, making a
potential difference.
In a pH probe combination, the most widely used variety, there are actually two electrodes in
one body. One component is called the pH electrode for measurement, the other is the reference
electrode. The potential production potential in the mixing part of the equation is due to the
free hydrogen ions present in the solution.
The power of the reference part is generated by the internal object in contact with the reference
solution. This can always happen. In summary, the pH measuring electrode delivers various
energies and the reference electrode delivers a constant voltage to the meter.
To measure the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution, glass electrode must be combined
with reference electrode. Ag, AgCl( s) |HCl( 0.1M)|glass | test solution || KCl ( sat) ,Hg2Cl2
(s) |Hg
PH electrodes are similar to batteries; come down in time and use. As the age of the electrode,
its glass changes resistance. This resistance change alters the strength of the electrode. For this
reason, the electrodes need constant measurement.[39]

Fig 3.1 Glass Electrode Basic Arrangement

29
3.3.1.2 NAPHLOTURBIDITY Meter
A NEPHELOMETER is an instrument for measuring the concentration of suspended particles
in a liquid or gas colloid. NEPHELOMETER measures suspended particles by employing a
light beam (source beam) and a light detector on one side (often 90 °) of the source beam.
The particle density is then a function of the reflected light from the particles into the detector.
To some extent, how much light is reflected for a given density of particles depends on the
properties of the particles, such as their size, colour, and reflectivity. NEPHELOMETERs are
calibrated into a known particle, then use environmental factors (K-factor) to compensate for
light or dark dust accordingly. The K-factor is determined by the user by running the
NEPHELOMETER next to an air sampling pump and comparing the results. There are a wide
variety of open-source varieties on the market, as well as research-grade
NEPHELOMETERs.[48] The Nepheloturbiditymeters generally measure from 0-40 NTU

Fig 3.2 Block Diagram

FIG 3.3 NEPHELOTURBIDITYMETER

30
3.3.1.3 UV- Spectrometer
ultraviolet-Visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry (UV-Vis or UV /
Vis) refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in part of ultraviolet and
complete, adjacent visible spectroscopy. This means that it uses light in visible and adjacent
categories. Absorption or reflection in the visible range directly affects the perceived colour
of the chemicals involved. In this region of the electromagnetic spectrum, atoms and
molecules undergo electronic transitions. Absorption spectroscopy is complementary to
fluorescence spectroscopy, in that fluorescence is related to the transition from the excited
state to the ground state, while absorption measures the transition from the ground state to the
excited state.[48]
U-v Spectrophotometers are double-beam instruments that cover a range between about 200
and 800 nm by a continuous automated scanning process, producing the spectrum on a
display screen. The monochromatic beam of radiation coming from a deuterium or tungsten
lamp is received by a rotating field. It then divides the beam into two identical beams, one
passing through the reference and the other through the sample cell. After that, the light
beams are focused on the detector. The output of the detector is connected to a phase
sensitive amplifier that transmits the signal to the recorder.

FIG 3.3.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF UV- SPECTROMETER

The absorption signal which is produced by reference cull is automatically subtracted from
the adsorption sample and gives us effective signal of corresponding solution.[47]

31
3.3.1.4 FLAME PHOTOMETER
A photoelectric flame photometer is a tool used in unusual chemical analysis to detect the
accumulation of iron ions, among them sodium, potassium, lithium and calcium. Group 1 and
Group 2 instruments are very sensitive to Flame photometry due to their low tensile strength.
In fact, it is a flame-controlled experiment with the colour of the flame measured by the
electric circuits of the images. The colour density will depend on the energy absorbed by the
atoms that are sufficient to spray it. The sample is presented in flames at a constant rate.
Filters select colours obtained by the photometer and exclude the influence of other ions.
Before use, the device needs to be tested with a series of standard ion solutions to be tested
The design of a flame photometer is based on a measure of the amount of light emitted when
a metal is exposed to flames. The length of the colour scale tells us something and the size of
the colour tells us how much the object is. In this device the air is transferred to the atomizer
at a given pressure and the suction draws the sample solution into the atomizer, where it joins
the airstream and then passes to the heater. Here there is a small mixing room available in the
room the air mixes with the fuel and the mixture is burnt. Radiation flames pass through the
lens and eventually a visible filter. Allows the radioactive element of the object being
investigated to pass through the image detector. Output is measured by digital reading -out
system.[50]

Fig 3.3.5 Block Diagram of Flame Photometer

32
3.3.1.5 Digital Conductivity Meter
In digital navigation meters the stable power of the oscillator on the bridge is possible.
Currently through the operating cell it passes through one of the circuits of the radio converter.
Other outputs are included in the selected high-profit amplifier. The output that drives the
current into the third winding anti-Flux in the first circuit. This continues until both flow
channels are cancelled and as a result the output of the detector will be almost zero. The output
of the amplifier is a measure of the performance of the measured solution. Types of
conduction cell - In a conduction cell the electrodes are firmly attached to the geometry
always in relation to each other. The three most commonly used cell types provided in Figure:
Type A cell contain small electrodes separated by a large distance and are useful for high
precision measurement.
Type B is a simple immersion cell and is used to make matric degrees.
type C contains more subdivisions and is less efficient in measuring low behavioural
accuracy.
Electrode - Electrodes made of two identical sheets of platinum sheet, which are not easily
bent. The relative positions of these electrodes are adjusted by marking the connected tubes
on the side of the drive cell. A well-separated black platinum is attached to the electrode to
remove the separation.

Fig 3.3.6 Type A-B Conductivity Cell.[51]

33
 Fig 3.3.7 Type C Conductivity Cell.[51]

3.3.2 DETERMINATION OF PARAMETERS

3.3.2.1 Determination Of PH
pH is -login [H +]. Natural water usually has a pH value 4.0 to 9.0 and most are slightly basic
due to the presence of bicarbonates. Carbonates of alkali and alkaline earth metals. PH is
measured using a glass an electrode is connected to a digital pH meter. "* As temperature
affects the pH value, there is an automatic temperature compensation circuit connected to the
temperature probe provided in meters. The pH meter is standardized using pH buffers. The
meter has previously been standardized to '7.0' with pH buffer 7.0. Linearity on the pH range
is measured from 4 to 9.2 by measuring the values of pH buffers 9.2 and 4.0. The sample pH
is measured and the actual sample pH value is calculated Buffers calculated using pH values
of 7.0, 4.0, and 9.2. PH value Thus the calculated errors are free from errors due to any
change in the linearity range.[53]

PH values of 4.0 and 9.2.

The main pH of water can be determined by a pH meter using a glass electrode that produces
potentials that vary linearly with the pH of the solution in which it sinks. Measurement of the
electromotive force of the cell compared to an indicator electrode for the hydrogen ion
immersed in the test solution and a reference electrode. The pH is recorded directly on the
scale. The temperature has a significant effect on pH measurement.

(I) Reagent
(a) pH buffer solution 4.0, 9.0

34
 (b) Conductivity water
(II) Calibration of Instrument
The pH-meter is switched on and then the temperature of the buffer solution is measured.
This value is set on the temperature control knob. The instrument is standardized with a
buffer solution of known pH value. For this, the electrode is placed in a buffer solution of pH
7.0 and the meter is adjusted accordingly. The electrode is rinsed by distilled water and
transferred to a pH 4.0 buffer and the meter is adjusted accordingly. The same process is
repeated with the pH 9.0 buffer. The above procedure is repeated to ensure that the pH-meter
is properly calibrated.
(III) Sample Analysis
The electrode is washed with deionized distilled water and carefully wiped with tissue paper.
About 65 ml of the sample solution is taken into a 100 ml beaker to ensure that the electrode
is immersed in it. Churned the solution and waited a few moments for a stable reading, and
then the pH of the water sample was measured directly with a calibrated pH-meter. The pH of
the water sample can also be determined with the help of pH paper. First, we dip the pH
paper strip into the solution and compare the resulting colour with the standard colours.[54]
3.3.2.2 Determination of Turbidity
Water turbidity due to suspended and colloidal matter from soil, Silt, finely divided organic
and inorganic materials, plankton 'and others Microbes are measured using a
NEPHELOMETER in which light IS measured using a photodiode scattered at 90 ° in the
path of the incident beam.In the present experiments, a systronics make NEPHELOMETER
was used to measure Turbidity. The resolution of the instrument is + 0.1 NTU.
(i) Principle: This method is based on a comparison between the intensity of light
scattered by the sample under defined conditions and the intensity of light scattered
by the standard reference suspension under the same conditions. Turbidity is directly
proportional to the intensity of scattered light.
(ii) Reagent
a) Diluted water: Distilled water is filtered through 0.1um filter paper an Stored in a
container.
b) 1.00 g hydrazine sulphate, (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 is dissolved in distilled water and made up
to 100ml
c)solution 2: 10.g hexamethylene tetraamine (𝐶𝐻2 )6 𝑁4 is dissolved in distilled water
and made up to 100ml
4000-NTU Stock: In a flask, there are 10.0 mL solution I and 10.0 mL solution II. Mixed and
allowed to stand for 24 hours at 25 + 3 ° C. This results in 4000-NTU Suspension. 100 NTU
Standard: 5 mL 4000-NTU stock diluted to 200 mL with dilution water. The measurement is
initially done by setting the NEPHELOMETER to '0'. With diluted water. The meter's U 100
° is set with 100 NTU standard.[55]

