Resistivity Method

Introduction
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Current Flow in The Ground
 Current ‘I’ is passed through the cylinder causing a
potential drop between the ends of the element.
 Ohm’s law relates the current, potential difference and
resistance such that and from equation =.

 Where represents the potential gradient through the

element in volt m-1 and ‘i’ the current density in Am-2.
 Now consider a single current electrode on the surface of a
medium of uniform resistivity . The circuit is completed by
a current sink at a large distance from the electrode.
Current flows radially away from the electrode so that the
current distribution is uniform over hemispherical shells
centered on the source.
 The resistivity can be calculated by:
Figure: Current flow from a single surface electrode
Types of Resistivity Surveys
 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), also known as
‘electrical drilling’ or ‘expanding probe’, is used
mainly in the study of horizontal or near-horizontal
interfaces.
 The current and potential electrodes are maintained
at the same relative spacing and the whole spread is
progressively expanded about a fixed central point.
 Consequently, readings are taken as the current
reaches progressively greater depths. The technique
is extensively used in geotechnical surveys to
determine overburden thickness and also in
hydrogeology to define horizontal zones of porous
strata.
Figure: Illustration of VES method
Types of Resistivity Surveys
 Constant Separation Traversing (CST), also known
as ‘electrical profiling’, is used to determine lateral
variations of resistivity.
 The current and potential electrodes are maintained at
a fixed separation and progressively moved along a
profile.
 This method is employed in mineral prospecting to
locate faults or shear zones and to detect localized
bodies of anomalous conductivity.
 It is also used in geotechnical surveys to determine
variations in bedrock depth and the presence of steep
discontinuities. Results from a series of CST traverses Figure: Illustration of CST method
with a fixed electrode spacing can be employed in the
production of resistivity contour maps.
Electrode Spreads
 Many configurations of electrodes have been
designed and although several are occasionally
employed in specialized surveys, only two are in
common use.
 The Wenner configuration is the simpler in that
current and potential electrodes are maintained at
an equal spacing a.

Figure: Illustration of Wenner Configuration

 During VES the spacing a is gradually increased
about a fixed central point and in CST the whole
spread is moved along a profile with a fixed value
A sounding can then be rapidly accomplished by
of a.
switching between different sets of four electrodes.
 The efficiency of performing vertical electrical
sounding can be greatly increased by making use of In surveying with the Wenner configuration all four
a multicore cable to which a number of electrodes electrodes need to be moved between successive
are permanently attached at standard separations. readings.
Electrode Spreads
 Schlumberger configuration in which the inner,
potential electrodes have a spacing 2l which is a
small proportion of that of the outer, current
electrodes (2L).
 In CST surveys with the Schlumberger
configuration several lateral movements of the
potential electrodes may be accommodated without
the necessity of moving the current electrodes.
 In VES surveys the potential electrodes remain
Figure: Illustration of Schlumberger Configuration
fixed and the current electrodes are expanded
symmetrically about the center of the spread.
 With very large values of L it may, however, be
necessary to increase l also in order to maintain a where x is the separation of the mid-points of the potential
measurable potential. and current electrodes.
Resistivity Curve Types

A graph of apparent resistivity against electrode

separation, frequency, or time.
Apparent-resistivity curves are often plotted on
logarithmic paper and compared with type
curves (normalized theoretical curves) for
interpreting the resistivity, thickness, and depth
of subsurface layers.
There are 4 basic type of sounding curve
depending on the resistivity distribution with
depth.
 A-type
 K-type
 Figure: Illustration of different curve types
H-type
in resistivity survey
 Q-type
Interpretation
Electrical surveys are among the most difficult of all the geophysical methods to interpret
quantitatively because of the complex theoretical basis of the technique.

In resistivity interpretation, mathematical analysis is most highly developed for VES, less
well for CST over two dimensional structures and least well for CST over three dimensional
bodies.

