Table of Contents

Disaster..............................................................................................................5
Hazard, Vulnerability, Risk, and Capacity.......................................................... 5
Disaster Management Cycle............................................................................... 6
Types of Disasters.............................................................................................. 8
Natural Disasters............................................................................................... 9
Geological.......................................................................................................... 9
Earthquakes/ Mass movement of earth materials.............................................. 9
Tsunamis.......................................................................................................... 12
Volcanic Eruptions........................................................................................... 14
Hydrological.....................................................................................................18
Floods...............................................................................................................18
Urban Floods.................................................................................................... 21
Landslides........................................................................................................24
Wave Action:.................................................................................................... 27
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF).................................................................31
Droughts.......................................................................................................... 35
Meteorological................................................................................................. 38
Cyclones...........................................................................................................38
Tornadoes........................................................................................................40
Heatwaves........................................................................................................42
Cold Wave, Derecho......................................................................................... 46
Anthropogenic Disasters..................................................................................50
Biological and public health emergencies (BPHE)............................................50
Chemical Spills.................................................................................................53
Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies (NRE)..................................................56
Disaster Management Framework in India...................................................... 59
Legal Framework............................................................................................. 63
Policies and Guidelines.................................................................................... 66
Global Collaboration and Recent Advances...................................................... 69
Collaborations with Global Organizations........................................................ 71
India's Pioneering Efforts................................................................................. 71
Bilateral Partnerships with Other Nations....................................................... 72
Case Studies:.................................................................................................... 74
Role of PRI in Disaster Management................................................................ 76
Civil Society Organizations and Disaster Management..................................... 77
Role of SHGs during Covid................................................................................77
Disaster Management
Disaster
The term "disaster" comes from the French word "Desastre," a combination of 'des' meaning
bad and 'aster' meaning star, implying 'Bad or Evil star.'
According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR)
Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale
due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity,
leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental
losses and impacts.

Small-scale disaster: a type of disaster only affecting local communities which require
assistance beyond the affected community.
Large-scale disaster: a type of disaster affecting a society which requires national or
international assistance.

Hazard, Vulnerability, Risk, and Capacity

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR):

Hazard: A process, phenomenon, or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury or
other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental
degradation.

Vulnerability: The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and

environmental factors or processes which increase the susceptibility of an individual, a
community, assets or systems to the impacts of hazards.

Disaster Risk: The potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which
could occur to a system, society or a community in a specific period of time, determined
probabilistically as a function of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and capacity.
It is often represented by an equation:
Disaster Risk = (Hazard x Exposure x Vulnerability) / Capacity

Capacity: The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within
an organization, community or society to manage and reduce disaster risks and strengthen
resilience.
Disaster Management Cycle
The disaster management cycle consists of a series of phases aimed at mitigating the impact
of disasters, preparing for potential emergencies, responding effectively when disasters
occur, and ensuring recovery and reconstruction post-disaster.

1. Pre-Disaster Phase:
a. Prevention: Prevention involves measures to prevent natural and man-made
disasters from occurring. This includes:
■ Implementing land-use planning and building codes to avoid areas prone
to hazards.
■ Promoting public education and awareness campaigns to minimize human
actions that could lead to disasters.
■ Developing and enforcing policies that reduce environmental degradation
and promote sustainable practices.
b. Mitigation: Mitigation efforts focus on reducing the severity and impact of
disasters when they occur. These activities include:
■ Structural measures like constructing dams, levees, and retrofitting
buildings to withstand earthquakes.
■ Non-structural measures such as zoning laws, land use policies, and
economic incentives to encourage disaster-resistant development.
■ Public education campaigns to inform communities about risks and how to
mitigate them.
c. Preparedness: Preparedness is about planning and preparing resources and
actions to ensure an effective response when a disaster occurs. Key activities
include:
■ Developing emergency response plans and conducting regular drills.
■ Setting up early warning systems to alert communities of impending
disasters.
■ Training first responders and communities in disaster response techniques.
■ Stockpiling essential supplies such as food, water, and medical supplies.
 2. During Disaster Phase:
a. Response: The response phase occurs immediately after a disaster strikes and
aims to provide emergency assistance, save lives, and prevent further damage.
Key activities include:
■ Activating emergency response plans and control rooms.
■ Conducting search and rescue operations.
■ Providing medical care, food, water, and shelter to affected populations.
■ Restoring communication and transportation networks to facilitate relief
operations.
3. Post-Disaster Phase:
a. Recovery: Recovery activities focus on restoring normalcy in the aftermath of a
disaster. This phase involves:
■ Assessing damage and conducting needs assessments.
■ Providing temporary housing and restoring public services.
■ Offering financial assistance and psychosocial support to affected
individuals.
■ Implementing programs to rebuild and restore affected communities.
b. Reconstruction: Reconstruction involves long-term efforts to rebuild and
improve infrastructure, housing, and services to pre-disaster levels or better. Key
activities include:
■ Reconstructing damaged buildings, roads, and other infrastructure with
improved standards.
■ Restoring and enhancing the economic, social, and environmental health of
the affected area.
■ Ensuring that reconstruction efforts incorporate lessons learned to reduce
future vulnerabilities.

Phase Category Activities

Pre-Disaster Prevention Land-use planning, building codes, public education,
sustainable policies
Mitigation Structural measures (dams, levees), non-structural
measures (zoning laws), public education

Preparedness Emergency response plans, drills, early warning

systems, training, stockpiling supplies
During Response Activating plans, search and rescue, medical care,
Disaster providing essentials, restoring communication

Post-Disaster Recovery Damage assessment, temporary housing, financial

and psychosocial support, rebuilding programs

Reconstruction Rebuilding infrastructure, restoring health and

economy, incorporating lessons learned
Importance of the Disaster Management Cycle
The disaster management cycle is essential for several reasons:
1. Risk Reduction: By focusing on prevention and mitigation, the cycle helps reduce
the overall risk and potential impact of disasters.
2. Preparedness: It ensures that communities and authorities are well-prepared to
respond quickly and effectively, minimizing loss of life and property.
3. Efficient Response: Coordinated response efforts ensure timely assistance to those
affected, reducing suffering and preventing secondary impacts.
4. Sustainable Recovery: Structured recovery and reconstruction efforts aim to build
back better, promoting resilience and sustainability in affected communities.

Effective disaster management involves the integration of these phases into a continuous
cycle, ensuring that lessons learned from past disasters inform future prevention,
preparedness, response, and recovery efforts. This holistic approach is crucial for minimizing
the adverse effects of disasters and enhancing the resilience of communities.

Types of Disasters
1. Natural Disasters
a. Geological
i. Earthquakes
ii. Tsunamis
iii. Volcanic Eruptions
b. Hydrological
i. Floods
ii. Urban Floods
iii. Landslides
iv. Wave Actions
v. Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
vi. Droughts
c. Meteorological
i. Cyclones
ii. Tornadoes
iii. Heatwaves
iv. Cold Waves, Derecho
2. Anthropogenic Disasters
a. Biological and public health emergencies (BPHE)
b. Chemical spills
c. Nuclear and radiological emergencies (NRE)
Natural Disasters
Geological

Earthquakes/ Mass movement of earth

materials
It is the shaking of the earth. It is caused due to release of energy, which generates waves that
travel in all directions. Mass movement— Surface displacement of earthen materials due to
ground shaking triggered by earthquakes.

Nearly 59% of India’s territory is prone to moderate to severe earthquakes.

11% fall in very high-risk zone V.

Seven states in North East, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and part of Eight states/UT (Bihar,
Gujarat, HP, Uttarakhand, J&K, Ladakh, Punjab and WB) are in Seismic Zone V i.e., prone to
very high damage risk.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES).

Types of Earthquakes:
1. Tectonic Earthquakes: Subtypes include transform, divergent, and convergent plate
boundary earthquakes.
2. Volcanic Earthquakes: these earthquakes occur as magma moves beneath the
Earth’s surface.
3. Induced Earthquakes: Triggered by human activities such as mining,
reservoir-induced seismicity, and hydraulic fracturing (fracking).

Types of Mass Movements:

1. Landslides: Rapid downslope movement of rock, soil, and debris. Subtypes include
rockfalls, debris flows, and mudslides.
2. Avalanches: Rapid downhill movement of snow, ice, and debris. Can be triggered by
various factors, including snow instability.
3. Creep: Slow, continuous movement of soil or rock downslope over time.
4. Solifluction: Type of creep that occurs in areas with permanently frozen ground
(permafrost).

Criteria to declare:
The declaration of an earthquake usually involves various stages and
considerations:
 1. Seismic Event Detection: First detected by a network of seismometers and seismic
monitoring agencies. In India, the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is
responsible for monitoring and detecting seismic activity.
2. Magnitude Threshold: Seismic events below a certain magnitude may not trigger
official declarations. The specific magnitude threshold may vary depending on the
region and local policies.
3. Intensity Assessment: The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) & Ritcher scale is
often used to evaluate the impact of the earthquake on the ground.
4. Post-Event Assessment: to evaluate the extent of damage, the needs of affected
communities, and the effectiveness of the response efforts.

Causes:
1. Natural:
a. Tectonic movements: Sudden tectonic movements within the Earth’s crust
resulting in release of energy along a fault. Rocks along a fault tend to move in
opposite directions (divergent plate boundary). This causes a release of energy,
and the energy waves travel in all directions. EQ may also occur in transform
boundary where (Plates slide past each other) and Subduction Zones.
b. Volcanic activities: The movement of magma and release of gases can induce
volcanic earthquakes.
c. Landslides and avalanches.

2. Anthropogenic:
a. Dams: The filling of large reservoirs behind dams can increase pressure on
underlying faults, triggering earthquakes.
b. Underground Nuclear tests
c. Geothermal Energy Extraction: The extraction of geothermal fluids from the
Earth's crust can lead to induced seismicity by altering subsurface pressures
and permeability.
d. Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking): injecting fluids into the ground at high
pressure to extract oil and gas can induce seismic events by altering subsurface
pressure and lubricating fault lines.
e. Mining: Underground mining operations can induce seismic events when rock
masses are destabilised.

Mitigation:
1. Building Codes: Enforce strict construction codes (National building code 2016
guidelines) that ensure buildings and infrastructure can withstand seismic forces.
2. Retrofitting: Upgrade older buildings to meet current seismic standards.
3. Early Warning Systems: Implement earthquake early warning systems to provide
advance notice to residents and businesses.
4. Emergency Preparedness: Educate the public on earthquake preparedness, including
creating emergency kits and evacuation plans.
5. Land Use Planning: Restrict development in high-risk areas and consider seismic
hazards in urban planning.
6. Insurance: Encourage earthquake insurance to help with recovery efforts.
7. Seismic Hazard Assessment: Continuously monitor and assess seismic activity to
refine risk assessments.
8. Public Education: Raise awareness about earthquake risks and safety measures
through campaigns and drills.
9. Critical Infrastructure Resilience: Strengthen essential infrastructure like
hospitals, bridges, and power plants.
 10. International Cooperation: Collaborate with neighboring regions to share
knowledge and resources for disaster response and recovery.

NDMA Guidelines:
Six pillars of earthquake management in India:
1. Ensure the incorporation of earthquake resistant design features for the
construction of new structures.
2. Facilitate selective strengthening and seismic retrofitting of existing priority and
life line structures In earthquake prone areas.
3. Improve the compliance regime through appropriate regulation and enforcement.
4. Improve the awareness and preparedness of all stakeholders.
5. Introduce appropriate capacity development interventions for effective earthquake
management (including education, training, documentation, R&D)
6. Strengthen the emergency response capability in earthquake prone areas.

Best Practices:
Agriculture fair Satara Maharashtra- demonstration of the earthquake resistant
construction structures in annual fairs, which are also cost-effective.
Japan-urgent earthquake detection and alarm system to shut off electricity supply.
Traditional Dhajji-Dewari system of building houses in Kashmir.

Way Forward:
● Governments and policymakers ought to know better than act in a piecemeal manner.
● Programmes like the ongoing Urban 20 meetings are an excellent opportunity for
international knowledge exchange on earthquake preparedness.
● The Delhi High Court’s directions must act as a reminder for the inclusion of an
earthquake preparedness policy in urban renewal programmes such as the Smart
Cities Mission.
 ● A policy on earthquake preparedness requires a visionary, radical and transformative
approach.

Tsunamis
Tsunamis (Japanese for “harbour wave”), also known as a seismic sea wave, are a series of
very large waves with extremely long wavelengths, in the deep ocean, the length from crest to
crest may be 100 km and more. When the seafloor abruptly deforms the sudden vertical
displacements over large areas disturb the ocean's surface, displace water, and generate
tsunami waves.

1. Of the nearly 7,500 km long coastline, close to 5,700 km is prone to cyclones and
tsunamis.
2. States Prone to Tsunami:
a. Kerala- Alleppey and Earnakulam
b. Tamil Nadu- Cuddalore, Kancheepuram, Chennai, Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli,
Thoothukudi, Villupuram, Thiruvarur, Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur
c. Andhra Pradesh- Nellore, Prakasam, Guntur. Visakhapatnam, East and West
Godavari
d. Pondicherry
e. Orissa
3. Between 1998-2017, tsunamis caused more than 2,50,000 deaths globally, including
more than 2,27,000 deaths due to the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004.
4. More than 700 million people live in low-lying coastal areas and Small Island
Developing States exposed to extreme sea-level events including tsunamis.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES).

Types of Tsunamis:
1. Tectonic Tsunamis: Caused by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or
fault movements along tectonic plate boundaries.
2. Landslide Tsunamis: Triggered by underwater landslides, which can displace a
large volume of water.
3. Meteorological Tsunamis (Metetsunamis): Generated by atmospheric
disturbances such as severe storms, rapid pressure changes, or weather fronts.