35
The sample is then placed in the sample cell and readings are viewed directly inside NTU.
For high turbidity measurements, the sample is thin and the reading is measured and the
result multiplied by the dilution factor.
(iii)Calibration of turbidity meter
NEPHELOTURBIDIMETER calibrate by using 40 NTU formazin standards. Formazin is the
primary standard for turbidity measurements, then shake sample toughly and pour shaken
sample into turbidimeter tube and its turbidity is recorded
3.3.2.3 Determination Of TDS
Total dissolved solids present in water are inorganic salts water and very small amounts of
organic matter. The major citations are calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium and
carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, and nitrate anion 58. 3.8.1 Principle A well-mixed
sample is filtered through a standard glass fibre filter, and the filtrate evaporates to dryness in
a weighted dish. The increase in weight of the dish represents the total dissolved solids.
(I) process
TDS has been determined after evaporating a certain amount of water on a hot plate in a
platinum crucible. The weight of residues made from pollutants (dissolved ions) after water
is released from a water sample is a measurement of TDS and gives the quality of groundwater
and the general nature of contamination.
(II) Calculation
TDS (mg / L) = (A- B / V) x 1000
A = Weight of dry residue and crucible (in milligrams)
B = Weight of crucible (in milligrams)
V = Vol. Sample (lit)
3.3.2.4 Determination of electrical conductivity
The conductivity of water is an expression of its ability to conduct electric current by mobile
cages and ions. As this property is related to the ionic content of the sample which in turn is
a function of the dissolved (ionizable) solid. The measurement of electrical conductivity is
directly related to the concentration of ionized material in water and may also be related to
problems with excessive hardness and other mineral contamination. The EC can be
determined by a bioactivity bridge meter based on the wheat stone bridge theory. EC denotes
ionized components of water with conductivity.
(I) Reagent
(a) 0.01N KCl solution.
(II) Instrument calibration

36
 Turn on the conductivity meter and allow it to warm up for 2 to 5 minutes. Calibrate the
conductivity meter cell with 0.01N KCl solution, it should give an EC of 1.413 μS / cm, if
not, re-calibrate it. After calibration, dip the conductivity cell in distilled water to clean the
electrode. Dip the conductivity cell in the water sample and record the cell constant and EC.
The electrodes then dip into the water samples and focus on the cell being stable and
conductive.
(III) Calculate specific conductivity = cell constant x conductivity

3.3.2.4 Hardness Determination

Water hardness is the property of water-related to the formation of precipitates when reacting
with soap. It is mainly controlled by the presence of Ca and Mg and can be expressed as
equivalent to calcium carbonate according to the formula given below:
Table no 3.3.2.1: class of water on basis of Hardness (Mg / L as CaCO3 equivalent)

Hardness (Mg / L as CaCO3 equivalent) class

0-75 Soft
75-150 Moderately hard
150-300 Hard
>300 Very hard

Other di- or titrant ions present in water also have similar effects, but their concentrations are
not sufficient to cause problems. Hardness increases soap consumption in laundries and
causes scaling and sludge in the boiler. Hardness of water exceeds carbonate and bicarbonate,
the sum of alkalinity. The amount of hardness equal to total alkalinity is called carbonate
hardness. The amount of hardness greater than this is called non-carbonate hardness 14. Water
hardness can be determined by complex using ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) as
a metal indicator such as titanium, ammonium chloride - ammonium hydroxide buffer pH -
10.1 and urochrome black-T. EDTA is structured.[58]

Fig:3.3.8 structure of EDTA

37
(I) Principal
EDTA forms a chelated soluble complex with cation when small amounts of the dye
urochrome black tea (EBT) are added to the aqueous, which contains calcium and magnesium
ions, which Is at a pH of 10.1. The solution turns alcohol red. When EDTA is added as a
titrant, the calcium and magnesium complex will form, and when all of the magnesium and
calcium have been complexed, the solution changes from red to blue in the wine, marking the
endpoint of the titration is.

FIG 3.3.9 EBT AND EDTA TRITRATION REACTION

(II) Reagent
(a) EDTA (M/100)
(b) Calcium carbonate as standard hard water (1gm CaCO3 per litre) 1000 mg/lit
(c) Eriochrome black T dye as indicator
(d) Buffer solution (10.1pH)
(e) Distilled water
(III) Procedure Take 10ml of water sample in 250 ml conical flask and add 3 ml of ammonia
of 10.1 pH buffer solution and then add 2 drops of Eriochrome black T indicator and
solution become wine red shown in then this solution are titrated with standard EDTA
(M/100) solution from burette. Colour changed from wine red to blue indicates the end
point of reaction completion.
(IV) Calculation Total Hardness (mg/L) = A /B ×1000 (as CaCO3)
Where A = Volume of EDTA consumed when water sample taken in conical flask
B = Volume of EDTA consumed when standard hard water taken in conical flask

38
3.3.2.5 Determination of Nitrate
(i) Principle
The principle of the method is to measure nitrate ion by ultra violet absorption at
wavelength 220 nm. Nitrate calibration curve follows Beers law up to 11 mg and
dissolved organic matter absorb at 275 nm; a second measurement made at 275 nm may
be used to correct the nitrate value. Acidification with 1N HCl is designed the experiment
to prevent interference of hydroxide or carbonate concentrations.
(ii) Reagents
(a) Stock nitrate solution (gm)
(b) Standard nitrate solution
(c)HCl solution (1N)
(d) Conductivity water (DI water)
(iii)Procedure Prepare 50ml of nitrate calibration standards for 0, 2, 5, 8, 12, 16, and
20 mg/L by diluting appropriate amounts of the 100mg/L stock solution and used
HCl (1ml) and deionised water. Filter a portion of the sample through 0.45 micro
milli pore paper, then take 5ml sample and transfer to a 50mL volumetric flask.
Then add HCl (1N) and make up to mark with DI water. Read the absorbance of
the sample and standards at both 220 nm and 275 nm and use distilled water
containing HCl as a blank. Then prepared a calibration curve with standard
solution and determine the concentration of nitrate ion in the unknown samples.

(iv) Calculation For correction of dissolved organic matter, subtract the reading at 275
nm from the reading at 220 nm to obtain the absorbance due to nitrate. Convert
this absorbance value into equivalent nitrate by a standard calibration curve
obtained at 220 nm and this concentration value multiplies by 10.

3.3.2.6 Determination of Fluoride

Fluoride of water was determined by alizarin visual method
(i) Principle
In this method a compound of metal (zirconium) reacts with an alizarin red dye
to form zirconium alizarin S Lake. This complex reacts with fluoride to give a
colourless (Zr𝐹6 )−2- and the dye. The colour of the dye lake becomes
progressively weak with increase in amount of fluoride.
(ii) Reagent
a) (a)Stock fluoride solution: 2.2101 gm sodium fluoride dissolved with distil
water in 1 litre volumetric flask (2.2101 g/L)
b) Standard Fluoride Solution
c) Alizarin red –S dye – 0.75 gm alizarin red –s dye dissolved in 1litre of
water.

39
 d) Zirconium oxy chloride - 0.354 gm zirconium oxy chloride was dissolved in
very little amount of distilled water and 33ml sulphuric acid and 100ml
hydrochloric acid added slowly and make up to 1litre with distilled water.

(iii)Procedure
Prepare 50ml of fluoride calibration standards for 0, .5, 1, 1.5, 2 ppm by diluting
the appropriate amounts of the 10ppm stock solution and making them up to the
mark by distilled water. Then we add 2.5 ml alizarin red s and 2.5 ml zirconium
oxy chloride reagent and stands for 1 hour shown in After 1 hour (F read the
absorbance of the solution at 540 nm. Prepare the calibration graph with
standards solution. This method is repeated with unknown sample and
determines the concentration of Fluoride ion in unknown sample.[60]

3.3.2.7 Determination Of ALKALINITY

Alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity and it is the sum of all the titrable
bases present in the water. The alkalinity of many natural waters is primarily a function of
carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide. Alkalinity is determined from the volume of standard
sulphuric acid (0.02N H2SQOq) required to titrate a portion of water sample to a designated
pH. The end point is determined using colour indicators."> The mixed indicator prepared
from bromocresol green and methyl red indicators is useful. ~” As the sodium salts of these
chemicals are not readily available, isopropyl alcohol is used to prepare the indicator
solution.[59]

(I) Reagents

a) Sulfuric acid (1N): In a 500 mL standard flask 100 mL double distilled water
is taken and 13.9 mL conc. 𝐻2 S𝑂4 is added t lowly and made up to 500 mL
with double distilled water.

b) Sulfuric acid (0.02 N): 20 mL 1 N 𝐻2 S𝑂4 is diluted to 1000 mL with double

distilled water.

c) Bromocresol green indicator: 0.10 g bromocresol green and 0.020 g methyl

red are dissolved in 100 mL isopropyl alcohol.

d) Control standard (sodium carbonate-0.02 N): 3-5 g N𝑎2 C03 is dried 250°C for
4 hours. It is then cooled in a desiccator. 0.530 g dried N𝑎2 C𝑂3 is dissolved and
made up to 500 mL with double distilled water.

(II) Sample Pre-Treatment

The sample should not be filtered, diluted, concentrated or altered.