Since a potential field is involved, the apparent resistivity signature of any structure should be
computed by solution of Laplace’s equation and insertion of the boundary conditions for the
particular structure under consideration, or by integrating it directly.
VES Interpretation
 Simple examination of the way in which apparent
resistivity varies with electrode spacing may thus provide
estimates of the resistivity of the upper and lower layers
and indicate the relative resistivity of any intermediate
layers. In order to compute layer thicknesses it is
necessary to be able to calculate the apparent resistivity of
a layered structure.
 The potential
 Knowledge of the potential resulting at a single point from
a single current electrode allows the computation of the
potential difference between two electrodes.
 Field data can then be compared with graphs (master Figure: Parameters used in the calculation of
curves) representing the calculated effects of layered the potential due to a single surface electrode
models derived by such methods, a once- important but above a single horizontal interface using the
now little-used technique known as curve matching. method of images
VES Interpretation
 Consider a Wenner electrode spread above a single horizontal
interface between media with resistivity (upper) and (lower)
with
 On passing through the interface the current flow lines are
deflected towards the interface.
 When the electrode separation is small, most of the current flows
in the upper layer with the consequence that the apparent
resistivity tends towards . As the electrode separation is gradually
increased, more and more current flows within the lower layer
and the apparent resistivity then approaches .
 A similar situation obtains when , in this case the apparent
resistivity approaches more gradually as the more resistive lower Figure: The variation of apparent resistivity
with electrode separation ‘a’ over a single
layer is a less attractive path for the current. horizontal interface between media with two
resistivity
VES Interpretation
 Where three horizontal layers are present the apparent resistivity
curves are more complex.
 the apparent resistivity approaches and for small and large electrode
spacing, the presence of the intermediate layer causes a deflection of
the apparent resistivity curve at intermediate spacing.
 If the resistivity of the intermediate layer is greater or less than the
resistivity of the upper and lower layers the apparent resistivity curve
is either bell-shaped or basin-shaped (a).
 A middle layer with a resistivity intermediate between and produces
apparent resistivity curves characterized by a progressive increase or
decrease in resistivity as a function of electrode spacing (b).
 The presence of four or more layers further increases the complexity
Figure: The variation of apparent resistivity
of apparent resistivity curves. with electrode separation ‘a’ over three
horizontal layer
VES Interpretation
 Curve matching is simple for the two-layer case since only a single sheet of master curves is
required. When three layers are present much larger sets of curves are required to represent the
increased number of possible combinations of resistivity and layer thicknesses.

 The interpretation of resistivity curves over multilayered structures may alternatively be performed
by partial curve matching. The method involves the matching of successive portions of the field
curve by a set of two-layer curves.

Figure: Interpretation of a two-layer apparent resistivity Figure: Illustration for the technique of partial
graph by comparison with a set of master curves. curve matching.
VES Interpretation
 Interpretation of VES data suffers from non-uniqueness arising from problems known as equivalenceand
suppression. The problem of equivalence is illustrated by the fact that identical bell-shaped or basin-shaped
resistivity curves can be obtained for different layered models.

 Identical bell-shaped curves are obtained if the product of the thickness zand resistivity , known as the
transverse resistance, of the middle layer remains constant.

 For basin-shaped curves the equivalence function of the middle layer is z/, known as the longitudinal
conductance.

 The problem of suppression applies to resistivity curves in which apparent resistivity progressively increases or
decreases as a function of electrode spacing. In such cases the addition of an extra intermediate layer causes a
slight horizontal shift of the curve without altering its overall shape. In the interpretation of relatively noisy
field data such an intermediate layer may not be detected.
Constant Separation Traversing Interpretation
 Constant separation traverses are obtained by moving an

electrode spread with fixed electrode separation along a

traverse line, the array of electrodes being aligned either in

the direction of the traverse (longitudinal traverse) or at

right angles to it (transverse traverse).

 The former technique is more efficient as only a single

electrode has to be moved from one end of the spread to the

other, and the electrodes reconnected, between adjacent

readings.