Criteria to Declare:
The Indian government, like many other governments around the world, relies on various
criteria and systems to detect and declare tsunamis. Key components of the criteria include:
1. Seismic Activity: A significant earthquake with a magnitude above a certain
threshold (usually around 6.5 or higher) can trigger tsunami alerts.
2. Ocean Buoy Data: Buoy systems are equipped with sensors that can detect changes
in sea level. A sudden, abnormal rise in sea level can be indicative of a tsunami wave.
3. Tide Gauge Readings: Provide real-time data on sea level changes. Unusual, rapid
and significant increase in fluctuations in sea level, can be a sign of an approaching
tsunami.
4. Earthquake Location and Depth: Shallow, undersea earthquakes are more likely
to cause tsunamis.
5. Historical Data: Areas with a history of tsunamis are often given higher priority for
monitoring and early warning systems.
6. International Coordination: India is part of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning
and Mitigation System (IOTWMS), which collaborates with other countries in the
region.

Mitigation:
These guidelines were primarily managed by the Ministry of Earth Sciences through
agencies like the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)
and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).
1. Early Warning System: Network of seismometers, tide gauges, and buoy systems
helps for the detection of undersea earthquakes and the issuance of timely warnings.
2. Public Awareness: Educate coastal communities and residents by signage,
community drills, and educational materials.
3. Evacuation Plans: Identify safe evacuation routes and locations for residents in
case of a tsunami warning.
4. Coordination: Ensure coordination amoung NDMA, INCOIS, Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD), and local administrations, to ensure a
coordinated response in the event of a tsunami.
5. Building Codes: Enforce building codes and construction standards for more
reselience.
6. Community Preparedness: Encourage community-based disaster management
and preparedness initiatives. Local communities should be actively involved in
planning and response efforts.
7. Research and Monitoring: Invest in research to better understand the tsunami
hazard in Indian waters.
8. International Collaboration: Collaborate with neighboring countries and
international organizations to share data and expertise related to tsunami warning
and response.
NDMA Guidelines:
1. You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard
emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated
emergency information.
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid, if necessary, before helping injured or
trapped persons.
3. Help people who require special assistance—Infants, elderly people,
4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently
overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get
through.
5. Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common injury
following a disaster is cut feet.
6. Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
7. Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not present a fire
hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE CANDLES.
8. Check for gas leaks.
9. Look for electrical system damage.
10. Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
11. Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for insurance
claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.

Way Forward:
The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has now developed a
system that will be able to predict risk to coastal areas, the height of waves that can hit them,
and even pinpoint vulnerable buildings, all in "real-time," represents a significant
improvement in India's capacity to assess dangers following a tsunami event.

Volcanic Eruptions
A type of geological event near an opening/vent in the Earth’s surface including volcanic
eruptions of lava, ash, hot vapour, gas, and pyroclastic material.
● Ash fall
● Lahar - Hot or cold mixture of earthen material flowing on the slope of a volcano either
during or between volcanic
eruptions
● Lava Flow
● Pyroclastic Flow - Extremely hot
gases, ash, and
● other materials of more than 1,000
degrees Celsius that rapidly flow
down the flank of a volcano (more
than 700 km/h) during an
eruption.
● There are about 1500 potentially
active volcanoes worldwide.
● Volcanic activities and wildfires
affected 6.2 million people and
caused nearly 2400 deaths
between 1998-2017.
Regions Prone to Volcanic eruptions: Barren island (A&N), Narcondam (Andaman
Sea), Deccan trap in Deccan plateau, Baratang (Andaman Island), Dhinodhar hills (Gujarat),
Dhosi hills (Aravali mountains), Tosham hills (Haryana).

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES).\

Types:
1. Stratovolcanoes: Steep-sided with explosive eruptions. Example: Mount St. Helens.
2. Shield Volcanoes: Broad and gently sloping with non-explosive eruptions. Example:
Mauna Loa.
3. Cinder Cone Volcanoes: Small, steep-sided with ash and cinder eruptions.
Example: Paricutin.
4. Caldera Volcanoes: Large, basin-like depressions from explosive eruptions.
Example: Yellowstone Caldera.
5. Lava Domes: Bulbous mounds from slow-moving lava. Example: Novarupta Dome.
6. Submarine Volcanoes: Form underwater. Example: Lo'ihi (Hawaii).
 7. Fissure Volcanoes: Erupt along cracks. Example: Laki (Iceland).
8. Super-volcanoes: Erupt cataclysmically. Example: Yellowstone (potential
supervolcano).

Criteria to Declare:
Central or State authorities declare the area as volcanically active based on these parameters:
1. Volcanic Activity: This includes volcanic eruptions, lava flows, ash emissions, and
any other signs of volcanic unrest.
2. Geological Evidence: The presence of volcanic rocks, craters, calderas, lava domes,
or volcanic vents features strong evidence of volcanic origin.
3. Seismic Activity: Monitoring seismic activity, including volcanic earthquakes and
tremors, is crucial.
4. Gas Emissions: Measuring the composition and quantity of (SO2) or carbon dioxide
(CO2), can provide insights into volcanic activity and potential hazards.
5. Ground Deformation: Detected through techniques like GPS and satellite-based
interferometry, can indicate magma movement.
6. Historical Records: Historical records of past eruptions, including eyewitness
accounts, written records, and geological studies, are important for assessing a
volcano's history and potential future behavior.
7. Remote Sensing: Used to monitor changes in surface temperature, volcanic ash
plumes, and ground deformation.

Causes:
1. Underwater Earthquakes: When tectonic plates at subduction zones converge,
they suddenly displace a massive amount of water, generating a tsunami.
2. Volcanic Eruptions: The expulsion of magma and gas from a volcano can create a
sudden and forceful displacement.
3. Landslides: Landslides from coastal cliffs or mountains, can displace a significant
amount of water upon impact, generating a tsunami.
4. Meteorite Impacts: Although rare, The energy released from such an impact can
create powerful waves.
5. Glacial Calving: When large pieces of ice break off from glaciers and fall into the
ocean, they can displace water and generate small tsunamis, known as "glacial
tsunamis."
6. Fault Zones: Faults that lie beneath the ocean can slip suddenly, displacing seawater
and causing a tsunami.

Mitigation:
India had a set of official guidelines primarily related to the Barren Island volcano in the
Andaman Sea. These guidelines were primarily managed by the Geological Survey of India
(GSI) and the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD).
1. Monitoring and Early Warning: Continuous monitoring of volcanic activity using
seismic instruments, gas analyzers, and satellite technology to detect signs of volcanic
unrest.
2. Hazard Zonation: Establishment of hazard zones based on the type and potential
impact.
3. Evacuation Plans: Development of evacuation plans and routes for nearby
communities. Regular drills and training exercises to ensure preparedness.
4. Public Awareness and Education: Educate local communities about volcanic
hazards and safety measures.
5. Coordination: Coordination between the GSI, IMD, local administration, and
disaster management authorities to ensure minimal harm caused.
6. Emergency Response: Prepositioning of emergency supplies, medical teams,
stockpiling food, water, medicines, and setting up emergency shelters.
Hydrological

Floods
Inundation of land and human settlements by the rise of water in the channels and its
spill-over presents the condition of flooding.

● Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares (mha), more than 40 mha is
flood prone.
● Floods affect an average area of around 7.5 million hectares per year.
● An average every year, 75 lakh hectares of land is affected, 1600 lives are lost and the
damage caused to crops, houses and public utilities is Rs.1805 crores.

Regions Prone to flooding in

India:
1. The Brahmaputra River Region:
This region consists of the rivers
Brahmaputra and Barak and their
tributaries, and covers the states of
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland,
Sikkim and the northern parts of West
Bengal.
2. The Ganga River Region: It covers
the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Bihar, south and central
parts of West Bengal, Punjab, parts of
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh and Delhi.
3. The North-West River Region: The
main rivers in this region are the Indus,
Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum.
This region covers the states of Jammu
and Kashmir, Punjab and parts of
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and
Rajasthan.
4. The Central and Deccan India:
Important rivers in this region are the
Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Cauvery.
Nodal Ministry: Min. of Jal Shakti (MOJS)

Types of Floods:
1. Riverine Floods: Result from overflowing rivers or streams. Example:
Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta in East India experiences annual riverine flooding during
the monsoon.
2. Flash Floods: Rapid-onset floods often caused by heavy rainfall or dam breaks.
Example: Uttarakhand Flash Floods in 2013, triggered by heavy rains and glacial lake
outburst.
3. Coastal Floods: Occur along coastlines due to storms, cyclones, or high tides.
Example: Coastal areas of West Bengal and Bangladesh faced flooding during
Cyclone Amphan in 2020.
4. Pluvial Floods: Caused by excessive rainfall, leading to localized flooding. Example:
Urban areas like Chennai and Bangalore face pluvial flooding during heavy rains.
5. Dam or Levee Break Floods: Result from the failure of dams or levees. Example:
The Machu Dam failure in Gujarat in 1979 led to significant flooding.

Criteria to Declare:
The Indian government typically declares a flood based on specific criteria that may vary
slightly from state to state. However, some common criteria for declaring a flood in India
include:
1. Rainfall Thresholds: When heavy and sustained rainfall exceeds certain predefined
thresholds for a particular region or river basin.
2. River Water Levels: water levels in rivers or reservoirs rise significantly and pose a
threat to communities downstream,
3. Dam Releases: The release of water to maintain their structural integrity can lead to
downstream flooding.
4. Weather Warnings: Based on weather warnings from meteorological agencies, such
as the India Meteorological Department (IMD), which predict heavy rainfall.
5. Impact Assessment: Assessment of rising water levels on communities,
infrastructure, and agriculture done by authorities.
Causes: Floods can also be caused due to a storm surge (in the coastal areas), high
intensity rainfall for a considerably longer time period, melting of ice and snow, reduction in
the infiltration rate and presence of eroded material in the water due to higher rate of soil
erosion.

Mitigation:
1. Early Warning Systems: India has an extensive network of meteorological and
hydrological stations to monitor rainfall and river levels.
2. River Basin Planning: Regulate water flow, reduce siltation, and control flooding
which includes the construction of dams, reservoirs, and embankments.
3. Floodplain Zoning: Identify and demarcate flood-prone areas, and restrict or
regulate construction and development in these zones.
4. Flood Forecasting and Modeling: Utilize advanced technologies and modeling
techniques to predict and analyze floods, enabling more effective response planning.
5. Embankments and Flood Control Structures: Construct and maintain flood
control structures such as embankments, levees, and flood walls to protect vulnerable
areas.
6. Climate Change Adaptation: Consider the potential impacts of climate change on
flooding patterns and incorporate adaptive strategies into flood mitigation plans.
7. International Collaboration: Collaborate with neighboring countries, especially in
the case of transboundary rivers, to share data and coordinate flood management
efforts.
8. River Training and Dredging: Undertake River training and dredging projects to
improve the flow of rivers and reduce the risk of flooding.

NDMA Guideline:
● Battery operated torch
● Extra batteries
● Battery operated radio
● First aid kit and essential medicines
● Emergency food (dry items) and water (packed and sealed)
● Candles and matches in a waterproof container
● Knife
● Chlorine tablets or powdered water
● Thick ropes and cords

Way Forward:
● The entire suite of measures structural and non-structural, appropriate mix of grey,
blue and green infrastructure needs to be considered for flood management.
● Mindsets needing changing flood flows should be seen as a resource to be conserved
for subsequent use and water security.
● A river basin approach should be adopted for flood management while taking care of
the environment.
● It is prudent we upgrade the hydro-infrastructure in the country now so that the tools
to manage increased variabilities are available in time.
Urban Floods
It is caused by the combination of meteorological, hydrological and human factors. Flood
peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.

● The global Urban Exposure to flooding increased more than four-fold from 16,443 km2
in 1985 to 92,233 km2 in 2018.
● The most notable growth occurred in Asia (74.1%), followed by Europe (11.6%),
Northern America (8.7%), Africa (2.9%), Southern America (2.2%), and Australia
(0.5%).
● Floodplains only accounted for 5.5% of the global land areas, 12.6% of the urban
expansion occurred in the floodplains from 1985 to 2018.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Housing and Urban Affairs (MHUA)

States Prone:
● Maharashtra: Cities like Mumbai and Pune are known to experience urban flooding.
● West Bengal: Kolkata and other low-lying regions.
● Tamil Nadu: Chennai has faced significant urban flooding incidents in recent years.
● Kerala: Cities like Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are prone to flooding, due to their
topography and heavy rains.
● Gujarat: Urban areas in Gujarat, such as Ahmedabad, can experience flooding during
heavy rainfall events, as the state is susceptible to both coastal and riverine flooding.
● Assam: Guwahati and other cities in Assam face urban flooding due to their location
in the flood-prone Brahmaputra River basin.
● Uttar Pradesh: Cities like Lucknow and Kanpur are at risk of urban flooding, often
exacerbated by rapid urbanization and poor drainage infrastructure.
● Bihar: Cities along the Ganges River, like Patna, are susceptible to urban flooding
during monsoons and heavy rain events.
● Delhi: The national capital region, including Delhi, is at risk due to urban
development, inadequate drainage, and the seasonal overflow of the Yamuna River.
● Andhra Pradesh and Telangana: Cities like Hyderabad are prone to urban
flooding, with incidents occurring due to heavy rainfall and rapid urban expansion.
Types of Urban Floods:
1. Sewer Backup Flooding: Happens when sewage systems fail, leading to inundation.
Example: Bengaluru’s sewer backup flooding in low-lying areas.
2. Infrastructure Failure Flooding: Caused by failures in urban infrastructure, such
as dam breaches or canal breaches. Example: The 1979 Machu Dam failure in Gujarat
led to urban flooding.