40
 (III) Procedure

For each batch of samples, the following procedure is followed:

Sample:
(a) known volume (25/50/100 mL say V mL) of the sample is taken. 3-5
drops of bromocresol indicator is added to develop a blue colour. The initial reading in
the burette (𝑇1 , mL) is noted and it is titrated with 0.02N 𝐻2 S𝑂4. The end point is change
of colour to yellow and the final burette reading (𝑇2 > mL) is also noted.

b) Control standard: 20 mL of control-standard is taken and 3-5 drops of bromocresol

indicator is added. It is titrated with 0.02N 𝐻2 S𝑂4for a change of colour to yellow. The
initial and final titre volumes (T3 and 𝑇4 respectively) are noted.[52]

(IV) Calculation

Alkalinity (Total) as CaC𝑂3 mg/L = [(𝑇2 -𝑇1 ) x C.F x (1000 / V)]

Where, Correction factor (C.F) = 20/(𝑇4 -𝑇3 )

3.3.2.8 Determination of Iron

In water samples iron may occur in true solution, in a colloidal state thatBmay be peptized by
organic matter, in inorganic or organic iron complexes, or in relatively coarse suspended
particles. It may be ferrous or ferric, suspended or dissolved. The phenanthroline colorimetric
procedure is suitable for natural or treated water.
(I) REAGENTS

a) Conc. Hydrochloric acid

b) Hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution: 25 ¢ hydroxylamine hydrochloride

is dissolved in 250 mL double distilled water.

c) Ammonium acetate buffer: 250 g ammonium acetate is added to 150 mL

double distilled water. 700 mL glacial acetic acid is added to this.

d) Phenanthroline solution: 500 mg 1,10-PHenonthroline mono hydrate is

dissolved in 500 mL double distilled water. 10 drops of conc. hydrochloric
acid is then added.

e) Stock iron (1 mL = 0.2 mg iron): To 5 mL conc. H»SOy4, 12.5 mL. double

distilled water is added. 0.351 g ferrous ammonium _ sulphate
(Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H20)is dissolved in it. 0.1 N KMn𝑂4 is added drop wise
until a faint pink colour persists. It is diluted to 250 mL.

41
 f) Standard iron (1 mL = 0.01 mg iron): 5 mL stock iron is diluted to 100 mL.

g) 0.IN KMn𝑂4: 316 mg KM𝑛𝑂4 is dissolved in 100 mL double distilled water.

(I) Procedure

The thoroughly mixed water sample is taken. To 50 mL or a portion diluted to 50 mL,

2 mL cone. HCl and 1 mL hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution are added. It is boiled
and the volume is reduced to 15 to 20 mL. After cooling, 10 mL ammonium acetate
buffer and 4 mL phenanthroline solution are added and finally made up to 50 mL. The
O.D at 510 nm is measured after 15 minutes. A blank for ‘0° setting of the meter is also
conducted.
A graph is drawn with known standards of 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 mg/L and slope
is found.
CALCULATION
Iron as Fe mg/L = O.D x Slope x Dilution factor

3.3.2.9 Determination of Sulphate

Sulphate is one of the major dissolved components of rain. High concentrations of sulphate in
the water we drink can have a laxative effect when combined with calcium and magnesium,
the two most common constituents of hardness. Bacteria, which attack and reduce sulphates,
form hydrogen sulphide gas (𝐻2 S).[51]

(I) REAGENTS

a) Buffer solution: 500 mL double distilled water is taken. 30 g magnesium

chloride (MgCl.6𝐻2 0), 5 g sodium acetate (C𝐻3 COON𝑎. 3𝐻2 𝑂), 1.0 g
potassium nitrate (KN𝑂3) and 20 mL acetic acid (C𝐻3 COOH 99%) are
dissolved in it and made up to 1000 mL with double distilled water.

b) Barium chloride: Barium chloride crystals (20-30 mesh).

c) Stock sulphate (1 mL = 1 mg sulphate): 1.479 g anhydrous Na2SO,j is dissolved

and made up to 1000 mL with double distilled water.

d) Standard sulphate (1 mL = 0.1 mg sulphate): 50 mL stock sulphate is diluted to

500 mL with double distilled water.

e) Control standard sulphate (ImL = 0.1 mg sulphate): 0.1479 g anhydrous

N𝑎2 S𝑂4 is dissolved and made up to 1000 mL with double distilled water.

42
 (II) Pre treatment
The sample is filtered.

(III) PROCEDURE

For each batch of samples, the test is conducted by following procedure:

The NEPHELOMETER is set for ‘0’ with turbidity free distilled water and for ‘100°
with 100 NTU standard.

Sample: 50 mL or a portion of sample is diluted to 50 mL (sample volume = V

mL). 10 mL buffer solution and a pinch of BaC𝑙2 are added and stirred for one
minute. The turbidity is measured (using a NEPHELOMETER). The NTU reading (𝑁1 )
is noted.

Control: 10 mL control standard is diluted to 50 mL with double distilled water.

10 mL buffer solution and a pinch of BaCl are added and stirred for one minute.
The turbidity is measured. The NTU reading (𝑁2 ) is noted.

Distilled water blank: 50 mL double distilled water is taken. 10 mL buffer

solution and a pinch of BaCl_2 is added. It is stirred for 1 minute and the NTU
reading (Ndb) is noted.

Sample blank: When the sample is turbid, 50 mL sample is taken and the
turbidity is measured (Nsb)[49]
(IV) Calculation

Sulphate as so, mg/L = [𝑁1 -((Nsb x V)/50) — (Ndb x (30-V))/50)] x Ps x (S0/V)

Where,
Ps = 20/(N2 — ((Npp x 40)/50)

3.3.2.10 DETERMINATION OF POTASSIUM

Potassium is also determined by flame photometry directly or after sample mixing.

(I) Reagent
(a) Stock potassium solution (1000 ppm): 1.9066 gm of KCl (dried at 110OC)
dissolved in 1 litre de-ionized water. (b) Typical potassium solutions: 10 ml of stock
solution diluted to 1.0 litres. One ml of this solution is equivalent to 0.1 mg of
potassium. Typical potassium solutions of 0.0, 5.0, 10.0, 15.0, 20.0, 25.0, 30.0, 35.0
and 40.0 ppm as K is ready to set a normal curve.

(II) Procedure

43
 The flame photometer is set as a recommendation in the metal manual and
measured with standard potassium solutions. A water sample is taken from the cell
and read from a flame photometer and compared to a standard pre-built curve.

3.3.2.11 Temperature Determination

The water temperature is measured with mercury-filled with a Celsius thermometer.
The temperature was measured with a thermometer centred directly on the body of
water after sufficient time to allow for consistent reading.

3.4 DETERMINATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX

An integral part of any environmental monitoring program is the reporting of results to both
Water supply managers and the general public. When a large number of variables are measured
for many sampling periods and for a group of sampling sites the data and the related report
becomes complex and difficult to comprehend. The Managers and the public neither have the
inclination nor the training to study these reports. One possible solution is to reduce the
multivariate nature of water quality data by employing an index that will mathematically
combine all water quality results and their influences and provide a general and readily
understandable description of water quality.

A Water Quality Index provides a convenient means of summarizing complex water quality
data for any sampling site. The analysis can reflect the outcome of test results of multiple
parameters for several sampling periods for the same sampling site. Water Quality Indices for
a group of sampling sites can help.[62]

3.4.1 NSF-Water Quality Index

A commonly-used water quality index (WQI) was developed by the National Sanitation
Foundation (NSF) in 1970 (Brown and others, 1970). The NSF WQI was developed to provide
a standardized method for comparing the water quality of various bodies of water

The WQI calculation is followed by three steps:

1 Step - In the first step, each of the eleven important parameters is given a scale ranging
from 1 to 5 depending on the relative parameter relative to the purpose of drinking. EC,
TH, NO, F are given the maximum weight years because of the relative value to water
quality173. Na, K, and temperatures are given a minimum of 2 as it plays a very
important role in the provision of water quality. The weight of one parameter varied
from 2 to 5 depending on their great importance in determining water quality.

We calculate the corresponding weight of each parameter from the following equation.

44
 𝐾
Wn= ………….(1)
𝑆𝑛
Where
1
K= 1 1 1 1 1 1 ………. (2)
⁄𝑆1 +𝑆 +𝑆 +𝑆 +𝑆 +𝑆 …………1/𝑆𝑛
2 3 4 5 6

Sn = desired value of nth parameter i.e., recommended value Indian standard and who
guidelines

II Step - In the Second Step, a quality rating scale (qi) for all the parameter is calculated by
dividing its concentration in each water sample (Ci) by its respective standard (Si) according
to the drinking water guideline recommended Indian Standard and WHO drinking water
standards. The results are then multiplied by 100 to get appropriate WQI

qi= ( Ci / Si)× 100

where ,
qi = Quality rating
Ci = Concentration of each parameter
Ci= (Vn-Vo)
Vn= mean concertation of nth parameter
Vo = Actual value in pure water
Si= Respective Indian standard value
Si= (Sn-vo)

III Step - The Sub Index (SIi) of water sample is determine for each parameter, by which
WQI determined as per following equation :

SIi = Wi × qi ………… (3)

WQI = Σ SIi …………. (4)

Generally, WQI is discussed for a specific and intended application of water. In this study the
WQI permissible, WQI for the drinking water application of specially when human health
hazards appear is taken as 100 and are connected with the permissible limits WQI for the
drinking water application of specially when human health hazards appear is taken as 100 and
are connected with the permissible limits.[53]

45
 ∑ 𝐖𝐢𝐐𝐢
Overall WQI= ∑ 𝐖𝐢
…………. (5)

Where qi = Quality rating, Wi = Relative weight

Table no. 3.4.1: classification of water quality based on NSF-WQI method:

S.no WQI value Grade Water quality

1 50 and below A Quality of water is
excellent
2 50-100 B Quality of water is
good

3 100 -200 C Quality of water is

poor

4 200- 300 D Quality of water is

very poor

5 300 and above E Quality of water is

unsuitable for
drinking

3.4.2 Calculation of WQI On Ms-Excel:

this an example of how we find out the water quality index of a particular site with the help
of NSF WQI on MS excel
Table of calculation 3.4.2: Calculation of WQI by NSF-WQI