Figure: (a) A transverse traverse across a single vertical interface. (b) A longitudinal traverse across a single
vertical interface employing a configuration in which all four electrodes are mobile.
 Constant Separation Traversing Interpretation

Figure: Result of Longitudinal and transverse traverses Figure: Parameters used in the calculation of the
across a series of faulted strata in Illinois, USA. potential due to a single surface current electrode on
either side of a single vertical interface.
Constant Separation Traversing Interpretation
 Both the electric source and its image contribute to the potential at P, the latter being decreased in intensity
by a factor k, the reflection coefficient.
 Thus:
 The only contributor to the potential at is the current source reduced in intensity by the factor (1-k).
 Thus;
 Both this equation may be used to calculate the measured potential difference for any electrode spread
between two points in the vicinity of the interface and thus to construct the form of an apparent resistivity
profile produced by longitudinal constant separation traversing.
 The method can also be used to construct apparent resistivity profiles for constant separation traversing over a
number of adjacent discontinuities.
 Three-dimensional resistivity anomalies may be obtained by contouring apparent resistivity values from a
number of CST lines.
Constant Separation Traversing Interpretation
 The detection of a three dimensional body is usually only

possible when its top is close to the surface, and traverses

must be made directly over the body or very near to its edges

if its anomaly is to be registered.

 Three-dimensional anomalies may also be obtained by an

extension of the CST technique known as the mise-à-la-

masse method. This is employed when part of a conductive

body.

 The method provides much more information on the extent,

dip, strike and continuity of the body than the normal CST
Figure: Illustration of The mise-à-la-
techniques. masse method.
Limitations of The Resistivity Method
 Resistivity surveying is an efficient method for delineating shallow layered sequences or vertical

discontinuities involving changes of resistivity. However, it suffers from a number of limitations:

1. Interpretations are ambiguous. Consequently, independent geophysical and geological controls are

necessary to discriminate between valid alternative interpretations of the resistivity data.

2. Interpretation is limited to simple structural configurations. Any deviations from these simple situations

may be impossible to interpret.

3. Topography and the effects of near-surface resistivity variations can mask the effects of deeper variations.

4. The depth of penetration of the method is limited by the maximum electrical power that can be introduced

into the ground and by the physical difficulties of laying out long lengths of cable. The practical depth

limit for most surveys is about 1km.

Application of Resistivity Surveying
Resistivity surveys are usually restricted to relatively small-scale investigations because of the labour
involved in physically planting the electrodes prior to each measurement. For this reason resistivity
methods are not commonly used in reconnaissance exploration.

Resistivity methods are widely used in engineering geological investigations of sites prior to
construction.

VES is a very convenient, non-destructive method of determining the depth to rock-head for
foundation purposes and also provides information on the degree of saturation of subsurface
materials.

CST can be used to determine the variation in rock-head depth between soundings and can also
indicate the presence of potentially unstable ground conditions.
 Application of Resistivity Surveying

Figure: CST resistivity profile across a buried Figure: Resistivity profiles across a buried ditch 4m
mineshaft. (After Aspinall & Walker 1975.) wide. (After Aspinall & Walker 1975.)
Application of Resistivity Surveying

 The resistivity method was used to delineate

freshwater lenses in Grand Cayman Island off the

northern Caribbean.

 Resistivity surveys can also be used to locate and

monitor the extent of groundwater pollution.

 The use of repeated resistivity measurements to

monitor the integrity of the cover of a landfill site in

Chicago.

Figure: (a)Vertical electrical sounding adjacent to a test borehole in the Central Lens,
Grand Cayman. (b) Layered model interpretation of the VES. (c) Interpreted salinity profile.
Resistivity Imaging Result for Ground Water Exploration
Resistivity Imaging Result for Ground Water Exploration
Resistivity Imaging Result for Ground Water Exploration

Figure: Electrical resistivity imaging of three

profile from Tiber River bottom, Rome (left);
acquired with dipole–dipole (a), Schlumberger (b)
and Wenner spreads (c).
Resistivity Imaging Result for Mineral Exploration

Figure: A typical of RES2DINV resistivity and Induced Polarization image

for the gold exploration at Air Piau, Tanah Merah, Kelantan.
 Resistivity Imaging Result for Mineral Exploration

Figure: 2D Electrical Resistivity Imaging Pseudo-section along Profile 2 shows the Hard
Granite Rock and Overburden Rocks at Near Malaipatti, Thoothukudi District, Tamilnadu.