Criteria to Declare:
In India, the criteria to declare an urban flood can vary by state and local authorities, but
some common factors considered include:
1. Rainfall Intensity: The amount and intensity of rainfall over a specified period,
often exceeding the local drainage capacity.
2. Waterlogging: Extensive waterlogging in urban areas, leading to disruptions in daily
life and traffic flow.
3. River Water Levels: Rising river levels that breach their banks and inundate urban
areas can trigger a flood declaration.
4. Drainage System Capacity: Overflow or failure of drainage systems, including
stormwater drains and sewers.
5. Impact on Infrastructure: Damage to critical infrastructure like roads, bridges, and
public utilities due to water accumulation is also assessed.
6. Evacuation Needs: The necessity of evacuating residents from affected areas due to
flooding is a significant factor in declaring an urban flood.

Causes:
● Encroachments on the natural drains and the river floodplains.
● Improper disposal of solid waste.
● Dumping of construction debris.
● Sudden release or failure to release water from dams.
● The urban heat island effect has resulted in an increase in rainfall.
● Global climate change resulting in increased episodes of high intensity rainfall events.
Mitigation:
1. Estimation and identifications of emergency needs and resources.
2. Preparation of well-designed plans for the entire post-flooding response.
3. Take all necessary measures for planning, capacity building and other preparedness.
4. It includes development of identification of Teams for maintaining the drains and
roads,
5. Mobilization of resources and taking measures in terms of equipping, providing
training, conducting exercises for prevention of water logging/inundation etc.

NDMA Guidelines:
● Battery operated torch
● Extra batteries
● Battery operated radio
● First aid kit and essential medicines
● Emergency food (dry items) and water (packed and sealed)
● Candles and matches in a waterproof container
● Knife
● Chlorine tablets or powdered water
● Thick ropes and cords
● Shoes

Way Forward:
1. Need For Holistic Engagement: Urban floods of this scale cannot be contained by
the municipal authorities alone. Floods cannot be managed without concerted and
focused investments of energy and resources.
2. The Metropolitan Development Authorities, National Disaster Management Authority,
State revenue and irrigation departments along with municipal corporations should be
involved in such work together.
3. Developing Sponge Cities: Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which is then
naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban aquifers.
4. Wetland Policy: There is a need to start paying attention to the management of
wetlands by involving local communities.
5. To improve the city’s capacity to absorb water, new porous materials and technologies
must be encouraged or mandated across scales. Examples of these technologies are
bioswales and retention systems, permeable material for roads and pavement, drainage
systems which allow storm water to trickle into the ground, green roofs and harvesting
systems in buildings.
Landslides
Movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope under the direct influence of
gravity.
It is estimated that 30% of the world’s landslides occur in the Himalayan ranges.
In the Nilgiris alone, unprecedented rains in the region triggered about 100 landslides.
The mean rate of land loss is to the tune of 120 meter per kilometre per year and the annual
soil loss is about 2500 tons per square kilometre.

Landslide Vulnerability
Zones:
● Very High Vulnerability Zone: Highly
unstable, relatively young mountainous
areas in the Himalayas and Andaman and
Nicobar, Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the
north-eastern regions.
● High Vulnerability Zone: All the
Himalayan states and the states from the
north-eastern regions except the plains of
Assam.
Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone: Areas
that receive less precipitation such as Trans-
Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal
Pradesh), Aravali, rain shadow areas in the
Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau.

Types of landslides:
1. Rockfalls: Rapid descent of
individual rock fragments. Example:
Landslides along mountainous roads, like the Kedarnath landslide in India (2013).
2. Debris Flows: Fast-moving mix of water, soil, and debris. Example: The Oso
landslide in Washington, USA (2014).
3. Mudslides: Slurry of waterlogged soil and debris. Example: The Sierra Leone
mudslides in Freetown (2017).
4. Landslide Avalanches: Large-scale, fast-moving landslides. Example: The Randa
rockslide in Switzerland (1991).
5. Creep: Slow, gradual downhill movement of soil or rock. Example: Ongoing creep on
hillsides globally.
6. Earthflows: Sluggish flow of saturated soil and debris. Example: The Vaiont Dam
landslide in Italy (1963).
7. Lateral Spreads: Horizontal movement of soil and rock. Example: The Hope Slide in
British Columbia, Canada (1965).
Criteria to Declare:
The Indian government typically relies on a combination of criteria and monitoring systems
to declare landslides and issue alerts. These criteria may include:
1. Geological Studies: Assessment of factors like soil types, rock formations, and past
landslide history.
2. Rainfall Data: Heavy and prolonged rainfall can saturate the soil, increasing the
likelihood of landslides.
3. Ground Movement Monitoring: Technologies like inclinometers and GPS are used
to detect ground movement or slope instability in vulnerable areas.
4. Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery and aerial surveys are employed
5. Weather Forecasts: Meteorological data and weather forecasts are examined that
could trigger landslides.
6. Historical Data: Past landslide events and their impact on specific regions are
considered when assessing the risk of future landslides.
7. Early Warning Systems: Many states in India have early warning systems in place
to provide alerts to residents in landslide-prone areas when conditions become
hazardous.

Causes:
1. Natural
a. Heavy Rainfall: Prolonged or intense rainfall can saturate the soil, making it
more susceptible to sliding.
b. Steep Slopes: Slopes with steep gradients are more prone to landslides.
c. Earthquakes: Ground shaking from earthquakes can dislodge rocks and soil,
leading to landslides.
d. Volcanic Activity: By altering the landscape or generating pyroclastic flows.
e. Erosion: Natural erosion processes, such as rivers undercutting hillsides.
f. Soil Type: Loose, poorly compacted soils are more likely to fail.
g. Freeze-Thaw Cycles: In colder climates, freeze-thaw cycles can expand and
contract water within rocks and soil, leading to fracturing and landslides.
h. Wildfires: Fires can destroy vegetation and alter soil properties, increasing the
risk of landslides during subsequent rainfall.
2. Anthropogenic:
a. Deforestation: The removal of trees and vegetation makes slopes more
susceptible to sliding.
b. Human Modification: Changes in land use and urbanization can increase the
risk of landslides.
c. Human Activities: Excavation, mining, construction, and irrigation can alter
the natural landscape and trigger landslides.
d. Lack of Drainage: Inadequate drainage systems can lead to water
accumulation in the soil, increasing its weight and instability.

Mitigation:
1. Restriction on the construction and other developmental activities.
2. Limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes.
3. Control on the development of large settlements in the high vulnerability zones.
4. Promoting large-scale afforestation programmes.
5. Constructions of bunds to reduce the flow of water.
6. Terrace farming should be encouraged in the northeastern hill states where Jhumming
(Slash and Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still prevalent.
7. Landslide Risk Mitigation Scheme (LRMS):
 ○ The Scheme envisages financial support for site specific Landslide Mitigation
Projects recommended by landslide prone States, covering “disaster prevention
strategy, disaster mitigation and R&D in monitoring of critical Landslides”
thereby leading to the development of Early Warning System and Capacity
Building initiatives.

NDMA Guidelines:
1. Do's
a. Move away from landslide paths or downstream valleys quickly without wasting
time.
b. Keep drains clean,
c. Grow more trees that can hold the soil through roots,
d. Identify areas of rock fall and subsidence of buildings, cracks that indicate
landslides and move to safer areas. Even muddy river waters indicate landslides
upstream.
e. Ensure that the toe of slope is not cut, remain protected, don't uproot trees
unless re-vegetation is planned.
f. Listen for unusual sounds such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together.
g. Stay alert, awake and active (3A's) during the impact or probability of impact.
h. Try to stay with your family and companions.
i. Check for injured and trapped persons.
j. Mark path of tracking so that you can't be lost in the middle of the forest.
2. Don'ts
a. Try to avoid construction and stay in vulnerable areas.
b. Do not touch or walk over loose material and electrical wiring or poles.
c. Do not build houses near steep slopes and near drainage paths.
d. Do not drink contaminated water directly from rivers, springs, wells but rain
water if collected directly without is fine.
e. Do not move an injured person without rendering first aid unless the casualty is
in immediate danger.

Way Forward:
India has a high degree of vulnerability towards the occurrence of Landslides. It is therefore
not possible for the government to completely stop their occurrence. Although, it can
definitely curtail their adverse impact by developing robust resilience in consonance with the
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.
Wave Action:
Physical processes and movements associated with the propagation of waves in a fluid
medium, such as water or air. It influences coastal erosion, weather patterns, and the design
of structures like bridges and offshore platforms.

● The IPCC (2013) has projected global sea-level rise for the period 2081-2100,
compared with 1986-2005, to be 0.29-0.82 metres.
● These projections now include a contribution from changes in ice-sheet out-flow, for
which the central projection is 0.11 metres.
● It is very likely that the rate of global mean sea-level rise during the 21st century will
exceed the rate observed during the period 1970-2010 for all scenarios.
● About 70 % of the global coastlines are projected to experience a sea-level change
within 20 % of the global mean sea-level change.
● Some models suggest sea-level rises of between 1 metre and 3 metres in response to
carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations above 700 parts per million.
● Studies of the last interglacial period (e.g. Kopp et al., 2009) indicate a very high
probability of a sea-level rise of 2 metres over 1 000 years, and cannot rule out values
in excess of 4 metres.

States Prone:
1. Gujarat: The coastline of
Gujarat along the Arabian
Sea is exposed to significant
wave action and coastal
erosion.
2. Maharashtra: Coastal
areas of Maharashtra,
including cities like
Mumbai, are vulnerable to
monsoon storms, tidal
waves, and wave action.
3. Goa: Goa faces risks
associated with cyclones and
storm surges, leading to
wave action and erosion.
4. Karnataka: It is susceptible to wave action during monsoon seasons and cyclonic
events.
5. Kerala: Kerala is prone to wave action,
particularly during the southwest
monsoon, and faces risks from storm
surges.
6. Tamil Nadu: Exposed to cyclonic
activity, leading to wave action and
coastal erosion.
7. Andhra Pradesh: Vulnerable to
cyclones and associated wave action,
especially along the Bay of Bengal coast.
8. Odisha: Extensive coastline along the
Bay of Bengal makes it susceptible to
cyclones, storm surges, and wave action.
9. West Bengal: Coastal regions of West
Bengal, including the Sundarbans delta,
 are at risk of tidal waves and wave action during cyclones.
10. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Located in the Bay of Bengal, these islands are
prone to wave action and coastal hazards, including tsunamis and storm surges.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES)

Types:
1. Wind Waves: Generated by local winds, often seen on the ocean's surface. Example:
Ripples on a pond or whitecaps on the sea.
2. Swells: Long-period waves that have traveled far from their area of origin. Example:
Groundswell generated by distant storms in the ocean.
3. Tsunamis: Large, long-period waves usually caused by undersea earthquakes or
volcanic eruptions. Example: The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
4. Tidal Waves: Caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun, leading to
rising and falling tides. Example: Daily high and low tides in coastal areas.

Criteria to Declare:
It typically doesn't follow specific criteria, declaring a specific event related to wave action
(e.g., a storm surge or tsunami) as a disaster or emergency may include:
1. Magnitude and Impact: The severity of wave height, energy, and potential impact
on human life, property, and the environment.
2. Forecast and Warning: The issuance of official forecasts and warnings by IMD and
NDMA.
3. Extent of Damage: Caused by impact on infrastructure, transportation, and essential
services.
4. Local Jurisdictional Authority: Declarations of emergencies or disasters typically
made at the local or regional level by municipal governments or state disaster
management agencies.
5. Coordination: The coordination of first responders, and organizations involved in
disaster management.

Causes:
1. Wind: Wind blowing over the water body generates friction with the water, creating
ripples that evolve into waves. Strong winds can lead to larger and more powerful
waves.
2. Seismic Activity: Earthquakes or volcanic eruptions beneath the ocean can generate
tsunamis, which are large and destructive waves with extremely long wavelengths.
3. Gravitational Pull of the Moon and Sun: Tides are caused by the gravitational
attraction of the Moon and the Sun. This gravitational pull results in the ebb and flow
of water and can create wave-like motions.
4. Underwater Geological Features: Submerged features such as underwater ridges,
seamounts, and continental shelves can influence the formation and behavior of waves.
5. Human Activities: Activities like ship traffic, coastal construction, and dredging lead
to altered wave action along coastlines.
Mitigation:
1. Coastal Engineering Structures:
a. Seawalls: Constructing seawalls or revetments along the coastline can help
absorb and deflect wave energy,
b. Breakwaters: Breakwaters are structures built offshore to reduce the energy of
incoming waves.
c. Groynes and Jetties: designed to trap sand and sediment, helped to build and
maintain beaches.
2. Beach Nourishment: Adding sand or other sediments to eroded beaches enhancing
their ability to absorb wave energy.
3. Dune Restoration: Restoring or creating dunes with vegetation can help stabilize
coastlines and provide protection.
4. Coastal Zoning and Land-Use Planning: Implementing zoning regulations in
high-risk coastal areas can reduce exposure to wave hazards.
5. Early Warning Systems: In areas prone to tsunamis or storm surges, early warning
systems can provide advance notice to residents, allowing them to evacuate to safer
areas.
6. Ecosystem-Based Approaches: Protecting and restoring coastal ecosystems like
mangroves and wetlands can act as natural buffers against wave energy.
7. Climate Adaptation Strategies: As climate change intensifies wave action,
long-term adaptation strategies are essential for coastal resilience.
8. Education and Awareness: Public awareness campaigns can inform about the risks
associated.
9. International Cooperation: In cases of transboundary wave hazards, international
cooperation and agreements can help coordinate efforts to mitigate risks and respond
to disasters.