BIS Ideal Mean

Standards Value Concentration Vn/Sn *
Parameters (Sn) Σ1/Sn K=1/(Σ1/Sn) Wi = K/Sn (Vo) Value (Vn) Vn/Sn 100 = Qn WnQn
pH 8.5 4.706313 0.212 0.0249977 7 7.9 0.6 60 1.4998623
EC 300 4.70631 0.212 0.0007082 0 100.33 0.334 33.4433333 0.0236866
TDS 500 4.706313 0.212 0.0004249 0 67.22 0.134 13.444 0.0057136
TH 300 4.706313 0.212 0.0007082 0 40.67 0.13 13.5566667 0.0096019
Calcium 75 4.70631 0.212 0.002833 0 55.61 0.74 74.1466667 0.2106
magnesium 30 4.70631 0.212 0.007082 0 6.48 0.216 21.6 0.1526
Iron 0.3 4.70631 0.212 0.708268 0 0.05 0.16 16.6666667 11.88
Fluoride 1 4.7063 0.212 0.212480 0 0.02 0.02 2 0.42495
Turbidity 5 4.7063 0.212 0.04249 0 1.3 0.26 26 1.1048
Total 15.23624649

46
3.4.2 CCME WQ INDEX
The CCME (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment) Water Quality Index is
based on a formula developed by the British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and
parks and modified by Alberta Environment the CCME Water Quality Index incorporates
three elements: scope — the number of variables not meeting water quality objectives:
frequency — the number of times these objectives are not met; and amplitude — the amount
by which the objectives are not met. These numbers are divided into 5 descriptive categories
to simplify presentation. The specific variables, objectives and time period used in the index
is not specified and could vary from region to region. However, a minimum of four variables
tested for at least four times will be appropriate for calculation of the index values. The
variables and objectives chosen will have to provide relevant information about a particular
site. The index can be used both for tracking changes at one site over time, and for
comparisons among sites. If the variables and objectives vary from site to site then the index
will not be useful for

I STEP: Calculation of the scope value (𝐹1 ) :

𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝐹1 = 𝑋 100 ………. (1)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

II STEP: Calculation of Amplitude Value (𝐹2 ):

𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝐹2 = X 100 ………… (2)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

III STEP: Calculating the Amplitude Value (𝐹3 ):

3.1 WHEN THE TEST VALUE MUST NOT EXCEED THE OBJECTIVE
𝐹𝐴𝐼𝐿𝐸𝐷 𝑇𝐸𝑆𝑇 𝑉𝐴𝐿𝑈𝐸
EXCRUSION = -1
𝑂𝐵𝐽𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸

3.2 WHEN THE TEST VALUE MUST FALL BELOW OBJECTIVE

𝑂𝐵𝐽𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸
EXCRUSION = 𝐹𝐴𝐼𝐿𝐸𝐷 𝑇𝐸𝑆𝑇 𝑉𝐴𝐿𝑈𝐸 − 1

47
NORMALIZE SUM EXCRUSION (nse)

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
nse =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

𝑛𝑠𝑒
Amplitude value (F3) =
0.01𝑛𝑠𝑒+0.01

Overall calculation:
√𝐹1+𝐹2+𝐹3
CCME WQI= 100 - { }
1.732

According to ccme-wqi:
Variables = parameters
Objective = standard limit
No of fail variables = no of parameters exceeding limit
Total no of test = total number of parameter study
Total no of test = say 12 parameters studied at 2 sample for each then = 24

Table 3.4.2: Table the water quality rank according to CCME- WQI:
SR NO. INDEX VALUE RAKING DESCRIPTION
1 95-100 EXCELLENT
2 80-94 GOOD
3 65-79 FAIR
4 45-64 MARGINAL
5 0-44 POOR

48
 Table 3.4.3: Marking of Parameter Which Fail Test

TOTAL TOTAL
Prarameters PH EC Turbidity ALKANITY HARDNESS CA MG S𝑂2 CL BOD
BIS
Standards 8.50 300.00 5.00 200.00 300.00 75.00 30.00 200.00 250.00 5.00
Winter 7.80 623.33 16.48 138.33 482.00 146.06 28.52 2579.0 17.55 2.82
Pre
Monsoon 7.30 357.33 45.73 123.00 238.00 88.03 4.42 1771.9 18.57 1.40
STATION Post
1 Monsoon 7.90 577.00 6.05 132.00 374.00 122.23 16.73 2602.3 13.38 1.94

Table 3.4.4: Table of Value of F1 And F2:

f1 50.00
f2 46.67

Table 3.4.5: Table Defining Different Values of Parameters

NO OF FAILED X 5.00
VARIABLE
(parameters)
TOTAL NO. OF
Y 10.00
VARIABLES
(PARAMETERS
STUDIES)
TOTAL NO. OF
TEST Z 30.00

TOTAL NO OF
E 14.00
TEST (ALL
EXCEEDING
PARAMETERS
EXCEDING)
STEP 1

49
 EXCURSION
STEP 2 CALCULATION OF AMPLITUDE VALUE:

Table 3.4.4: Calculation of Excrusion

nse value 0.01*nse 0.01*nse+0.01 F3

1.57 0.02 0.03 61.09

STEP 3: CALCULATION OF CCME -WQI

Table 3.4.5: Overall Calculation of CCME-WQI

COMPONENT OF WQI value square value

F1 50.00 2500.00
F2 46.67 2177.72
F3 61.25 3751.20
sum 8428.91
square root value 91.81
divide by 1.732 53.01

CCME FOR STATION= 100-53.01

CCME FOR STATION 1 = 46.99

50
 Table 3.4.6: Calculation of Excrusion Value
FAIL TEST
VALUE A 623 357 577 6 16.48 45 482 374 146 88 122 2579 1771 2602
OBJECTIVE B 300 300 300 5 5.00 5 300 300. 75 75 75 200 200 200
A/B 2 1.19 1.92 1 3.30 9 1.61 1.25 1 1.1 1 12 8.86 13
C=
A/B
Value
C= Minus
Excursion 1 1.08 0.19 0.92 0.21 2.30 8.15 0.61 0.25 0.9 0.1 0.6 11.90 7.86 12 47.22

3.4.3 NEMEROW’S POLLUTION INDEX (NPI) OR ROW POLLUTION INDEX:

The Nemerow pollution index (NPI) denote to the pollution computing, which developed by
(Nemerow and Sumitomo, 1971). The NPI is given as one of the simplified pollution index
and it can be determined by the following equation. it is the simplest method to accessing the
water quality of water

𝐶𝑛
NPI = Cn= concentration of nth parameter
𝑆𝑛

Sn= concentration of parameter as per BIS standard

(I) Case if npi value > or =1

• It indicates its presence in surplus amount or concentration

• The particular parameter has potential to contributing pollution which is being
studies

(II) Case 2 npi < = 1

• It indicates its presence in necessary amount or concentration

• The particular parameter has not any potential to contributing pollution which
is being studies on calculating how much parameters exceed the npi>1 we can
Access to the water quality of that area

51
 Table 3.4.6: Water quality of different site
BIS
PARAMETERS STANDARD STATION1 STATION2 STATION 3
Ph 8.5 8.3 7.7 71.8
TA(mg/l) 300 290.67 305.33 623.33
EC(µs/cm) 200 161 173.33 138.33
ta(mg/l) 300 179.93 282 482
ca(mg/l) 75 58.03 61.68 146.06
mg(mg/l) 30 8.37 31.12 28.52
sulphate 200 241.67 201.43 2579

𝐶𝑛
NPI = Cn= concentration of nth parameter
𝑆𝑛

Sn= concentration of parameter as per BIS standard

Table 3.4.7: NPI value of different site

BIS
PARAMETERS STANDARD STATION1 STATION2 STATION 3
Ph 8.5 0.976471 1.103896 8.44705882
TA(mg/l) 300 0.9689 0.982543 2.07776667
EC(µs/cm) 200 0.805 1.153868 0.69165
ta(mg/l) 300 0.599767 1.06383 1.60666667
ca(mg/l) 75 0.773733 1.215953 1.94746667
mg(mg/l) 30 0.279 0.96401 0.95066667
sulphate 200 1.20835 0.992901 12.895

Here red boxes denotes the case when npi>1

From here we can see that 4 out of 7 parameters have npi greater than 1 for station 2 and 3
thus we can conclude that they are polluted
As 1 out of 7 parameters have npi greater than one thus we can conclude that station 1 is
likely to be polluted.[63]

52
 4.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Geographical Location of Sample Collection Point

Kullu district is one among the Himalayan regions facing acute shortage of water in the state
of Himachal Pradesh of India, as the traditional water sources are either on the verge of
extinction or have dried up before knowing about the results, we should now about the study
area the samples are basically collected from bias basin in between the region Manali to
Sundernagar in Kullu there are the mainly seven station are selected on which water quality
index were going to calculated.

𝑺𝟏 = KANCHIKOOT
(MANALI) 𝑺𝟑 = SAMSHI
DHA

Fig: 4.1 Sampling Point in Kullu District

S2=DHALPUR

53
 The other few sampling points of mandi region were shown below in map as all these 7
points which were selected is somewhere near to NH 21, all these points are near to Suketi
Khad which is one of the minor tributary of bias .