NDMA Guidelines:
1. You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard
emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated
emergency information.
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid if necessary before helping injured or
trapped persons.
3. Help people who require special assistance—Infants, elderly people,
4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently
overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get
through.
5. Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common injury
following a disaster is cut feet.
6. Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not present a fire
hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE CANDLES.
7. Check for gas leaks.
8. Look for electrical system damage.
9. Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
10. Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for insurance
claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.
Way Forward:
1. It involves further research, sustainable harnessing of wave energy, and environmental
impact assessment.
2. It’s essential to develop efficient wave energy technologies while minimizing ecological
disruption and ensuring long-term viability.
3. Collaboration between scientists, engineers, and policymakers is key to advancing this
renewable energy source.
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
Type of flood occurring when water dammed by a glacier or a moraine is released.

● Glacier retreat occurs in most parts of the Hindu Kush Himalaya, which has given rise
to the formation of new glacial lakes.
● The geological survey of India lists 9575 glaciers of which 267 or or 10 km².
● One of the pioneer regional glacial lake inventories has provided a qualitative
classification of 251 glaciers greater than .01 km Square in area.
● In the Himalayas, 25 glacial lakes and water bodies have witnessed an increase in
water spread area since 2009.
● There has been a 40% increase in water spread in India, China and Nepal

States Prone: J&K, Ladakh, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
Types:
1. Moraine-Dammed GLOF: Occurs when a natural dam made of glacial debris
(moraine) collapses, releasing water. Example: The 2013 Kedarnath GLOF in
Uttarakhand, India.
2. Supraglacial GLOF: Involves the breach of a glacial lake on the glacier's surface.
Example: The 2016 GLOF from Chorabari Lake near Kedarnath, Uttarakhand.
3. Subglacial GLOF: Happens when water accumulates beneath a glacier and is
suddenly released. While not common in India, these events can occur in the
Himalayas.
4. Rock-Damned GLOF: Occurs when a glacial lake is blocked by rocks or landslides,
and this barrier fails. Example: The 2014 GLOF in Zanskar, Ladakh.

Criteria to Declare:
1. Glacial Lake Monitoring: Regular monitoring of glacial lakes and surrounding
areas to detect changes in lake volume, water level, and glacier dynamics.
2. Rapid Glacier Retreat: A significant and rapid retreat of the glacier can be an early
warning sign of a potential GLOF.
3. High Water Levels: Sustained increases in the water level of the glacier lake,
particularly if it exceeds a certain threshold, may trigger concerns.
4. Presence of Avalanche Debris: The accumulation in or around the lake can
indicate potential instability.
5. Ice and Moraine Dams: The presence of unstable ice or moraine dams in the lake
may increase the risk of a GLOF.
6. Weather and Climate Factors: Prolonged rainfall, rapid temperature changes, or
rapid melting of glacier ice, can contribute to GLOF risk.
7. Seismic Activity: Earthquakes or seismic events in the region can destabilize glacial
lakes and trigger GLOFs.
8. Modeling and Hazard Assessment: Use of hydrological and glaciological models
to predict the potential impact and downstream hazards of a GLOF.
9. Local Observations and Reports: Information from local communities, herders,
or researchers who may witness or report signs of increased lake instability.
10. Remote Sensing and Satellite Data: Utilizing satellite imagery and remote sensing
technology to monitor glacier lakes and changes in their behavior.

Causes:
1. When glaciers melt, they sometimes form lakes on mountain tops. The water in these
glacial lakes accumulates behind loose, naturally, formed dams, made of ice, sand,
pebbles, and ice residue.
2. These natural Dams when failed, have caused in GLOF resulting peak flows as high as
15000 cubic metres per seconds.

Mitigation:
1. Glacial Lake Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of glacial lakes, glacier dynamics,
and changes in water volume.
2. Early Warning Systems: includes monitoring weather patterns, glacier movements,
and lake water levels.
 3. Infrastructure Development: Building protective structures and barriers to
mitigate the impact of GLOFs, such as dams or outlets.
4. Disaster Preparedness and Response Plans: implementing disaster
preparedness plans for vulnerable communities, including evacuation routes and safe
zones in case of a GLOF event.
5. Community Engagement: Engaging with local communities to raise awareness
about GLOFs, train them in disaster preparedness and response, and involve them in
monitoring and early warning efforts.
6. Research and Study: Conducting scientific research and studies to better
understand glacial processes, lake dynamics, and the potential triggers of GLOFs.
7. International Cooperation: Collaborating with neighboring countries, as many
glacial lakes are transboundary, to share information, data, and expertise for a
coordinated response to GLOFs.
8. Climate Change Mitigation: Addressing the broader issue of climate change, which
contributes to glacier melt and the formation of glacial lakes. It aims to reduce the rate
of glacier retreat.

NDMA Guidelines:
1. You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard
emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated
emergency information.
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid if necessary before helping injured or
trapped persons.
3. Help people who require special assistance—Infants, elderly people,
4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently
overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get
through.
5. Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common injury
following a disaster is cut feet.
6. Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not present a fire
hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE CANDLES.
7. Check for gas leaks.
8. Look for electrical system damage.
9. Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
10. Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for insurance
claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.

Way Forward:
1. A long-term solution will be feasible if all the countries start working towards reducing
global warming.
2. India needs to form clear policy guidelines to restrict further human activities like
building roads, constructing hotels on banks, etc.
3. India needs to undertake a cumulative assessment and strategic planning. The
Geological Survey of India can use satellite images and technology like GIS (geographic
information systems) and provide a clear analysis of the HKH region.
4. Capacity building of the local community will ensure disaster mitigation in the near
future.
5. The government has to be proactive and set up an early warning system in the
Himalayas. Like the one set up in coastal areas after the 2004 tsunami.
Droughts
Broadly drought is perceived as a sharply felt water deficit caused by variations in the natural
hydro-meteorological factors, agro-ecological conditions,
moisture requirements of crops under prevailing cropping
choices (systems, patterns).

● A third of the country is drought prone. It affects

parts of Rajasthan (chronically), Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (MP), Uttar Pradesh
(UP), Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare

(MAFW)

Types of Droughts:
1. Meteorological Drought: This occurs when there
is a prolonged period of significantly below-average
precipitation. Example: A region experiencing several
consecutive months of below-average rainfall leading
to water shortages.
2. Agricultural
Drought: When
there is insufficient
moisture for crops
and vegetation to
grow, impacting
agriculture.
Example: A
prolonged dry spell
affecting crop yields
and forcing farmers
to irrigate more
3. Hydrological
Drought: This
type involves
reduced water
availability in
streams, rivers, and
reservoirs.
Example: A river experiencing low water levels due to prolonged dry conditions.
4. Socioeconomic Drought: When the impact of a drought extends to economic and
social systems, affecting communities. Example: A drought causing food and water
shortages, leading to economic hardship and migration."

Criteria To Declare:
The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of droughts:
1. Meteorological drought — A situation when there is more than 25% decrease from
the long-term average precipitation over an area.
2. Agricultural drought, — the situation when soil moisture and rainfall are
inadequate to support healthy crop growth
 3. Hydrological drought — Prolonged meteorological drought manifested in depletion
of surface and sub-surface water resources, which could occur even when the rainfall is
normal, if there has been a substantial reduction in surface water holding.

Causes:
1. Rainfall Deficiency: Significant deficiency in rainfall, especially during the
monsoon season, below-average monsoon rainfall can lead to drought conditions.
2. El Niño and La Niña: These climate phenomena in the Pacific Ocean can disrupt
the normal monsoon patterns in India. El Niño is associated with drier conditions,
while La Niña can bring excess rainfall or erratic monsoons.
3. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): IOD events, characterized by sea surface
temperature anomalies in the Indian Ocean, can influence the monsoon. A positive
IOD can lead to drier conditions in India, contributing to droughts.
4. Delayed or Erratic Monsoons: Sometimes, the monsoon onset may be delayed,
or the rains may be irregular, leading to uneven distribution of rainfall across regions
and drought in some areas.
5. Temperature Extremes: High temperatures and heat waves can exacerbate
drought conditions by increasing evaporation rates and drying out soil and water
sources.
6. Deforestation and Land Degradation: Land-use changes, deforestation, and soil
degradation can reduce the land’s capacity to retain moisture, making it more
susceptible to drought.
7. Over-Extraction of Groundwater: Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for
irrigation and domestic use can deplete aquifers and contribute to drought
conditions.
8. Inefficient Water Management: inefficient irrigation methods and
mismanagement of water resources, exacerbates water scarcity during droughts.
9. Climate Change: Long-term climate change can alter precipitation patterns and
increase the frequency and severity of drought events.

Mitigation:
1. Drought Monitoring and Early Warning Systems:
a. Establish and maintain EW systems to track rainfall, soil moisture, reservoir
levels, and crop conditions.
b. Provide timely information to farmers, policymakers, and the public about
impending drought conditions.
2. Contingency Planning:
a. Prepare contingency plans at the district and state levels to respond to drought
situations promptly.
b. Ensure these plans include provisions for food and water supply, livestock care,
and support for affected communities.
3. Water Management:
a. Promote efficient water management practices, including rainwater harvesting,
groundwater recharge, and the equitable distribution of water resources.
b. Encourage the construction of small-scale water storage structures like check
dams and farm ponds.
4. Crop Diversification and Resilience:
a. Encourage crop diversification to reduce dependency on water-intensive crops.
b. Promote the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties and sustainable
agricultural practices.
5. Social Safety Nets:
a. Establish mechanisms to provide food and financial assistance to vulnerable
populations during drought emergencies.
 b. Identify and prioritize the needs of marginalized communities and vulnerable
groups.
6. Awareness and Education:
a. Educate farmers and communities about drought preparedness, water
conservation, and sustainable land use practices.
b. Promote training programs for farmers on resilient farming techniques.
7. Research and Development: Invest in research and development to improve
drought forecasting, crop varieties, and agricultural practices suited to arid and
semi-arid regions.
8. Infrastructure Development: Invest in rural infrastructure development,
including roads, irrigation systems, and storage facilities to improve agricultural
resilience.
9. Cross-Sectoral Coordination: Facilitate coordination among various government
departments, agencies, and stakeholders involved in drought management.
10. Legislation and Policy Framework: Review and update drought-related
legislation and policies to ensure they are responsive to evolving drought challenges.

NDMA Guidelines:
There is a need to develop a multi-criteria index to classify droughts based on several factors
such as the following:
1. Meteorological (rainfall, temperature, etc.)
2. Soil conditions (depth, type, available water content, etc.)
3. Surface water use (proportion of irrigated area, surface water supplies, etc.)
4. Ground water (availability, utilization, etc.)
5. Crop (cropping pattern changes, land use, crop conditions, anomalies in crop
condition, etc.)
6. Socio-economic (proportion of weaker sections, poverty, size class of farm holdings,
etc.)

Way Forward:
It is essential that along with a drought monitoring system, medium and long-term area
specific plans be prepared for drought proofing of susceptible areas. While drought-proofing
measures can significantly improve the coping capacity and dampen the impact of drought.
Meteorological
Hazard caused by short-lived, micro- to meso-scale extreme weather and atmospheric
conditions that may last for minutes to days

Cyclones
Cyclone: rapid inward air circulation around a low-pressure area. The air circulates in an
anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
hemisphere.
The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word Cyclones meaning the coils of a snake.

Tropical Cyclone: Intense low-pressure areas of the earth-atmosphere coupled system and
are extreme weather events of the tropics.
● Tropical cyclone is the term used globally to cover tropical weather systems in which
winds equal or exceed ‘gale force’ (minimum of 34 knots, i.e., 62 kmph).

Risk:
● Subcontinent with a long coastline of 8041 kilometres is exposed to nearly 10 percent
of the world’s tropical cyclones.
● An analysis of the frequencies of cyclones during 1891-2000 shows that nearly 308
cyclones (out of which 103 were
severe) affected the East Coast.

States Prone:
Coastal States: The eastern coastal states
like Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal,
and Tamil Nadu, as well as the western
coastal states of Gujarat and Maharashtra,
are prone to cyclones and tropical cyclones.
The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea are
cyclone-prone regions.

Types of Tropical Cyclones:

1. Hurricane (Atlantic and
Northeast Pacific): These are powerful
tropical cyclones with sustained winds of at
least 74 mph (119 km/h). Example: Hurricane Katrina.
 2. Typhoon (Northwest Pacific): Similar to hurricanes, but the term "typhoon" is
used in the Northwest Pacific region. Example: Typhoon Haiyan.
3. Cyclone (Southwest Pacific and Indian Ocean): Cyclones are equivalent to
hurricanes and typhoons but are referred to as cyclones in the Southwest Pacific and
the Indian Ocean. Example: Cyclone Yasi.
4. Tropical Storm: These are less intense than hurricanes, with sustained winds
between 39 mph (63 km/h) and 73 mph (117 km/h). Example: Tropical Storm Harvey.
5. Tropical Depression: The initial stage of a tropical cyclone, with maximum
sustained winds below 39 mph (63 km/h). Example: Tropical Depression Barry.
6. Super Typhoon (Western Pacific): A term used for exceptionally powerful
typhoons with winds exceeding 150 mph (241 km/h). Example: Super Typhoon
Meranti.

Criteria to Declare:
1. Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C;
2. Presence of the Coriolis force;
3. Small variations in the vertical wind speed;
4. A pre-existing weak-low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;
5. Upper divergence above the sea level system.

Causes:
1. Warm Ocean Water: Cyclones are fueled by warm ocean waters which provides heat
and moisture typically with sea surface temperatures of 26°C (79°F) or higher.
2. Atmospheric Instability: Rising warm, moist air creates a low-pressure area that
draws in more air, setting the cyclone in motion.
3. Coriolis Effect: The rotation of the Earth causes the developing storm to spin, with
the Coriolis effect.