S6=Bagla

S4= LUNAPANI

S5= NALASAR

S7= JAWAHAR PARK

SUNDERNAGER Fig.4.2: Sampling Point in Mandi Area

54
TABLE:4.1.1 LEGEND AND LOCATION
SERIAL NO STATION NO LOCATION
1 S1 KANCHIKOOT (MANALI)
2 S2 DHALPUR
3 S3 SAMSI
4 S4 LUNAPANI
5 S5 NALSAR
6 S6 BAGLA
7 S7 JAWAHAR PARK
SUNDERNAGAR

4.2 RESULT ON THE BASIS OF NSF-WQI

Water which is used for drinking purpose should be free from toxic elements, living, non-
living organisms and excessive amount of minerals because they may be harmful to human
health. Good water quality produces healthier humans as compare to poor water quality.
Water should be purified for a better life style because so many chemicals are involved in it.
Water which is used for drinking purpose should be free from toxic elements, living, non-
living organisms and excessive amount of minerals because they may be harmful to human
health. Good water quality produces healthier humans as compare to poor water quality.
Water should be purified for a better life style because so many chemicals are involved in it.
TABLE 4.2.1 VALUE OF WATER QUALITY INDEX BY NSF METHOD IN
MONTH PRE- MONSOON POST WINTER
MONSOO MONSOON
N
STATION NO JUNE JULY AUGEST SEPTEMBE REST OF
R MONTHS
S1= 107.4026 12.81585 12.81585 15.928
KANCHIKOOT

S2= DHALPUR 10.48351 12.10968 11.66214 8.374241 9.306264

S3= SAMSHI 12.09458 10.9079197 8.72876521 8.28579856 10.520549

S4=LUNAPANI 11.8521082 31.0314556 12.0802891 N/A 11.1449915

7 5 4 3

S5= NALSAR 11.22518 18.19595 9.2005 9.461547 9.372036

S6= BAGLA 12.10991 13.96752 N/A 11.73678 8.824434

S7= / PARK N/A 11.64043 10.82074 15.49959 15.77339

SUNDERNAGA
R
N/A= VALUES FOR WHICH DATA IS NOT AVIALABLE

55
 120

100

80

60

40

20

0
kanchikoot DHALPUR SAMSHI LUNAPANI NASLSAR BAGLA J/W park
sundenagar

pre-monsoon monsoon post monsoon winter

4.2.1 Bar Graph of NSF-WQI In Station in Different Season

Table 4.2.2: STATUS OF WATER FROM WATER QUALITY INDEX

S.no WQI value Water quality

1 50 and below Quality of water is excellent

2 50-100 Quality of water is good

3 100 -200 Quality of water is poor

4 200- 300 Quality of water is very poor

5 300 and above Quality of water is unsuitable for

drinking

56
4.3 RESULT ON THE BASIS OF CCME-WQI:
WHLIE CALCULATING CCME VALUES WE DONOT CALCUATE IT FOR SINGLE
MONTH INSTEAD OF THAT WE USE TO CALCUTE the value of CCME over different
season. this is because of the fact that if we calculate ccme for a single month it doesn’t give
us a true value so thus we use to calculate it over a month of period.
TABLE 4.2.: CCME VALUES IN STUDY AREA

STATION NO STATION NAME CCME-WQI

VALUE
S1 KANCHIKOOT 89.20

S2 DHALPUR 93.46

S3 SAMSHI 87.04

S4 LUNAPANI 90.28

S5 NALSAR 90.26

S6 BAGLA 93.41

S7 PARK 72.86
SUNDERNAGAR

CCME-WQI VALUE
CCME-WQI VALUE

100
90
80 89.2 93.46 90.28 90.26 93.41
87.04
70
60 72.86
50
40
30
20
10
0

Fig 4.3.1: Graph Between CCME Value and Station

57
Table 4.3.2: CLASSIFAICATION OF WATER ON BASIS OF CCME-WQI:
SR.NO WQI-VALUE RATING OF WATER QUALITY

1 95-100 EXCELLENT WATER QUALITY

2 80-94 GOOD WATER QUALITY

3 60-79 FAIR WATER QUALITY

4 45-59 MARGINAL WATER QUALITY

5 0-44 POOR WATER QUALITY

From here we can see that:

• The quality of water is good at most of the station
• Dhalpur has highest value of ccme-wqi whereas Sundernagar has lowest
• The water quality is fair at Jawahar Park Sundernagar
• Most of the values are in the range of 80-90 thus we can say that overall water quality
of the area is good.

58
 4.4 RESULT ON THE BASIS OF ROWS POLLUTION INDEX:
This method doesn’t give us any direct value but it tells us about the effect of parameters
individually it tells us about which parameters effect the quality of water most.

Table 4.4.1: VALUE OF ROW’S POLLUTION INDEX FOR KANCHIKOOT

ROW'S POLLUTION INDEX
FOR KANCHIKOOT (S1)

BIS PRE-
SEASON STANDARD MONSOON MONSOON Post Monsoon WINTER
TURBIDITY (NTU) 5 25.34 2.08 1.52 4.56
PH 8.5 0.777647059 0.788235294 0.8 0.814118
EC (µs) 300 0.237 0.189 2.3 0.5
TDS (PPM) 500 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.18
TSS (ppm) 150 0.00 0.000133333 0 0.000133
DO (PPM) 10 0.638 0.615 0.62 0.624
TEMP (°C) 25 0.992 1.104 1.088 0.496
TOTAL
ALKLANITY (mg/l) 200 0.24 0.22 0.32 0.4
CALCIUM
HARDNESS (mg/l) 200 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.26
TOTAL HARDNESS
(mg/l) 200 0.16 0.22 0.16 0.4
MG (mg/l) 30 0.032533333 0.162666667 0.065066667 0.244
CALCIUM (mg/l) 75 0.149333333 0.128 0.128 0.277333
SODIUM (mg/l) 20 0.43 0.12 0.41 0.24
POTASSIUM (mg/l) 300 0.005333333 0.003666667 0.009333333 0.007
SULPHATE (mg/l) 200 0.0144 0.0141 0.0141 0.02675
CHLORIDE (mg/l) 250 0.12496 0.07952 0.06816 0.09088
IRON (mg/l) 0.3 0 0 0 0
FLOURIDE (ppm) 1 0 0 0 0

• In turbidity the value of npi>1 in all of the case it is the major parameter which
causing the pollution in water the concentration of turbidity is more than required in
all the season
• Temp is the second parameter which is more than its standard value which is not
desirable it exceeding the standard limit during monsoon and post monsoon
• In post monsoon the value of electric conductance is more than required
Order of polluting parameters:
Turbidity>temp>electrical conductance

59
Table 4.4.2: VALUE OF ROW’S POLLUTION INDEX FOR DHALPUR(S2)
ROW'S POLLUTION INDEX
DHALPUR

BIS PRE- Post

SEASON STANDARD MONSOON MONSOON Monsoon WINTER
TURBIDITY (NTU) 5 1.34 1.78 0.88 1.12
PH 8.5 0.830588 0.835294 0.749412 0.76
EC (µs) 300 0.415333 0.387167 0.014067 0.514
TDS (PPM) 500 0.12 0.14 0.56 0.2
tss (ppm) 150 0.00 0.0001 0.0002 0.000133
DO (PPM) 10 0.648 0.615 0.63 0.613
TEMP (°C) 25 0.992 1.114 1.088 1.032
TOTAL ALKLANITY
(mg/l) 200 0.38 0.4 0.98 0.4
CALCIUM
HARDNESS (mg/l) 200 0.24 0.16 0.38 0.22
TOTAL HARDNESS
(mg/l) 200 0.44 0.21 0.54 0.34
MG (mg/l) 30 0.325333 0.081333 0.260267 0.1952
CALCIUM (mg/l) 75 0.256 0.170667 0.405333 0.234667
SODIUM (mg/l) 20 0.495 0.29 0.335 0.51
POTASSIUM (mg/l) 300 0.005667 0.007167 0.009 0.017667
SULPHATE (mg/l) 200 0.01085 0.00735 0.02205 0.0122
CHLORIDE (mg/l) 250 0.07952 0.07952 0.06816 0.08908
Iron (mg/l) 0.3 0 0 0 0
FLOURIDE (ppm) 1 0 0 0 0

• In turbidity the value of npi>1 in all of the case it is the major parameter which
causing the pollution in water the concentration of turbidity is more than required in
all the season
• Temp is the second parameter which is more than its standard value which is not
desirable it exceeding the standard limit during monsoon and post monsoon
• In post monsoon the value of electric conductance is more than required
Order of polluting parameters:
Turbidity>temp>electrical conductance

60
Table 4.4.3: ROW’S POLLUTION INDEX FOR SHAMSI

ROW'S POLLUTION INDEX for SHAMSHI

BIS PRE- Post

SEASON STANDARD MONSOON MONSOON Monsoon WINTER
TURBIDITY (NTU) 5 1.46 1.25 0.8 1.24
PH 8.5 0.731765 0.786471 0.747059 1.123529
EC (µs) 300 1.713333 1.373333 1.45 0.555667
TDS (PPM) 500 0.58 0.58 0.72 0.18
tss (ppm) 150 0.00 0.000133 0.000133 0.00
DO (PPM) 10 0.662 0.617 0.642 0.63
TEMP (°C) 25 0.992 1.114 1.088 1.032
TOTAL
ALKLANITY (mg/l) 200 1.32 1.22 1.34 0.72
CALCIUM
HARDNESS (mg/l) 200 0.72 0.216 0.48 0.24
TOTAL HARDNESS
(mg/l) 200 1.06 0.34 0.55 0.3
MG (mg/l) 30 0.566 0.163533 0.113867 0.0764
CALCIUM (mg/l) 75 0.768 0.256 0.512 0.256
SODIUM (mg/l) 20 1.185 0.21 0.46 0.38
POTASSIUM (mg/l) 300 0.029667 0.005167 0.006 0.008
SULPHATE (mg/l) 200 0.0381 0.019625 0.0364 0.0136
CHLORIDE (mg/l) 250 0.2272 0.21584 0.17048 0.07952
Iron (mg/l) 0.3 0 0 0 0
FLOURIDE (ppm) 1 0 0 0 0

• In turbidity and electrical conductance, the value of npi>1 in most of the case they are
the major parameters which causing the pollution in water
• Total hardness and alkalinity have also surplus presence in water and it has potential
to cause pollution
• Temp is the second parameter which is more than its standard value which is not
desirable it exceeding the standard limit during monsoon and post monsoon
• In post monsoon the value of electric conductance is more than required