Mitigation:
1. Early Warning Systems: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides
early warning forecasts and tracks the movement of cyclones, allowing for timely
evacuations and preparedness.
2. Evacuation Plans: Coastal states and regions prone to cyclones have evacuation
plans in place, with designated shelters and evacuation routes.
3. Cyclone Resistant Infrastructure: Building codes and construction standards in
cyclone-prone areas
4. Mangrove Conservation: Act as natural barriers against storm surges associated
with cyclones.

NDMA Guidelines:
1. If indoors:
a. DROP to the ground; take COVER by getting under a sturdy table or other piece
of furniture; and HOLD ON until the shaking stops. If there is no a table or desk
near you, cover your face and head with your arms and crouch in an inside
corner of the building.
b. Protect yourself by staying under the lintel of an inner door, in the corner of a
room, under a table or even under a bed.
 c. Stay away from glass, windows, outside doors and walls, and anything that could
fall, (such as lighting fixtures or furniture).
d. Stay in bed if you are there when the earthquake strikes. Hold on and protect
your head with a pillow, unless you are under a heavy light fixture that could fall.
In that case, move to the nearest safe place.
2. If outdoors:
a. Do not move from where you are. However, move away from buildings, trees,
streetlights, and utility wires.
b. If you are in open space, stay there until the shaking stops. The greatest danger
exists directly outside buildings; at exits; and alongside exterior walls. Most
earthquake-related casualties result from collapsing walls, flying glass, and
falling objects.

Way Forward:
1. Our response to cyclones and tropical cyclones must include advanced prediction
systems, resilient infrastructure, community preparedness, and international
cooperation.
2. By investing in early warning systems and constructing cyclone-resistant buildings, we
can save lives and reduce damage.
3. Furthermore, addressing climate change is paramount to curbing the increasing
intensity and frequency of these storms.
4. In the face of these diverse and potent natural hazards, a holistic approach that
combines science, technology, community engagement, and global collaboration is our
best defence.

Tornadoes
Tornado: From a severe thunderstorm, a small-diameter column of violently rotating air
developed within a convective cloud and in contact with the ground like an elephant trunk.
Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.

Tornadoes are relatively rare in India, and they are not as commonly associated with specific
states as other weather events.

Types of Tornadoes:
1. Waterspout: A tornado that forms over water. Example: A waterspout over the ocean
near a coastal area.
2. Dust Devil: A small, weak tornado that forms on dry, dusty ground. Example: Dust
devils seen in arid regions like deserts.
3. EF0 Tornado: The weakest on the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale, with winds up to 85
mph (137 km/h). Example: A brief EF0 tornado causing minor damage to trees and
structures.
4. EF5 Tornado: The strongest on the EF scale, with winds over 200 mph (322 km/h).
Example: The devastating EF5 tornado that struck Moore, Oklahoma, in 2013.
5. Rope Tornado: A narrow tornado with a thin, rope-like appearance. Example:
Tornadoes often take on a rope-like shape as they dissipate.
6. Multi-Vortex Tornado: A tornado with multiple smaller vortices rotating around a
common centre. Example: The El Reno tornado in Oklahoma in 2013.
Heatwaves
The IPCC defines heatwave as "a period of abnormally hot weather, often defined with
reference to a relative temperature threshold, lasting from two days to months."

● Heat Wave Duration Index & World Meteorological Organization— heat wave occurs
when the daily maximum temperature of more than five consecutive days exceeds the
average maximum temperature by 5 °C (9 °F).
● Heatwaves typically occur between March-June, more frequent over the Indo Gangetic
plains, on an average, 5-6 heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of
the country.
● Heat cramps: Edelman (Swelling) and syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by
fever below 39 degrees Celsius.
● Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness,
dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting,
muscle cramps, and sweating.
● Heat stroke: Body temperature is at
40°C or more along with delirium,
seizures or coma which is potentially
fatal.
● Heat waves are more frequent over the
Indo-Gangec plains of India. On an
average, 5-6 heat wave events occur
every year over the northern parts of the
country.

Nodal Ministry: Indian Meteorological Department (Ministry of Earth sciences, MOES)

Types of Heat Waves:

1. Moderate Heatwave: A heatwave with temperatures exceeding the normal
maximum by 3-5°C. Example: A moderate heatwave in Delhi with temperatures
reaching 42°C (108°F) in May.
2. Severe Heatwave: More intense than moderate heat waves, with temperatures
exceeding the normal maximum by over 5°C. Example: A severe heatwave in Rajasthan
with temperatures soaring to 50°C (122°F) in June.
 3. Sustained Heatwave: A prolonged period of high temperatures lasting for several
days. Example: A sustained heatwave in Odisha lasting for a week with temperatures
consistently above 40°C (104°F).
4. Heatwave with High Humidity: Occurs when high humidity levels make it feel
even hotter. Example: A humid heatwave in Mumbai with temperatures in the high
30s°C (around 100°F) and high humidity levels.

Criteria to declare:
1. Heatwave: When the maximum temperature of a met-substation reaches at least
40°C (104°F) in the plains or 37 degrees or more in coastal area, 30°C (86°F) in hilly
areas
2. Severe Heatwave: When the maximum temperature of a met substation reaches at
least 45°C (113°F) in the plains or 30°C (86°F) in hilly regions.

Causes:
Heatwaves in India can be caused by various factors, including:
1. High Temperatures: India's geographical location and topography make it
susceptible to intense heat.
2. Seasonal Weather Patterns: The movement of weather systems, such as the Indian
Ocean Dipole and El Niño, can influence temperature and precipitation patterns,
contributing to heatwaves.
3. Lack of Rainfall: Prolonged periods of low rainfall, or droughts, leads to soil
moisture depletion and less evaporative cooling.
4. Urban Heat Island Effect: Urban areas with concrete and asphalt can absorb and
retain heat, causing localized temperature increases. Rapid urbanization contributes to
this effect.
5. Global Climate Change: Long-term changes in global climate patterns can result in
more frequent and severe heat waves.
6. Wind Patterns: Changes in wind patterns can influence the movement of air masses,
potentially trapping warm air and causing prolonged periods of extreme heat.
7. Monsoon Delay or Failure: The delay or failure of the monsoon contributes to
heatwaves.
8. Deforestation and Land Use Changes: Alterations in land cover, leading to higher
temperatures.
9. Human Activities: Activities like industrial processes, transportation, and
agriculture can release heat-trapping gases and pollutants, contributing to local
warming.

Mitigation:
1. Early Warning Systems: Implement advanced meteorological forecasting systems
to provide early warnings about impending heatwaves.
2. Cooling Centers: Establish cooling centers in urban areas where vulnerable
populations can seek refuge during extreme heat events.
3. Urban Planning: Design and retrofit urban areas to reduce the urban heat island
effect.
4. Building Design: Promote energy-efficient building designs that incorporate natural
cooling techniques, such as proper ventilation, insulation, and shading.
5. Public Awareness: educate people about the risks of heatwaves and the importance
of staying hydrated, wearing appropriate clothing, and avoiding outdoor activities
during peak heat hours.
 6. Water Supply: Ensure a stable and reliable access to clean water as it is crucial for
hydration and cooling.
7. Healthcare Preparedness: Train healthcare workers to recognize and treat
heat-related illnesses promptly.
8. Heat-Related Research: Invest in research to better understand local climate
patterns, heatwave dynamics, and vulnerability assessments to tailor mitigation efforts
effectively.
9. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: As a long-term strategy, work towards
reducing greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate the effects of global climate change.
10. Adaptive Agriculture: Promote climate-resilient agricultural practices to reduce the
impact of heatwaves on food production and farmers.
11. Heat-Resilient Construction: Encourage the construction of buildings and
infrastructure that can withstand extreme heat conditions.

NDMA Guidelines:
1. You think someone is suffering from the heat:
a. Move the person to a cool place under the shade
b. Give water or a rehydrating drink (if the person is still conscious)
c. Fan the person
d. Consult a doctor if symptoms get worse or are long lasting or the person is
unconscious
e. Do not give alcohol, caffeine or aerated drink
f. Cool the person by putting a cool wet cloth on his/her face/body
g. Loosen clothes for better ventilation
2. Emergency Kit
a. Water bottle
b. Umbrella/ Hat or Cap / Head Cover
c. Hand Towel
d. Hand Fan
e. Electrolyte / Glucose / Oral Rehydration

Way Forward:
1. The National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) should be implemented in true
spirit for inclusive growth and ecological sustainability.
2. Nature-based solutions should be taken into account, not just for tackling climate
change induced heat waves but also doing it in a way that is ethical and promoting
intergenerational justice.
3. Sustainable Cooling
4. Passive cooling technology, a widely-used strategy to create naturally ventilated
buildings, can be a vital alternative to address the urban heat island for residential and
commercial buildings.
5. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in the third part of its AR6
stated that ancient Indian building designs that have used this technology, can be
adapted to modern facilities in the context of global warming.
Cold Wave, Derecho
Cold wave: A rapid fall in temperature within 24 hours to a level requiring substantially
increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities.
Derecho: “a widespread, long-lived, straight-line windstorm (no rotation like tornado)” that
is associated with a “band of rapidly moving showers or thunderstorms”.
The name comes from the Spanish word ‘la derecha’ which means ‘straight’.
It is a warm-weather phenomenon that generally occurs in June and July.

Analysis period of 1971-2010: Cold wave/

Severe cold wave spells are of 1-2 days, but in
some cases, it lasted for 10 days. There are more
than average 6 cold wave days in the period.

● India’s ‘core cold wave zone’ covers

Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha
and Telangana.
●

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MAFW)

Cold Wave Types
1. Advection Cold Wave: Occurs when cold air moves into an area, lowering
temperatures. Example: The Siberian cold wave in Europe during winter.
2. Radiation Cold Wave: Happens under clear skies with calm winds, allowing heat to
radiate away at night. Example: A clear winter night in the northern United States.
3. Frontal Cold Wave: Results from the passage of a cold front, causing a sudden drop
in temperature. Example: A cold front moving through during a thunderstorm.

Criteria to Declare:
If Wind chill factor (measure of the cooling effect of the wind on the temperature of the air)
is 10°C or less, then only the conditions for cold waves are considered.
● For the plains: When the minimum temperature is 10 degrees Celsius or below and
is 4.5 to 5.5 degrees Celsius (C) less than normal for two consecutive days. Severe cold
wave is declared when the temperature departure from normal is -6 to -7 degree
Celsius. When Wind chill factor is 0°C or less, the Cold Wave should be declared
irrespectively.
● For coastal stations: The threshold value of minimum temperature of 10 degree
Celsius is rarely reached. However, the local people feel discomfort due to the wind
chill factor which reduces the minimum temperature by a few degrees depending upon
the wind speed.

Causes:
1. Cold wave:
a. Absence of cloud cover in the region: Clouds trap some of the outgoing infrared
radiation and radiate it back downward, warming the ground.
b. Snowfall in the upper Himalayas that has blown cold winds towards the region.
c. Subsidence of cold air over the region: Subsidence is the downward movement of
cold and dry air closer to the surface.
d. Prevailing weak La Nina conditions in the Pacific Ocean.
e. La Nina is the abnormal cooler sea surface temperatures reported along the
equatorial Pacific Ocean and it is known to favour cold waves.
f. During La Nina years, the severity of cold conditions becomes intense. The
frequency and area covered under the grip of a cold wave becomes larger.
2. Derechos:
a. Heat and Moisture: Associated with warm, moist air masses, often develop in
the warm sector of a rapidly moving low-pressure system.
b. Atmospheric Instability: Derechos require atmospheric instability, which is
characterized by rising warm air and falling cool air.
c. Squall Line: Derechos are a type of severe windstorm associated with a
long-lived squall line of severe thunderstorms.
d. Downbursts: Within the squall line, downbursts are powerful & can create
straight-line wind damage over a wide area.
e. High Wind Gusts: Derechos are known for their destructive straight-line wind
gusts, which can exceed 58 miles per hour (93 kilometres per hour) and are often
associated with widespread wind damage.
Mitigation:
1. Shelter and Relief Camps: Setting up temporary shelters and relief camps to
provide warmth, food, and medical assistance.
2. Winter Clothing Distribution: Distributing warm clothing, blankets, and winter
essentials to communities in need.
3. Weather Forecasting and Early Warning Systems: Improving weather
forecasting capabilities and disseminating timely cold wave warnings to the public.
4. Community Awareness Programs: Educate people about the risks of cold waves
and the importance of staying warm, along with tips for winter safety.
5. Heating Facilities: Installing heating facilities in public spaces, like community
centers, schools, and hospitals.
6. Power Supply Maintenance: Ensuring the reliability of power supply during cold
waves to avoid disruptions in heating systems and essential services.
7. Social Support Programs: Providing financial assistance and support to vulnerable
populations.
8. Coordination with NGOs and International Agencies: Collaborating with
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international agencies to enhance the
reach and effectiveness of cold wave mitigation efforts.

Way Forward:
Cold Wave: Improve winter preparedness, provide shelter for vulnerable populations, and
ensure access to heating resources in affected areas. Address climate change to reduce the
frequency and severity of cold waves.
Derecho: Enhance early warning systems for severe thunderstorms, strengthen
infrastructure against high winds, and educate the public on derecho risks. Foster regional
cooperation for effective response to widespread derecho events.
Anthropogenic Disasters
Biological and public health emergencies
(BPHE)
Biological emergency is one caused due to natural outbreaks of epidemics or intentional use
of biological agents (Virus and microorganisms) or toxins from through dissemination of
such agents in ways to harm human population, food, crop and livestock to cause outbreaks
of disease.

Pandemics and Epidemics: Widespread outbreaks of infectious diseases. Example: The

COVID-19 pandemic, which began in late 2019 and affected India and the world.

● Biological hazardous events may include severe economic and environmental losses.
● The Ebola Virus Disease outbreak in West Africa in 2013-2016, the largest epidemic
of its kind to date in the populations of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.
● The outbreak of Zika virus infection in the Americas and the Pacific region,
associated with congenital and other neurological disorders.
● Significant increase in diarrheal disease incidences following recurrent floods in
most African countries or significant increase following the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia
and Thailand.
● Outbreaks of yellow fever in Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda
in 2016.
● Outbreaks of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome – Coronavirus (MERS CoV), an
emerging disease identified in 2012.
● Outbreak of Sars Cov-2 COVID at the end of 2019.

States Prone:
● Epidemics and Infectious Diseases:
○ Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
○ Bengal: These densely populated
states are often vulnerable to
outbreaks of diseases like cholera,
dengue, and viral fevers.
○ Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu:
These states have urban centers
where infectious diseases can spread
quickly.
● Vector-Borne Diseases:
○ States with Tropical Climates (e.g.,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, parts of
Maharashtra): These regions are
susceptible to diseases like malaria
and dengue due to the presence of
disease-carrying vectors.
● Zoonotic Diseases:
○ States with High Agricultural Activity
(e.g., Punjab, Haryana): These states
may be at risk of zoonotic diseases
 transmitted from animals to humans due to close contact with livestock.
● Tribal and Remote Areas:
○ States with Tribal Populations (e.g., Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, parts of Odisha):
Remote and tribal areas can face unique public health challenges, including
limited access to healthcare.
● Environmental Pollution:
○ Urban States and Cities (e.g., Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata): High levels of air
pollution in major cities can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular health
emergencies.

Criteria to Declare:
1. Outbreak of Infectious Disease: A sudden outbreak or epidemic of a highly
contagious or deadly infectious disease.
2. Spread Beyond Control: The outbreak spreads beyond the capacity for local
healthcare and containment measures.
3. High Mortality or Morbidity: The disease causes a high rate of illness, severe
illness, or death in the affected population.

Causes:
1. Natural, accidental, or deliberate dispersal of harmful agents into food, water, air, soil
or into plants, crops, or livestock.
2. Weapons of biological warfare and bioterrorism.
Way Forward:
1. Preventative measures such as proper sanitation, vaccination, and biosecurity
protocols are essential in minimizing these risks.
2. Early detection, monitoring, and rapid response are crucial for mitigating the potential
harm caused by biological hazards.
3. Public awareness and education also play a vital role in reducing exposure to biological
hazards and ensuring the safety of individuals and communities.
Chemical Spills
A chemical disaster is an incident involving the accidental or deliberate release of hazardous
chemicals that poses a significant threat to human health, the environment, or property.

● Industrial Chemical Accidents: Involving hazardous chemicals in industrial

settings. Example: The Bhopal Gas Tragedy in 1984, where a gas leak at the Union
Carbide plant resulted in thousands of deaths and injuries.
● Chemical Spills: Accidental release of toxic chemicals, often during transportation.
Example: The 2009 Haldia chemical spill in West Bengal due to a ship collision.
● World’s worst chemical (industrial) disaster “Bhopal Gas Tragedy” in the year 1984.
● Only in the last decade, 130 significant chemical accidents were reported in India,
which resulted in 259 deaths and 563 number of major injuries.
● There are about 1861 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) units, spread across 301 districts
and 25 states & 3 Union Territories, in all zones of the country.

States Prone:
1. Gujarat: Gujarat is known
for its industrial and
chemical manufacturing
hubs, including
petrochemical complexes
and chemical processing
units.
2. Maharashtra: Areas
around Mumbai and Pune,
have a significant presence of
chemical industries and
manufacturing units, which
increases the risk of chemical
accidents.
3. Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana: These states
have industrial zones with
chemical and pharmaceutical
manufacturing facilities,
increasing the potential for
chemical-related incidents.
4. Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu
has several chemical and
pharmaceutical industries,
particularly around Chennai
and its industrial belts.
5. West Bengal: The state's
industrial areas, including
Haldia and Kolkata, have
chemical industries, and
incidents have occurred in
the past.
6. Uttar Pradesh: Industrial areas like Kanpur and Ghaziabad have chemical
manufacturing units, and there is a potential risk of chemical disasters.
 7. Rajasthan: Certain industrial areas in Rajasthan, such as Bhiwadi and Jaipur, have
chemical and petrochemical units.

Criteria to Declare:
1. Release of Hazardous Chemicals: A significant, accidental, or deliberate release of
hazardous chemicals that can result in widespread harm.
2. Immediate or Potential Threat: The release must pose an immediate or potential
threat to human health, the environment, or property.
3. Magnitude: The scale of the incident, including the quantity and toxicity of chemicals
involved, must exceed a certain threshold.
4. Response Capability: The incident overwhelms the local response capacity,
necessitating assistance from higher levels of government or specialized resources.

Causes:
1. Mishaps or failures in industry and negligence in following international codes and
standards for chemical handling which affects the industrial functioning, and
productivity.
2. Deficiencies in safety management systems or human errors, natural calamity or
sabotage may trigger.

Mitigation:
Implementation of the updated and relevant International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) and Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series (OHSAS) standards to
production and storage of chemicals.
Way Forward:
1. Although India has sufficient legislation to address industrial disasters, their efficacy
needs to be reviewed.
2. Buffer zones must be established around factories that handle dangerous materials.
3. The supreme court had underlined that financial compensation ought to serve as a
deterrent against similar catastrophes. It must be in proportion to the violating
enterprise’s capabilities.
4. The local authorities need to be made aware of the disaster management plan,
particularly because CBRN (chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear)
catastrophes call for a specific response.
5. It should be required of all such industrial facilities to maintain an effective disaster
management plan. Through recurring safety drills, the person must also be informed of
the plan and instructed on how to handle similar circumstances.
6. The local population must be informed of the industries’ disaster management plans.
7. By gradually transferring industry away from populous regions, the “sitting of the
industries” problem can be resolved.
Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies
(NRE)
Nuclear and/or Radiological Emergency (NRE) is an incident resulting in exposure to and/or
contamination of the workers or the public, exceeding the respective permissible limits.
Five emergency categories:
1. An accident, taking place in any nuclear facility, leading to a large-scale release of
radioactivity in the environment.
2. Criticality accident where uncontrolled chain reaction takes place.
3. Radioactive material package during transportation.
4. Terrorist attack using radioactive material.
5. Nuclear weapon attack

Nuclear Accidents: Resulting from failures in nuclear power plants or research facilities.
Example: The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011 due to a tsunami and
earthquake.

● India has 20 power reactors and three research reactors in operation along with five
power reactors under construction. It is also planned to explore setting up Thorium
based reactors to meet its ever-increasing energy needs.
● The country is also at the verge of making operational the first 500MW prototype Fast
Breeder Reactor (PFBR) after a prolonged experience of operation of FBTR (Fast
Breeder Test Reactor).

Nodal Ministry: Dept. of Atomic Energy (DAE)

States Prone:
1. Maharashtra: Tarapur Atomic
Power Station and the Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre
(BARC). Tarapur is one of
India’s oldest nuclear power
plants.
2. Gujarat: Kakrapar Atomic
Power Station and several
research and development
facilities related to nuclear
energy.
3. Tamil Nadu: Kalpakkam
Nuclear Complex, which
includes the Madras Atomic
Power Station and the Indira
Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Research (IGCAR).
4. Andhra Pradesh: Kovvada
Atomic Power Project and the
Nuclear Fuel Complex in
Hyderabad.
5. Rajasthan: Rajasthan Atomic
Power Station and several
mining and processing facilities related to nuclear materials.
6. Karnataka: The Kaiga Atomic Power Station and various research institutions.
Criteria to Declare:
1. Radiation Release: The release of radioactive materials exceeding safe limits, such
as from a nuclear power plant accident or nuclear weapon detonation.
2. Immediate or Potential Radiation Hazard: The release poses an immediate or
potential radiation hazard to people, animals, or the environment.
3. Impact Area: The incident affects a significant geographic area, potentially requiring
large-scale evacuations or protective measures.

Causes:
Caused by detonation of nuclear warhead or explosion of an Improvised Nuclear Device
(IND) with associated release of large amounts of devastative energy due to Blast, Thermal
and Radioactive material.

Mitigation:
1. Emergency Preparedness and Response Plans: Establish comprehensive plans
including strategies for evacuation, sheltering, medical treatment, and communication.
2. Radiation Monitoring: Implement a robust system for monitoring radiation levels
to detect any unusual increases promptly.
3. Evacuation and Sheltering: Develop evacuation plan and procedures for
potentially affected areas, ensuring the safety of the public.
4. Public Communication: Maintain clear and timely communication, providing
instructions and updates on the situation, protective measures, and evacuation routes.
5. Medical Preparedness: Ensure that healthcare facilities are equipped and trained
to handle radiation-related injuries and illnesses.
6. Regulation and Inspection: Regularly inspect and enforce safety regulations for
nuclear facilities, such as power plants and research facilities.
7. International Cooperation: Collaborate for information sharing, assistance, and
coordination during a radiological incident.
Way Forward:
Effective national and global response arrangements and capabilities are essential to
minimise the impacts from nuclear and radiological incidents and emergencies. The IAEA
maintains the international Emergency Preparedness and Response (EPR) framework,
which is based on the international legal instruments.
As part of these activities, it assists Member States in building the capacity for emergency
response; and maintains the IAEA Incident and Emergency System to efficiently implement
its role in response to nuclear or radiological emergencies, regardless of whether they arise
from accident, negligence or deliberate act.
Disaster Management Framework in India
Institutional Framework at Union Level:
Disaster Management Division:
The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) oversees disaster management in India through its
Disaster Management Division.
This division is responsible for coordinating response, relief, and preparedness for natural
and man-made disasters (excluding drought and epidemics).
to ensure effective disaster risk reduction it collaborates with:
● Disaster-affected state governments
● Relevant Ministries or Departments
● National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
● National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
● National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
● Directorate General of Fire Services, Home Guards, Civil Defence, and the Armed
Forces

National Executive Committee (NEC):

The National Executive Committee (NEC) coordinates and monitors disaster management.
It is chaired by the Union Home Secretary. It includes Secretary-level officers from various
ministries such as agriculture, defense, health, and finance. The Chief of Integrated Defence
Staff is also a member.
Key decision-making bodies in disaster management include:
● Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS): It handles defense, law and order,
internal security, foreign policy issues with security implications, and economic and
political issues affecting national security. It plays a role in decision-making during
disasters with serious security implications.
● National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC): It manages major crises with
national impact, involving security forces and intelligence agencies. It deals with
terrorism, law and order situations, serial bomb blasts, hijackings, air accidents, CBRN
incidents, weapon systems, mine disasters, port and harbour emergencies, forest fires,
oilfield fires, and oil spills.
The Cabinet Committee on Management of Natural Calamities was discontinued in 2014.

National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR):

The NPDRR, a multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral body, ensures participatory
decision-making in disaster management.
It is Chaired by the Union Home Minister, with the Minister of State for Disaster
Management and the Vice-Chairman of NDMA as Vice-Chairpersons, and convened by the
Special/Additional Secretary in-charge of Disaster Management in the Ministry of Home
Affairs.
NPDRR performs the following functions:
● Reviews disaster management progress.
● Evaluates the implementation of the Disaster Management Policy by central and state
governments.
● Advises on coordination among central and state governments, local authorities, and
civil society organizations for disaster risk reduction.
● Provides recommendations on disaster management issues as requested by central or
state governments.
● Reviews the Disaster Management Policy.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):
The NDMA is the central body for disaster management in India, responsible for setting
policies, plans, and guidelines. It helps Central Ministries, Departments, and States create
their Disaster Management (DM) plans and handles all types of disasters, both natural and
human-induced.
Key functions of NDMA:
● Approves National Disaster Management Plans and plans of Central
Ministries/Departments.
● Controls the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF).
● Guides the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM).
● Authorizes emergency procurement of materials for rescue and relief.
● Takes measures for disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and capacity
building.
● Manages funds for mitigation and preparedness.
NDMA Advisory Committee: A 15-member committee comprising experts from various
disaster management fields, academia, government, NGOs, and civil society.

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM):

The NIDM is responsible for human resource development, capacity building, training,
research, documentation, and policy advocacy in disaster management.
Functions:
● Provides technical support to state governments through Disaster Management
Centres (DMCs) in State Administrative Training Institutes (ATIs).
● Supports 30 DMCs, with six being Centres of Excellence in managing flood,
earthquake, cyclone, drought, landslide, and industrial disasters.
Partnerships: Collaborates with central, state, and local governments, academic and
research organizations, and international agencies.

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

The NDRF is a specialized response force for disaster situations, overseen by the NDMA and
commanded by the Director General of NDRF. It consists of 12 battalions from BSF, CRPF,
CISF, ITBP, and SSB, each with 18 specialized search and rescue teams, totaling 1,149
personnel per battalion.
Key Points:
● Provides proactive and pre-positioned support to states, minimizing disaster damage.
● Successfully handled the 2008 Kosi Floods, rescuing over 100,000 people.
● First on the ground during the 2015 Nepal earthquake, rescuing 11 live victims.
● Demonstrated expertise in CBRN challenges, notably retrieving Cobalt-60 radiological
material in Delhi, 2010.

Institutional Framework at State Level:

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

According to the Disaster Management Act, every state must have an SDMA with the Chief
Minister as Chairperson.
In UTs, the Lieutenant Governor or Administrator acts as Chairperson.
In Delhi, the Lieutenant Governor and Chief Minister are Chairperson and Vice-Chairperson
respectively.
Responsibilities:
● Formulate policies and plans for disaster management.
● Approve State DM Plans per NDMA guidelines.
 ● Oversee state DM plan implementation and fund allocation for mitigation and
preparedness.
● Review state department plans to integrate prevention, preparedness, and mitigation.