Order of polluting parameters:

Electrical conductance >turbidity>total alkalinity>total hardness>sodium

61
Table 4.4.4: ROW’S POLLUTION INDEX FOR LUNA PANI
ROW’S POLLUTION INDEX
LUNA PANI

BIS PRE- Post

SEASON STANDARD MONSOON MONSOON Monsoon WINTER
TURBIDITY (NTU) 5 1.52 4.13 N/A 1.44
PH 8.5 0.877647 0.759412 N/A 0.84
EC (µs) 300 0.568 0.815 N/A 0.933333
TDS (PPM) 500 0.14 0.33 N/A 0.26
tss (ppm) 150 0.00 0.0001 N/A 0.00
DO (PPM) 10 0.622 0.625 N/A 0.614
TEMP (°C) 25 1.156 1.134 N/A 1.04
TOTAL ALKLANITY
(mg/l) 200 1.1 0.6 N/A 1.52
CALCIUM
HARDNESS (mg/l) 200 0.44 0.15 N/A 0.26
TOTAL HARDNESS
(mg/l) 200 0.84 0.22 N/A 0.68
MG (mg/l) 30 0.650667 0.113867 N/A 0.6832
CALCIUM (mg/l) 75 0.469333 0.16 N/A 0.277333
SODIUM (mg/l) 20 0.515 0.4775 N/A 0.325
POTASSIUM (mg/l) 300 0.012 0.013167 N/A 0.005333
SULPHATE (mg/l) 200 0.0168 0.01885 N/A 0.01445
CHLORIDE (mg/l) 250 0.09088 0.1704 N/A 0.13632
Iron (mg/l) 0.3 0 0 N/A 0
FLOURIDE (ppm) 1 0 0 N/A 0

N\A= DATA IS NOT AVIALABLE FOR PARTICLUAR VALUE

• In turbidity the value of npi>1 in all of the case it is the major parameter which
causing the pollution in water the concentration of turbidity is more than required in
all the season
• Temp is the second parameter which is more than its standard value which is not
desirable it exceeding the standard limit during monsoon, winter and post monsoon
• In Pre monsoon and winter the value of total alkalinity is more than required

Order of polluting parameters:

Turbidity>temp>Total alkalinity

62
Table 4.4.5: ROW’S POLLUTION INDEX FOR NALSAR
ROW'S POLLUTION INDEX
NALSAR (S5)

BIS PRE- Post

SEASON STANDARD MONSOON MONSOON Monsoon WINTER
TURBIDITY (NTU) 5 1.44 2.1 1.16 1.12
PH 8.5 0.757647 0.760588 0.705882 0.847059
EC (µs) 300 0.733333 0.975 0.89 0.946667
TDS (PPM) 500 0.22 0.39 0.36 0.36
tss (ppm) 150 0.00 0.0001 0.000133 0.00
DO (PPM) 10 0.636 0.6295 0.628 0.618
TEMP (°C) 25 1.156 1.134 1.084 0.592
TOTAL ALKLANITY
(mg/l) 200 0.1445 0.1445 0.9 0.58
CALCIUM HARDNESS
(mg/l) 200 0.14175 0.14175 0.28 0.38
TOTAL HARDNESS
(mg/l) 200 0.1355 0.1355 0.4 0.58
MG (mg/l) 30 0.910933 0.569333 0.1952 0.324667
CALCIUM (mg/l) 75 0.277333 0.202667 0.298667 0.405333
SODIUM (mg/l) 20 0.335 0.42 0.44 0.49
POTASSIUM (mg/l) 300 0.005667 0.010667 0.012 0.004667
SULPHATE (mg/l) 200 0.0197 0.03435 0.0331 0.0157
CHLORIDE (mg/l) 250 0.06816 0.18744 0.1704 0.0568
Iron (mg/l) 0.3 0 0 0 0
FLOURIDE (ppm) 1 0 0 0 0

• In turbidity the value of npi>1 in all of the case it is the major parameter which
causing the pollution in water the concentration of turbidity is more than required in
all the season
• Temp is the second parameter which is more than its standard value which is not
desirable it exceeding the standard limit during all seasons

Order of polluting parameters:

Turbidity>temp

63
Table 4.4.6: ROW’S POLLUTION INDEX FOR BAGLA:

ROW'S POLLUTION INDEX

BAGLA (S6)

BIS PRE- Post

SEASON STANDARD MONSOON MONSOON Monsoon WINTER
TURBIDITY (NTU) 5 1.78 2.16 1.64 0.82
PH 8.5 0.776471 0.822353 0.805882 0.402941
EC (µs) 300 0.560667 0.6 0.943333 0.471667
TDS (PPM) 500 0.16 0.24 0.38 0.19
tss (ppm) 150 0.00 0.00 0.000133 0.00
DO (PPM) 10 0.615 0.603 0.615 0.3075
TEMP (°C) 25 1.156 1.1 1.084 0.542
TOTAL ALKLANITY
(mg/l) 200 0.8 1 1.04 0.52
CALCIUM HARDNESS
(mg/l) 200 0.34 0.26 0.14 0.07
TOTAL HARDNESS (mg/l) 200 0.58 0.6 0.5 0.25
MG (mg/l) 30 0.032533 0.553067 0.5856 0.2928
CALCIUM (mg/l) 75 0.362667 0.277333 0.149333 0.074667
SODIUM (mg/l) 20 0.485 0.41 0.33 0.165
POTASSIUM (mg/l) 300 0.008 0.004667 0.005333 0.002667
SULPHATE (mg/l) 200 0.0246 0.03095 0.0166 0.0083
CHLORIDE (mg/l) 250 0.1136 0.13632 0.04544 0.02272
Iron (mg/l) 0.3 0 0 0 0
FLOURIDE (ppm) 1 0 0 0 0

• In turbidity the value of npi>1 in all of the case it is the major parameter which
causing the pollution in water the concentration of turbidity is more than required in
all the season
• Temp is the second parameter which is more than its standard value which is not
desirable it exceeding the standard limit during monsoon, winter and post monsoon
• In Pre monsoon and winter the value of total alkalinity is more than required

Order of polluting parameters:

Turbidity>temp>Total alkalinity

64
Table 4.4.7: ROW’S POLLUTION INDEX FOR JAWAHAR PARK SUNDERNAGAR

ROW'S POLLUTION INDEX J/W PARK

BIS PRE- Post

SEASON STANDARD MONSOON MONSOON Monsoon WINTER
TURBIDITY (NTU) 5 1.34 1.44 2.56 2.58
PH 8.5 0.795294 0.770588 0.798824 0.803529
EC (µs) 300 1.473333 0.833333 1.423333 1.356667
TDS (PPM) 500 0.7 0.32 0.38 0.58
tss (ppm) 150 0.00 0.00 0.000267 0.00
DO (PPM) 10 0.633 0.618 0.618 0.614
TEMP (°C) 25 1.168 1.1 1.084 0.96
TOTAL ALKLANITY
(mg/l) 200 1.7 0.72 1.4 1.7
CALCIUM
HARDNESS (mg/l) 200 0.7 0.24 0.48 1.16
TOTAL HARDNESS
(mg/l) 200 1.48 0.48 0.6 1.26
MG (mg/l) 30 1.236267 0.3904 0.198533 0.162667
CALCIUM (mg/l) 75 0.746667 0.256 0.512 1.237333
SODIUM (mg/l) 20 0.48 0.42 0.4 0.36
POTASSIUM (mg/l) 300 0.010667 0.004 0.009 0.005333
SULPHATE (mg/l) 200 0.0416 0.0331 0.0466 0.01965
CHLORIDE (mg/l) 250 0.20448 0.1136 0.2272 0.12496
Iron (mg/l) 0.3 0 0 0 0
FLOURIDE (ppm) 1 0 0 0 0

• Turbidity In turbidity the value of npi>1 in all of the case it is the major parameter
which causing the pollution in water the concentration of turbidity is more than
required in all the season
• Electrical conductance the value of npi>1 in most of the case they are the major
parameters which causing the pollution in water
• The temp has npi value greater than 1 for all season rather than winter
• Total alkalinity is major polluting constituent for all season
• Concentration Calcium hardness has increased in winter
• Total hardness has npi value greater than 1 for winter

65
4.5 DISCUSSION:
The ground water is at suitable for drinking in the month of June. whereas in other station
water quality is in between range of 8-15 which shows that in this region the effect of
pollution is minimal on water
Vinay Nannapanel el at (2019) Determining the quality of groundwater by WQI, nine
samples collected from various Kaahumanu Mandal regions. Laboratory tests are performed
with samples collected from various Kaahumanu districts. Samples are analysed to calculate
their parameters for the quality of groundwater. pH, solid soluble foods, total solids, turbidity,
chloride, nitrate, sulphate, iron, potassium, and magnesium by different parameters analysed
by each level where the value of WQI index is 27.7022 in that region whereas in our case it
varies mainly from 8-15 thus we can say that groundwater in Kullu-Mandi region is quite
better than groundwater at Kummau Mandal Arunachal Pradesh. we can also say that the
water of Kamau Mandal is more polluted as compared to water at Himanchal Pradesh

Sharma, Sonika el at (2014) had Determining the quality of groundwater by wqi by

collecting samples from Jaipur and its agglomerate they had to find out the water content
ranges from 241-105 they had to find out the effect on pollution is very large in this region.
The value of water had high TDS concentration which is linked with the presence of
magnesium and calcium in high concentration make it unsuitable from drinking wherein our
study area all of these parameters are in a negligible amount
UMESHWARI K (2020) has found out that the water has a high wqi value due to the
presence of fluoride. The groundwater presents their percolates from mg rich aquifers which
make them also to have high concentrations of mg but in the case of our study area these
parameters are present in a negligible amount

Chandrika D (2015) in Vellour district the quality of groundwater has the poor influence of
tanneries in marked this water has high concentration of mg and has turbidity greater than
600 for some cases fluoride is emerging problem their areas most of sample have wqi less
than 60 but in our study area wqi is in between good range of water.