State Executive Committee (SEC):

Formed by State Governments to assist SDMA, led by the Chief Secretary.
Functions:
● Coordinate and monitor implementation of National Policy, National Plan, and State
Plans.
● Provide disaster management information to NDMA.

Institutional Framework at District Level

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
Each state must establish a DDMA for every district.
Headed by the District Collector/Magistrate with an elected local authority representative as
Co-Chairperson. An officer (Additional Collector/Magistrate) serves as the CEO.
Responsibilities:
● Prepare and monitor the district DM plan.
● Ensure compliance with NDMA and SDMA guidelines by district offices.

Local Authorities
Involved Bodies: PRIs, Municipalities, District and Cantonment Boards, and Town
Planning Authorities.
Functions:
● Build capacity for disaster management.
● Execute relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction activities.
● Develop disaster management plans per national and state guidelines.

Enhancing SDMAs and DDMAs:

● Initiative: Ministry of Home Affairs' scheme to enhance SDMA and selected DDMA
effectiveness.
● Implementation: Managed by Scheme Implementation Unit (SIU) at NDMA,
involving dedicated disaster management professionals.
Legal Framework
Disaster Management Act, 2005
The National Disaster Management Act, 2005 establishes structures and processes for
disaster management at various levels: National, State, District, and Local.
It mandates the creation of:
● National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) at the national level,
● State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) at the state level,
● District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) at the district level.
The primary responsibility for disaster management lies with the respective State
Governments, supported by the institutional mechanisms at the Centre, State, and District
levels.
Financial Arrangements under the Act
1. National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)
a. Managed by the Central Government for emergency response, relief, and
rehabilitation.
b. Provides additional funds to states when their State Disaster Response Fund
(SDRF) is insufficient.
c. The National Calamity Contingency Fund was merged with the NDRF.
2. State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF)
a. Used for immediate relief to disaster victims.
b. Also covers state-specific disasters not listed nationally.
3. National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF)
a. Not yet established.
b. Existing schemes like Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, National Mission
on Sustainable Agriculture, and Namami Gange cover mitigation needs.
4. National Disaster Response Reserve (NDRR)
a. Recommended by the 13th Finance Commission.
b. Rs. 250 crore corpus for immediate relief materials/equipment post-disaster.

14th Finance Commission Recommendations

● States can use up to 10% of SDRF for locally relevant disasters not nationally listed.
● Assured funding source for NDRF post-GST.
● Rs. 55,000 crores allocation for Disaster Management across states.
These financial mechanisms ensure a structured approach to disaster management,
providing resources for both immediate response and long-term mitigation.

Issues related to Disaster Management Act:

1. Implementation Issues:
a. Delayed National Plan: The National Plan on Disaster Management was
delayed by seven years, finalized only in 2016.
b. Marginalization: The Act sidelines NGOs, local representatives, communities,
and civic groups.
c. Top-Down Approach: The Act promotes a hierarchical, bureaucratic
structure, giving extensive powers to central, state, and district authorities.
2. CAG Report Findings (2013):
a. Incomplete Projects: Major projects by NDMA were either abandoned or
poorly planned and redesigned.
b. Non-Performance: NDMA did not fulfill functions like recommending
mitigation funds or relief in loan repayment.
 c. Vacancies: Many critical posts in NDMA were vacant, relying on consultants
for day-to-day operations.
3. Public Accounts Committee Observations (2015)
a. Infrequent Meetings: The National Executive Committee rarely met, even
during disasters like the 2007 floods and 2008 stampede.
b. Mitigation Funds Not Established: Neither center, states, nor districts had
set up Mitigation Funds for preparedness and restoration.
c. Delayed Communication Projects: Projects to strengthen disaster
management communications were delayed or only in planning stages.
d. Telemetry Stations: Only 56 out of 219 planned telemetry stations were
installed by 2016; 59% of existing ones were non-functional.
e. Vacancies in NDRF: 27% posts in the National Disaster Response Force were
vacant. The National Institute of Disaster Response, approved in 2006, had not
been established.

Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897

Enacted by the British government to combat the bubonic plague outbreak in the Bombay
Presidency in 1896, under Viceroy Lord Elgin-II (1894-1899).

Provisions:
1. Section 1: Title and extent. Applicable throughout India.
2. Section 2: State powers to take special measures and make regulations to contain
outbreaks, including inspecting travelers and segregating suspected cases.
3. Section 2A: Central government empowered to take steps to prevent the spread of an
epidemic. Advisories and directions from the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare
become enforceable.
4. Section 3: Penalty for disobedience based on section 188 of the Indian Penal Code
(disobedience to a public servant’s order).
5. Section 4: Legal protection for officers implementing the Act.
6. Epidemic Diseases (Amendment) Act, 2020: Introduced to protect healthcare
workers from violence during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Key Issues in the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897

as Highlighted by the 22nd Law Commission of India
1. Outdated Colonial-Era Law: The Act grants extensive powers to the government,
which can potentially be misused. It is also ill-equipped to address new variants of
communicable diseases that pose fresh challenges to the healthcare system.
2. Lack of Definition: The Act does not define terms such as 'epidemic' or 'infectious
disease' and fails to differentiate between 'outbreak,' 'epidemic,' and 'pandemic.'
3. Management of Epidemics: There are no specific guidelines within the Act for
effective disease surveillance, quarantine processes, ensuring the availability of drugs
and vaccines, or the disposal of infectious waste and corpses.
4. Governance Issues
a. Lack of Decentralization: The Act does not provide statutory power to local
governments to regulate epidemic diseases.
b. Lack of Demarcation of Power: Both the Centre and the States have the
power to frame laws on 'prevention of infection or contagious diseases' as it is in
the Concurrent List. The Act does not specify which authority will take
precedence in case of disagreements between the States and the Centre.
 c. Uncoordinated Response: The lack of an enforcement mechanism tailored to
the nature and gravity of epidemic diseases hinders effective prevention and
control, leading to an uncoordinated response.
5. Inadequate Punishment for Violations: The penalties prescribed for violations
under the Act are considered insufficient to deter non-compliance.

22nd Law Commission Recommendations:

1. Define Terminologies
a. Clearly define disease stages and differentiate between 'quarantine' and
'isolation.'
b. Use 'physical distancing' instead of 'social distancing' to better describe
movement restrictions.
c. The Epidemic Diseases Bill 2023 provides appropriate definitions.
2. Decentralization and Demarcation of Power
a. Prevention and Management: State governments should handle prevention
and management since 'public health' and 'sanitation' are State subjects.
b. Local Authority Empowerment: States can empower district or local
authorities to manage outbreaks effectively.
c. Interstate Spread: The Central government should guide state governments
and district authorities on measures for managing interstate epidemics or
pandemics.
d. Extreme Threat: For severe threats, the Central government should take direct
action or empower a Central agency to manage the situation.
3. Frame an Epidemic Plan
a. The Central government should develop and periodically update an epidemic
plan in collaboration with stakeholders.
b. State governments should have the authority to create their own regulations.
4. Guidelines for Quarantine and Isolation: Guidelines should align with Indian
Port Health Rules, 1955, and Aircraft (Public Health) Rules, 1954.
5. Other Recommendations:
a. Enhanced Penalties: Increase penalties for violations and give statutory
recognition under the EDA.
b. Infectious Waste Disposal: Create guidelines for the safe disposal of
infectious waste in line with Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016.
c. Medicine Availability: Regulate and control the availability of essential
medicines to prevent shortages during high demand.
d. Vaccine and Drug Development: Identify nodal authorities responsible for
developing vaccines and necessary drugs.
Policies and Guidelines
National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) introduced the 'National Policy on
Disaster Management' in 2009 aimed to create a coordinated and effective disaster
management system in India.
The vision is to create a safe and disaster-resilient India using a comprehensive, proactive,
and technology-driven approach focused on prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and
response.

Key Points:
1. Holistic Approach: Disaster management involves various stakeholders working
together.
2. Inclusivity: The policy considers the needs of all societal sections, including
differently-abled persons, women, children, and disadvantaged groups.
3. Transparency and Accountability: Involvement of communities, Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs), local bodies, and civil society ensures transparency and
accountability.

Objectives:
1. Culture of Preparedness: Promote prevention, preparedness, and resilience at all
levels through knowledge, innovation, and education.
2. Mitigation Measures: Use technology, traditional wisdom, and environmental
sustainability to encourage mitigation efforts.
3. Development Integration: Integrate disaster management into development
planning.
4. Regulatory Environment: Establish institutional and techno-legal frameworks for a
supportive regulatory and compliance environment.
5. Risk Management: Ensure efficient identification, assessment, and monitoring of
disaster risks.
6. Forecasting Systems: Develop modern forecasting and early warning systems with
reliable communication support.
7. Responsive Relief: Provide efficient response and relief, focusing on vulnerable
groups.
8. Reconstruction: Use reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster-resilient
structures.
9. Media Partnership: Foster proactive partnerships with the media for effective
disaster management.

National Disaster Management Plan, 2016:

The Government of India released its first National Disaster Management Plan in 2016
aimed to create a comprehensive and integrated approach to disaster management in India.
The vision is to make India disaster resilient, significantly reduce disaster risks and losses,
and enhance the ability to cope with disasters at all administrative and community levels.

Alignment with Global Frameworks:

● Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
● Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030)
● Paris Agreement on Climate Change (COP-21)
Key Highlights:
1. Four Priorities for Each Hazard (based on Sendai Framework):
a. Understanding Risk
b. Inter-Agency Coordination
c. Investing in DRR – Structural Measures
d. Investing in DRR – Non-Structural Measures
e. Capacity Development
2. Comprehensive Coverage:
a. Includes all phases: Prevention, Mitigation, Response, and Recovery.
b. Addresses human-induced disasters (chemical, nuclear, etc.).
c. Plans for short (5 years), medium (10 years), and long-term (15 years) disaster
management.
3. Integration and Role Clarity:
a. Ensures horizontal and vertical integration among government agencies.
b. Defines roles and responsibilities up to Panchayat and Urban local body levels.
c. Assigns specific disaster responsibilities to ministries (e.g., Ministry of Earth
Sciences for Cyclones).
d. Scalable implementation for all disaster management phases.
4. Major Activities:
a. Identifies key activities: early warning, information dissemination, medical care,
fuel, transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc.
b. Provides a general framework for recovery and rebuilding better.
5. Information & Media Regulation:
a. Emphasizes the need for Information, Education, and Communication (IEC)
activities.
b. Calls for ethical media guidelines and self-regulation.
c. Stresses regular media briefings and designating a nodal officer for media
interactions.
6. Focus on Training and Capacity Building: Incorporates best international
practices for training and capacity building.

Issues:
1. Lacks Clear Roadmap: The plan is too generic and does not provide a practical,
detailed roadmap for disaster risk mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery,
reconstruction, and governance.
2. No Specific Time Frames: It vaguely suggests activities should be taken up in the
short, medium, and long term without clear deadlines.
3. Funding Issues: The plan does not estimate the funds required or suggest ways to
mobilize these funds for disaster management activities.
4. No Monitoring Framework: It lacks a framework for monitoring and evaluating
the plan's implementation.
5. No Goals or Targets: Although it aligns with the Sendai Framework and Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), the plan does not set specific goals or targets, nor does it
explain how to achieve the Sendai and SDG goals.
Global Collaboration and Recent Advances

International Frameworks for Disaster Risk Reduction

Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the

Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters
India, a signatory of the Hyogo Framework for Action, aims to reduce disaster losses by
integrating disaster risk reduction (DRR) into sustainable development, building capacities,
and reducing vulnerabilities. The framework outlines three strategic goals and five priority
action areas.
Strategic Goals and India's Implementation:
1. Goal 1: Integrate disaster risk considerations into sustainable development policies,
planning, and programming.
■ Steps by India:
1. Enacted the DM Act, 2005, and prepared the disaster management plan,
2016.
2. Ensures government programs follow the "do no harm" principle.
2. Goal 2: Develop and strengthen institutions, mechanisms, and capacities, particularly
at the community level, to build resilience.
■ Steps by India:
1. Strengthening of SDMAs and DDMAs.
2. Preparing a Comprehensive Human Resource Development Program.
3. Strengthening partnerships with Civil Society.
3. Goal 3: Incorporate risk reduction into emergency preparedness, response, and
recovery programs.
■ Steps by India: Adopting the "Build Back Better" principle for post-disaster
reconstruction and recovery activities.
Five priorities for action under Hyogo Framework:
1. Make disaster risk reduction (DRR) a priority
2. Know the risks and take action
3. Build understanding and awareness
4. Reduce risk
5. Be prepared and ready to act

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

The Sendai Framework (2015-2030) is a 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement
recognizing the State's primary role in disaster risk reduction, shared with local
governments, the private sector, and other stakeholders. Adopted in March 2015, it succeeds
the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015).
India's Commitment: India is dedicated to achieving the 7 goals of the Sendai Framework
through systematic and sustainable efforts.
Four Priorities for Action:
1. Understanding Disaster Risk: Base disaster risk management on a comprehensive
understanding of disaster risk, including vulnerability, capacity, exposure, hazard
characteristics, and the environment.
2. Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance: Enhance governance at national,
regional, and global levels for disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response,
recovery, and rehabilitation, fostering collaboration and partnership.
 3. Investing in Disaster Risk Reduction for Resilience: Promote public and
private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction through structural and
non-structural measures to enhance resilience of persons, communities, countries, and
the environment.
4. Enhancing Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response and "Build Back
Better": Use the recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction phase as an opportunity
to integrate disaster risk reduction into development measures.
India's Role: India has been designated as the champion for DRR in the Asia-Pacific region
by UNRDR for its efforts in facilitating regional support for community resilience.

Sendai Framework Readiness Review, UNDRR 2017: Highlights critical data gaps in
disaster loss, international cooperation, early warning, risk information, and DRR strategies.
Emphasizes the need for better data availability, quality, and accessibility for effective
monitoring and reporting.