AL- JANABI EL AT (2012) Tigris River Water Quality Assessment using the Water
Quality Index (CCME WQI) the use of the Canadian Council of Ministers for the
Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) at 3 stations along the Tigris River in
Baghdad, Iraq. Field work was carried out on time from February to December 2010. CCME
WQI was implemented using eleven water quality parameters (pH value, Total Dissolve
Solids, Calcium, Total Alkalinity, Ammonia, Nitrate, Nitrite, Turbidity, Lead Chromium,
Iron). According to the results obtained from the index, the water quality of the Tigris River
was between 37-42 indicating that the river is very poor due to various sources of urban
pollution but in our case of river bank the water quality is in range 80-90 thus we can say that
the river is not subject to any kind of pollution

66
Salman el. (2015) in the test of quality of water Hilla drinking water purpose by the use of
the Canadian Water Quality Index. (CCME WQI) was used using six set and the standard
parameter of the river Al-Hilla, pH-electric, total strength, Ca, Mg, Cl). Environmental and
chemical boundaries along the Euphrates River were monitored monthly during the study to
calculate the WQI to assess the suitability of drinking water and human consumption in the
WQI winter, spring, summer and autumn calculations from August, 2013 to August, 2014,
according to the results found in the index, the water quality of the River was between 60-65
indicating that the river is low due to the impact of Al-Hilla on various urban polluting
resources indicating that the river is very poor due to various sources of urban pollution but in
our case of river bank the the water quality is in range 80-90 thus we can say that the river is
not subject to any kind of pollution
Swati s and Umesh s (2015) Nemerow’s pollution index for ground water quality
assessment, journal of environmental sciences and pollution research. The present study was
intended to assess the ground water quality for drinking purpose and to determine principal
pollutants of ground water through Nemerow’s Pollution Index (NPI) in Bassi Tehsil of
district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India or this ground water samples from 71 sampling sites of 50
villages of study area were collected from tube wells and hand pumps of varying depths in
pre and post monsoon seasons and analysed for ten physio-chemical parameters namely pH,
total alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, nitrate, fluoride, total dissolved
solid and electrical conductivity. According to NPI values the observed principal pollutants
(pollution causing parameters) in the present study are total alkalinity, chloride, fluoride,
nitrate, total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity in both pre- and post-monsoon
seasons. But in our study area turbidity and temp is the major deviator.

67
 5. SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE
After studying various water quality indicators, it can be assumed that the purpose of WQI is
to provide a single value to the water quality of the source and to reduce the maximum number
of parameters into a simple statement leading to a simplified interpretation of water quality
monitoring data. In addition, this is an attempt to review key indicators used in water risk
assessment and provides information on the construction of indices and statistical forms. These
indices use a wide range of physio-chemical and biological parameters and have been the result
as a result of the efforts and research and development made by various government agencies
and experts in the area around the world. Apart from all the various discussed efforts and
indicators used around the world, no indicator has so far been universally accepted and the
most effective and effective water quality indicator is being sought, so that water bodies, users
and water managers in various countries can use it and accept it with minimal modification.
Comparisons of all these water quality indicators are made and under study the pros and cons
are considered.
In this project we had a smaller number of site so we use to compare the results of at those
methods in 4 seasons i.e., pre-monsoon, monsoon post monsoon and winter
The value of single season is non reliable so here we choose to find quality of water by more
than one method
5.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
The economic burden from ‘unsafe’ drinking water remains enormous and in India nearly 73
million working days and approximately 2,400 crores are lost every year due to illness.
Changes in physicochemical parameters are direct or indirect indices for the quality of water.
A proper analysis and correlation of these actors enable characterization of the degree of water
pollution. The water quality variables chosen for the present study have their own significance
and are discussed below:
5.1.1 TURBIDITY
Turbidity in water is caused by the presence of suspended matter and is a measure of the water’s
ability to scatter and absorb light. The suspended matter can be of various sizes from colloidal
dispersions to large particles and vary in size between 1nm and 1mm. The majority of
suspended solids are inorganic in nature but sometimes organic substances become the main
constituents, for example, paper mill waste. The accumulation of large numbers of
microorganisms also produces turbidity. Turbidity accelerates the process of eutrophication
which causes water reduced oxygen levels and increased carbon dioxide levels with eventual
fish die-off if left untreated. The consumption of highly turbid water may constitute a health
risk, because excessive turbidity can protect pathogenic microorganisms from the effects of
disinfectants, stimulate the growth of bacteria in distribution systems and increase the chlorine
demand. Turbidity in excess of 10 NTU will be objectionable. However, for ensuring efficient
disinfection particularly in regard to viruses, the turbidity should be less than 1 NTU.

68
5.1.2 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
Total dissolved solids are found in groundwater due to natural dissolution of rocks and
minerals. It determines the suitability of water for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use.
Dissolved solids in irrigation water may adversely affect plants directly by the development of
high osmotic conditions in the soil solution and by the presence of phytotoxins. Maintenance
of a usable groundwater basin requires that the salinity of the groundwater not increases with
time to a point where it destroys the value of the resource. A dynamic balance of total salts
entering and leaving a basin is desired, so that on a long-term basis
» (CQ), =90
Where (CQ), is the salt concentration times the discharge of one of n flow components to or
from the basin.
In practice, this condition seldom exists because most uses of water add dissolved solids to
water, which is subsequently recharged to groundwater. All groundwater contains salts in
solution that are derived from the location and past movement of the water. Reported salt
contents range from less than 25 mg/L in a quartzite spring to more than 3,00,000 mg/L in
brines. Total dissolved solids (TDS) are the term used to describe the inorganic salts and small
amounts of organic matter present in solution in water.
The principal constituents are usually calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium cations and
hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate), chloride, sulphate and nitrate anions. TDS has no direct
effect on health with taste being the main problem. The acceptability of a TDS level depends
on whether the local population has got accustomed to the proposed DS (dissolved solids) level.
In arid regions, many communities have been putting up with TDS even in excess of 2,000 mg/
The amount of total dissolved solids is a good indicator to assess the overall quality of any
water Dissolved solids cause foaming in steam boilers. High TDS imparts undesirable taste to
water and causes gastro intestinal irritations. It also causes corrosion or incrustation in pipelines
5.1.3 pH
The pH is an important environmental property of many liquids including natural and
wastewater. Water pH affects a number of aspects of aquatic ecosystems including growth rates
and reproduction. If the pH becomes sufficiently high or low in a river then the entire aquatic
environment may be threatened. Water pH can be affected by natural phenomena such as
drainage from limestone areas, which will increase it or drainage from peat swamps, which
will decrease it. However, the greatest impacts on pH are caused by discharges of acidic or
basic industrial wastes; run-off from rock quarries, mine areas and tailings dumps; and drainage
of areas of acid sulphate soils. River waters are usually more alkaline because of the presence
of carbonate and bicarbonates. The drainage waters from forests and marshes are usually acidic
because of the presence of humid and fulvic acids. The pH of surface waters depends to a
certain extent on the atmospheric precipitation. Pure rain water has pH-5.65, because of the
presence of carbonic acid which is formed from the reaction of HO with CO>. At high pH
levels the water has a bitter taste. High pH water neutralizes the pH of stomach fluid and
digestion is affected. Consuming of low pH water affects the mucous membrane. In waters too

69
acidic or too alkaline, these 45 very limited aquatic lives. The waters of such lakes are clear
and clean but with few traces of living organisms. The acid waters are especially detrimental
to the water supply system, for example, low pH accelerates the corrosion of metals. The pH
value has a bearing on many characteristics of water such as treatability with chemical
coagulants, corrosivity of water, disinfection efficiency, water purification processes and
wastewater treatment. The permissible range of pH in water is fixed from these various
considerations
5.1.4 ALKALINITY
The alkalinity of a water sample refers to its capacity to neutralize acid. Alkalinity is caused
principally by the presence in water of the bases HCO− −
3 , C𝑜 OH but also smaller concentrations
of silicates, borates, ammonia, phosphates and organic bases. Alkalinity is not a pollutant. It is
a measure of the sum total of all the substances in water, which have “acid-combining” ability.
Bodies of water with lower alkalinity levels are more susceptible to fluctuations in pH,
threatening aquatic plants and animals. Alkalinity as CaCo3 in water is a measure of the acid-
buffering capacity of a water. Water with excessive alkalinity may have a distinct unpleasant
taste and irrigation water with excessive alkalinity may increase the pH of the soil solution,
leach organic material, decrease permeability of the soil and impair plant growth. When rice is
cooked with alkaline water, it becomes yellowish
5.1.5 HARDNESS
The hardness in water is derived from the dissolution of carbon dioxide, released by bacterial
action in the soil and in percolating rainwater. Low pH conditions develop and lead to the
dissolution of insoluble carbonates in the soil and in limestone formations to convert them into
soluble bicarbonates. Impurities in limestone, such as sulphates, chlorides, and silicates,
become exposed to the solvent action of water as the carbonates are dissolved so that they also
pass into solution. Hard water tends to originate in areas where thick topsoil overlies limestone
formations. Calcium and magnesium combine with bicarbonate, carbonate, sulphate and silica
to form heat-retarding, pipe clogging scale in boilers and in other heat-exchange equipment.
Calcium and magnesium combine with ions of fatty acid in soaps to form soapsuds, the more
calcium and magnesium, the more soap required to form suds. A high concentration of
magnesium has a laxative effect especially on new users of the supply. For natural water, the
hardness is mainly contributed by calcium and magnesium. Calcium is derived from
amphiboles, feldspars, gypsum, pyroxenes, aragonite, calcite, dolomite and the clay minerals.
Magnesium is derived from amphiboles, olivine, pyroxenes, dolomite, magnesite and the clay
minerals.
5.1.6 IRON
Iron is truly ubiquitous in living systems. Its versatility is unique. It is at the active centre of
molecules responsible for oxygen transport and electron transport and it is found in or with,
such diverse metalloenzymes as nitrogenase, various oxidases, hydrogenases, reductases,
dehydrogenases, deoxygenises and dehydrases. Not only is iron involved in an enormous range
of functions, it also is found in the whole gamut of life forms from bacteria to man. Iron is
extremely abundant in the earth’s crust and it has two readily inter converted oxidation
70
states. Aeration of iron containing layers in the soil can affect the quality of both ground water
and surface water if the ground water table is lowered or nitrate leaching takes place.
Dissolution of iron can occur as a result of oxidation and decrease in pH. In surface waters,
iron will generally be present as Fe (III) in suspension and will be readily removed by treatment
for turbidity removal. In ground water sand in waters from bottom of deep reservoirs iron will
be present as soluble Fe (II) which will create problems unless special treatment is provided.
Iron imparts colour and turbidity to water. It causes staining of materials. Iron in water supplies
creates aesthetic problems at very much lower concentrations, likely problems being
precipitation causing turbidity and red water problems at taps, iron bacterial growths form
slimes choking pipes, bad taste and odours and staining of pumping and laundry. The limit for
iron is fixed from aesthetic considerations and is to be applied at the tap point. Iron in large
amounts may cause a disease called haemochromatosis. Iron in the consumer tap could also be
due to corrosion in the pipeline. In domestic supply water, excessive concentration of iron can
give rise to the staining of laundry, whilst a bitter-sweet astringent taste in potable water can
be detected at levels of 1-2 mg/L. Removal of iron from water is comparatively simple and
appropriate methods are available for individual and small water supplies as well as large
municipal supplies.
5.1.7 NITRATE
Nitrates are products of oxidation of organic nitrogen by the bacteria present in soils and in
water. Nitrates are widely present in substantial quantities in soil, in most waters and in plants,
including vegetable. Use of fertilizer, decayed vegetable and animal matter, domestic effluents,
sewage, sludge disposal to land, industrial discharges, leachates from refuse dumps and
atmospheric washout all contribute to the ionic nitrate in water sources. Increase in the level of
nitrate in water is associated with the application of nitrogen fertilizer. Nitrate occurs naturally
in ground waters as a result of soil leaching but in areas of high nitrogen fertilizer application
it may reach very high concentrations (>500 mg/L nitrate-nitrogen). The health effects of
nitrate are generally a consequence of its ready conversion to nitrite in the body. In infants,
where the stomach acidity is normally very low (about pH 4 or above), a high yield of nitrite
is obtained. The acidity of stomach in adults is high (pH 1-5), hence less conversion of nitrate
to nitrite takes place. The formation of nitrite is especially important for two reasons. Firstly,
it can oxidize haemoglobin to methaemoglobin, a pigment that is incapable of acting as a carrier
of oxygen. Secondly, under certain conditions, nitrites may react in the human body with
secondary and tertiary amines and amides (commonly derived from food and other sources) to
form nitrosamines, some of which are considered to be carcinogenic. This process occurs in
acidic solution within the pH range 1-5 characteristic of the normal acidity in a human stomach.
The commonly known disease caused by high ‘nitrate’ is methemoglobinemia (or blue baby
disease). It has been recommended that water supplies containing high levels of nitrate (>100
mg/L of Nitrate per liter) should not be used for the preparation of infant foods.

71
5.1.8 CHLORIDE
Chlorides are found in almost all rivers, lakes and streams. Chlorides are introduced to the body
of water from rocks containing chlorides, from seawater, winter treatments of roads and
highways, from farm fertilizer run-off or from the leachate of landfills. In surface waters of
upland regions, chloride content may be even less than 1.0 mg/L. As human activities increase
down the river in a river basin, chloride increases; but in most rivers in India, the values are in
tolerable range. In ground waters, high values may be observed. Chloride commonly occurs in
plants and animals. It is present in the body fluids of higher animals and is an indispensable
ion for life. Chloride toxicity has not been observed in humans except in the special case of
impaired sodium chloride metabolism, e.g., in congestive heart failure. Healthy individuals can
tolerate the intake of large quantities of chloride provided that there is a concomitant intake of
fresh water. Hypertension associated with sodium chloride in take appears to be related to the
sodium rather than the chloride ion.
Chloride does not have any adverse physiological effect at levels that can be tolerated with
regard to taste. Small amounts of chlorides are necessary for Normal cell functions in plant and
animal life. Sudden shooting up of chloride in a source serves as an indication of accidental
pollution. Chlorides give water a salty taste but the intensity of the taste depends upon the ionic
composition. Thus, in some waters the salty taste is detected at about 200 mg CI/L but if the
water contains high concentrations of calcium and magnesium, the salty taste is not noticed
even at 1,000 mg/L. At concentrations over 250 mg CI/L, the water is harmful to plants. In
high concentrations, chlorides can cause corrosion of metal parts by determine these parameters
we can:

• A comparison can be draw between different method of calculation for water quality
index
• We can cross check the value of method by doing other method at same site same
parameter
• A water quality index provides a single number (like grades) that express overall
water quality in a single word which could be understood able by any person
• Wqi aims at giving a single value to the water quality of a source by translating the
list of parameter concentration present in a sample into a single value, which in turn
provide an extensive interpretation to the quality of water and its suitability for
various purpose like drinking fishing etc.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

• Biological qualities of the water can be studies in this region to find out the presence of
faecal coliforms and check the any possible threat for human in places like Himachal
during monsoon season intermixing of groundwater with sewage is a problem so by
doing this we can determine at the points where this problem occurs
• We could also determine about the major parameters which effect the health of people
We could find out effect of parameters on quality water we could also conclude about
extent how much one parameter is affecting the whole quality

72
• With the help of this studies, we could draw co-relation between different parameters
like TDS and fluoride, electrical conductance and salt.
• We could also draw a co-relation between the area and parameters with the help of
statical regression analysis
• A statical analysis could be done to determine the interdepends between different
variable
• A work could be developed to study other pollutants such as hydro-carbon compounds
in water
• Environmental access program could be, such as remote sensing and GIS could be done.

• Accurate and timely information on quality of water is essential to shape a sound public
policy for interest of health and to implement the water quality improvement
programme effectively

73
 CONCLUSION

1. The NSF WQI method shows that at sampling station s in pre monsoon the value of
WQI is about 107.420 which is greater than 100 which makes it undesirable for dinking.
When we do calculate rows pollution index, we find out that turbidity was main reason
behind it Turbidity accelerates the process of eutrophication which causes water.
Reduced oxygen levels and increased carbon dioxide levels with eventual fish die-off
if left untreated. The consumption of highly turbid water may constitute a health risk,
because excessive turbidity can protect pathogenic microorganisms from the effects of
disinfectants, stimulate the growth of bacteria in distribution systems and increase the
chlorine demand which makes this source of water hazardous.
2 Total alkalinity is more in the region of Samsi whereas in area of Bagla,lunapnai it
increase’s seasonally Water with excessive alkalinity may have a distinct unpleasant
taste and irrigation water with excessive alkalinity may increase the pH of the soil
solution, leach organic material, decrease permeability of the soil and impair plant
growth.
3 Dhalpur, Nalsr and Lunapani the value of NSF-WQI is increased a little bit the possible
reason for this is that most of agricultural activity takes place in this region during
monsoon so fertilizer may get percolated in soil and mix with water but this general
trend was not shown by Sundernagar Dhalpur and kanchikoot are mainly urban area
thus no agricultural activities was done near sampling site .

Variation of turbidity (npi)

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Dhalpur samsi luna pani nalsar bagla j/ park
sundernagar

pre -monsoon monsoon post monsoon winter

Fig: 6.1 variation of turbidity with respect to season

74
 seasonal variation of alkainity
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
kanchikoot dhalpur samsi lunapani nalsar bagla jawahar park

pre monsoon monsoon post monsoon winter

Fig:6.2 seasonal variation of alkalinity

4 Dhalpur has the best water quality from all of the above sources whereas Kanchikoot,
and Sundernagar is of fair quality
5 In study area turbidity is the parameters which creates nuisance and effect the quality
of water
6 By doing the WQI analysis by the method of WQI, CCME we can say that the results
are identical up to some extent and none of the sample station fail in any of analysis
method
7 In Jawahar park Sundernagar “NSF-WQI” qi shows that water is excellent for use as it
ranges between 11-15 for all season but for “CCME” method the value is near to 73
this shows water is of fair use the reason behind it was that the no of failed parameters
are more in case of Jawahar park thus it increases the scope no which amplify the value
of CCME WQI. But they are failed by marginal difference so it does not create that
much effect in the value of WQI
8 In case of Kanchikoot the parameter is failed by a larger difference which amplifies the
value of NSF-WQI but it does not create that much effect on CCME because it depends
upon:
• Total no of test
• No of test failed
• Total no of parameters
• No of parameters failed
9 Order of parameters effecting water quality
Turbidity>temp>total alkalinity>electrical conductance>total hardness>sodium

So we can conclude that the water quality don’t have any effect of pollution
yet and it is free from any kind of sewage mixing at sampling station only on
the basis of physio-chemical parameter and ground water

75
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