Global Partnership for Disaster-related Data: Proposes a collaborative effort

involving governments, international organizations, private sector, civil society, and data
communities to optimize disaster-related data for national and sub-national DRR efforts.
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: Includes ten of the seventeen Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) with targets related to disaster risk, linking DRR to the broader
sustainable development agenda.
Paris Agreement at CoP 21: Adopted in 2015, commits Member States to limit global
temperature increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, aiming to reduce the
risks and impacts of climate change.
Collaborations with Global Organizations
1. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR): India
contributed $1 million in 2016 and signed a Statement of Cooperation with UNISDR to
enhance regional capacity for disaster risk reduction (DRR) in Asia-Pacific. Key
initiatives include:
a. World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR): Held in
Japan in 1994, 2005, and 2015, these conferences focus on managing disaster
and climate risks in sustainable development.
b. Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (GPDRR): The main global
forum for DRR, meeting biannually. India's delegation participated in the 2017
summit in Cancun, Mexico.
c. Asian Ministerial Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction
(AMCDRR): A biennial regional platform for Asian-Pacific countries. India
hosted the 2nd and 7th AMCDRR in 2007 and 2016, respectively.
2. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(UNOCHA): Established in 1991 to improve UN responses to emergencies. Key
mechanisms include:
a. United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC): A
standby team of disaster management professionals. India joined in 2001.
b. International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG): A global
network for urban search and rescue. India chaired the Asia-Pacific Regional
Group in 2005-06.
3. Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR): A World
Bank-administered program launched in 2006 to help vulnerable countries enhance
disaster prevention and response. India joined in 2013.
4. SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC): Established in New Delhi after
the 13th SAARC Summit in 2005 to promote regional cooperation in disaster
preparedness and mitigation.
a. South Asia Disaster Knowledge Network (SADKN): A platform for
networking and knowledge sharing on disasters in South Asia.
5. Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC): Established in Kobe, Japan, in 1998
following the Kobe Declaration, it aims to reduce disaster damage in Asia.
6. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC): Founded in 1986 in Bangkok,
Thailand, it promotes disaster preparedness, mitigation, and community participation
in the Asia-Pacific region.
7. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): Established in 1994, with India joining in 1996,
the ARF provides a platform for security dialogue and cooperation in Asia, including
disaster relief exercises.

India's Pioneering Efforts

1. International Workshop on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, 2018:
Organized by NDMA and UNDRR in January 2018, this workshop focused on
risk-resilient infrastructure, identifying global best practices, challenges, and potential
areas for collaboration.
2. Joint Disaster Management Exercise for BIMSTEC Countries, 2017: Hosted
by India in October 2017, this exercise involved 200 disaster professionals from seven
BIMSTEC countries participating in table-top and field exercises.
3. Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2016: Held in
November 2016, this conference resulted in the New Delhi Declaration and the Asian
Regional Plan for implementing the Sendai Framework. It focused on risk-sensitive
 development for community resilience and commemorated the first World Tsunami
Awareness Day.
4. Collaboration with UNDRR, 2016: India and UNDRR signed a Statement of
Cooperation to strengthen the capacity of Asian countries in risk-resilient development
and effective implementation of the Sendai Framework through training and capacity
building.
5. BRICS Ministers’ meeting on Disaster Management, 2016: Held in Udaipur,
this meeting led to the Udaipur Declaration and the establishment of a Joint Task
Force on Disaster Risk Management for regular dialogue and collaboration among
BRICS countries.
6. Disaster Management Exercise with SAARC Countries, 2015: India organized
the first South Asian Annual Disaster Management Exercise (SAADMex) with
participation from all SAARC member countries to enhance regional cooperation on
disaster response.
7. India-Pacific Sustainable Development Conference, 2017: Held in Suva, Fiji,
this conference aimed to strengthen the resilience of Pacific nations through
collaboration on disaster risk reduction activities.
8. Joint Urban Earthquake Search and Rescue Exercise of SCO Member
States, 2019: India, an SCO member since 2017, announced the organization of this
exercise to improve collective preparedness and hosted the meeting of SCO disaster
prevention authorities.

Bilateral Partnerships with Other Nations

1. Japan: In 2017, India and Japan signed a Memorandum of Cooperation (MoC) on
disaster management. They focus on information exchange and collaboration in
disaster risk reduction, particularly for tsunami awareness and earthquake safety. The
first India-Japan Workshop on Disaster Risk Reduction took place in March 2018.
2. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Countries: SCO member states
have an agreement on Disaster Relief Mutual Assistance, promoting mutual support in
disaster response.
3. Germany: In October 2015, India and Germany signed a Joint Declaration of Intent
to cooperate in disaster management. This includes sharing information, technological
expertise, and training for first responders in civil defense, urban search and rescue,
fire services, and medical fields.
4. Indonesia: A MoU was signed in 2013 between India's NDMA and Indonesia's
National Agency for Disaster Management. It focuses on information exchange,
training, capacity building, and expert exchange in disaster management.
5. SAARC Countries: The SAARC Agreement on Rapid Response to Natural Disasters
was signed in November 2011. It aims to provide effective regional mechanisms for
disaster response and to reduce disaster losses through enhanced cooperation.
6. Russia: In December 2010, India and Russia signed an agreement on emergency
management. It includes information exchange, early warning systems, risk
assessment, and joint training. The first meeting of the Indo-Russian Joint
Commission was held in March 2016, where a Joint Implementation Plan for
2016-2017 was signed.
7. Switzerland: India and Switzerland signed an agreement to extend cooperation in
disaster prevention, preparedness, and assistance during major emergencies.
Case Studies:
1. Cyclone Biparjoy (2023)
a. Region: Gujarat, Rajasthan, and parts of Pakistan.
b. Impact: Significant damage to infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and
homes. Over 150,000 homes were damaged or destroyed in Gujarat. Agriculture
suffered extensively with large areas of crops being damaged. Major disruptions
to power and water supply were reported.
c. Response:
i. Evacuation: Prompt evacuation of coastal areas, particularly in Gujarat, to minimize
casualties.
ii. Rescue and Relief: Deployment of the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF),
State Disaster Response Force (SDRF), Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force for rescue
and relief operations.
iii. Restoration: Rapid efforts to restore power, communication lines, and water supply
in affected areas. Rehabilitation efforts for the displaced population were prioritized.
2. Chamoli Disaster (2021)
a. Region: Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India.
b. Impact: A glacial burst in the Nanda Devi region triggered an avalanche and
flash floods, leading to significant loss of life and damage to two hydropower
projects.
c. Response: Immediate rescue operations by the Indian Army, ITBP, NDRF, and
local authorities. Use of advanced technology like drones and satellite imagery
for rescue and assessment.
3. Western Wildfires (2021)
a. Region: Western United States (California, Oregon).
b. Impact: Extensive wildfires caused by prolonged drought, high temperatures,
and dry conditions. Massive destruction of homes, forests, and infrastructure.
c. Response: Large-scale firefighting efforts, evacuation of thousands of residents,
and federal aid. Emphasis on improving forest management practices to prevent
future incidents.
4. COVID-19 Pandemic (2020-2021)
a. Global Impact: A global health crisis affecting every aspect of life, causing
millions of deaths and widespread socio-economic disruption.
b. Response: Implementation of lockdowns, mass vaccination drives, financial aid
packages, and establishment of temporary healthcare facilities. Emphasis on
strengthening healthcare infrastructure and international cooperation.
5. Cyclone Tauktae (2021)
a. Region: Western coast of India, particularly Gujarat and Maharashtra.
b. Impact: One of the strongest cyclones to hit the western coast in recent years,
causing significant damage to infrastructure, homes, and agriculture.
c. Response: Pre-emptive evacuations, deployment of NDRF and Indian Navy for
rescue operations, and immediate relief measures. Restoration of power and
communication lines was prioritized.
6. Cyclone Amphan (2020)
a. Region: West Bengal, India and Bangladesh.
b. Impact: One of the most powerful cyclones to hit the region in over a decade,
causing extensive damage to infrastructure, homes, and agriculture.
c. Response: Rapid evacuation of millions of people, deployment of disaster
response teams, and international aid. The government focused on restoring
power and communication lines quickly, and providing food and shelter to the
displaced.
7. Kerala Floods (2018)
a. Region: Kerala, India.
b. Impact: Unprecedented flooding caused by unusually high rainfall during the
monsoon season, leading to large-scale displacement and destruction.
c. Response: Massive rescue operations involving the Indian Army, Navy, Air
Force, and NDRF. Community-driven relief efforts and significant rehabilitation
and reconstruction initiatives.
Role of PRI in Disaster Management
The Disaster Management Plan of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj (DMP–MoPR) has been
developed as per Section 37 of the Disaster Management Act and National Disaster
Management Authority guidelines.
It focuses on community-based planning from the village to the district panchayat level.

Constitutional Provisions for Local-Level Disaster

Management Planning
● Article 243G: Allows State Governments to empower Panchayats to manage 29
subjects in the Eleventh Schedule, covering key disaster management activities.
● Article 243ZD: Requires States to establish District Planning Committees (DPCs) to
draft District Development Plans, including disaster risk reduction measures.

Significance of PRIs in Disaster Management

1. Major Rural Population: PRIs engage with the rural majority (~65% of India's
population).
2. Social Mobilization: They facilitate risk assessments, identify vulnerable groups,
and manage disaster responses using their village connections.
3. Transparency and Accountability: PRIs ensure these through social audits during
and after disasters.
4. Support for Marginalized Groups: Elected representatives address the needs of
the most vulnerable.
5. Traditional Wisdom and Awareness: They leverage local knowledge and spread
reliable information.
6. Leadership Role: PRIs lead disaster risk management efforts at all stages.
7. Integration: They integrate village communities and NGOs in grassroots
developmental activities.

Challenges Faced by PRIs in Disaster Management

1. Limited Resources: Insufficient institutional, financial, and human capacities.
2. Low Devolution of Powers: States often do not delegate enough powers and
functions.
3. Unclear Roles: Lack of clarity on PRIs' roles and responsibilities in disaster
management.
4. Low Participation: Vulnerable groups are not adequately involved at the grassroots
level.
5. Poor Coordination: Ineffective inter-agency coordination at district, state, and
central levels.
6. Inadequate Training: Elected representatives and officials lack training in disaster
management strategies.
Civil Society Organizations and Disaster
Management
CSOs are non-state, non-profit, voluntary groups formed by people in the social sphere,
distinct from the government and market. Examples include NGOs, community groups, and
advocacy organizations.

Role of CSO in Disaster Management:

1. First Responders: Conduct search and rescue operations.
2. Support: Provide financial and emotional assistance to affected families.
3. Damage Assessment: Evaluate damage at the local level.
4. Fund Mobilization: Raise and distribute funds for relief and rehabilitation.
a. Example: Microfinance networks in rural Odisha facilitated post-cyclone
rehabilitation.
5. Capacity Building: Empower vulnerable sections of society to better cope with
disasters.

Limitations of CSOs in Disaster Management:

1. Focus on Post-Disaster Efforts: Lack of proactive and continuous efforts in
mitigation and resilience building.
2. Limited Capacity: Financial and functional constraints hinder response to
large-scale disasters.
3. Volunteer Shortage: Insufficient number of volunteers and participants.
4. Coordination Issues: Duplication of efforts due to poor coordination among
stakeholders.
5. Integration Gaps: Limited collaboration with government and market players
reduces effectiveness.

Way Forward:
1. Incorporation in Framework: Integrate CSO roles and efforts into the Disaster
Management Framework.
2. Recognition and Support: Acknowledge and support the social contributions of
CSOs.
3. Promote Individual Responsibility: Encourage individuals to contribute to
disaster relief as part of societal duty.
4. Expanded Roles: Include CSOs in:
a. Collective discussions among stakeholders.
b. Regular community interactions for building resilience and disaster mitigation.
c. Providing inputs for integrated disaster action plans.
i. Example: India's adoption of the Sendai Disaster Risk Reduction
Framework emphasizes local CSOs and public participation.
Role of SHGs during Covid
In over 90% of India's districts, SHG women have been instrumental in producing
facemasks, running community kitchens, delivering essential food supplies, raising health
and hygiene awareness, and combating misinformation.

● Production of Masks and PPE:

○ SHG women across 27 states produced over 19 million masks, 100,000 liters of
sanitizer, and 50,000 liters of hand wash.
○ In Odisha, women shifted from stitching school uniforms to sewing over 1
million cotton masks for police and health workers.
● Community Kitchens:
○ SHGs set up over 10,000 community kitchens nationwide to feed stranded
workers and the vulnerable.
○ In Kerala, the Kudumbashree network, with 4.4 million members, ran 1,300
kitchens and delivered food to quarantined individuals.
○ In Jharkhand, SHGs identified hunger pockets to aid district administrations.
● Raising Awareness:
○ SHGs used WhatsApp networks to counter misinformation and support
government communication efforts.
○ In Kerala, Kudumbashree led the "Break the Chain" campaign promoting hand
hygiene and social distancing.
○ Bihar’s Jeevika platform spreads COVID-19 information via leaflets, songs,
videos, and phone messages.
● Banking and Pension Services: SHG women acting as banking correspondents
provided essential doorstep banking services, distributed pensions, and facilitated
access to direct benefit transfers (DBT).
● Government and World Bank Support:
○ The National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), co-financed by the World
Bank, supports SHGs across 28 states and 6 union territories, reaching 67
million women.
○ SHG women have saved $1.4 billion and leveraged $37 billion from commercial
banks.

Overall, SHGs played a critical role in addressing food insecurity, shortages of goods and
services, and maintaining economic stability during the pandemic. Their decentralized
structure proved vital in crisis management and post-crisis economic recovery.